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6. Memory 1. Memory is defined as an active system that consists of three processes. They are __________. a. receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage b. the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response c. bottom-up processing, selective attention, and top-down processing d. acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery Answer: a. receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage Correct. Memory is defined as consisting of receiving, organizing and storing, and retrieving information. b. the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response Incorrect. These elements are all part of classical conditioning. 2. __________ is defined as an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. a. Classical conditioning b. Operant conditioning c. Learning d. Memory Answer: d. Memory Correct. Memory is defined as an active system that receives, stores, and retrieves information. c. Learning Incorrect. Learning has to do with the acquisition of behaviors and not the storage of information. That is the role of memory. 3. Shaquin finished his term paper and handed it in. As he walked out of the classroom, he realized that there were a few more things he should have included in the paper. Shaquin’s problem is the __________ component of memory. a. encoding b. storage c. retrieval d. retention Answer: c. retrieval Correct. He cannot bring forth, or retrieve, information that he has in memory when he needs it. d. retention Incorrect. He does retain the information, or have it in memory, but he can’t retrieve it. 4. Trying to remember someone’s name whom you met long ago is an example of what type of process? a. Storage b. Retrieval c. Encoding d. Decoding Answer: b. Retrieval Correct. Pulling previously stored information out of memory is retrieval. c. Encoding Incorrect. The process of putting information into memory storage is encoding. 5. When people hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve, which makes it possible for the brain to interpret the sound. This process is called __________. a. encoding b. storage c. retrieval d. evaluation Answer: a. encoding Correct. Encoding starts with sensory processing and sending the information to the brain. d. evaluation Incorrect. Evaluation is not the term used for this process even though it sounds appropriate. 6. When someone looks at an image, the retina turns the light rays from it into neural messages that go up to the optic nerve so the brain can interpret them. This process is called __________. a. encoding b. storage c. retrieval d. evaluation Answer: a. encoding Correct. Encoding is necessary for interpretation as the information must be sent to the brain. b. storage Incorrect. Storage cannot happen until after encoding. If the information is not processed, it can’t be stored. 7. The first step in the memory process is __________ information in a form that the memory system can use. a. encoding b. storing c. retrieving d. evaluating Answer: a. encoding Correct. Encoding is the first step in memory. b. storing Incorrect. Storing the information cannot happen until after encoding it so the information can be transmitted from the senses to the brain. 8. __________ is retention of memory for some period of time. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Evaluation Answer: b. Storage Correct. Storage puts away material. c. Retrieval Incorrect. Retrieval is getting the information out of storage. 9. Which of the following statements is true about retrieval? a. It is a process that allows an extinguished CR to recover. b. It is a process of getting stored memories back out into consciousness. c. It is a process of getting information from the sensory receptors to the brain. d. It is the reason that conditioned taste aversions last so long. Answer: b. It is a process of getting stored memories back out into consciousness. Correct. Retrieval gets information back into consciousness. c. It is a process of getting information from the sensory receptors to the brain. Incorrect. No, this answer describes the process known as encoding. 10. Janie is taking an exam in her history class. On the exam there is a question that asks her to state and discuss the five major causes of the Trans-Caspian War (whatever that was!). Janie remembers four of them. She knows there is a fifth, but time is up. As Janie is walking down the stairs, all of a sudden, she remembers the fifth point, but it is too late. Janie had a problem with __________. a. encoding b. storage c. retrieval d. evaluation Answer: c. retrieval Correct. Yes, she couldn’t find the information in her memory or retrieve it. b. storage Incorrect. She did have the information so it was stored. However, she couldn’t retrieve it. 11. The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as part of the __________ model of memory. a. information processing b. top-down storage c. classical conditioning d. Tolman’s cognitive Answer: a. information processing Correct. These are the correct stages. b. top-down storage Incorrect. Top-down processing is more a perceptual processing term. 12. In the levels-of-processing model of memory, information that gets processed at a __________ level (such as accessing the meaning of a word or phrase) is more likely to be retained longer and form a stronger memory than information that is processed at a __________ level (such as the visual characteristics of a word). a. deeper; shallower b. shallower; deeper c. higher; lower d. lower; higher Answer: a. deeper; shallower Correct. According to the levels-of-processing model, deeper processing results in better memory, whereas shallower processing results in poorer memory. b. shallower; deeper Incorrect. According to the levels-of-processing model, deeper processing results in better memory, whereas shallower processing results in poorer memory. 13. According to Craik and Lockhart, we are most likely to remember information that we process at a __________ level. a. deeper b. medium c. shallower d. any of these, depending on the information Answer: a. deeper Correct. According to the levels-of-processing model, deeper processing results in better memory, whereas shallower processing results in poorer memory. c. shallower Incorrect. According to the levels-of-processing model, deeper processing results in better memory, whereas shallower processing results in poorer memory. 14. The levels-of-processing concept of Craik and Lockhart would suggest that which of the following questions would lead to better memory of the word frog? a. “Does it rhyme with blog?” b. “Is it in capital letters?” c. “Is it written in cursive?” d. “Would it be found in a pond?” Answer: d. “Would it be found in a pond?” Correct. This question requires a deeper level of processing as it engages meaning. Meaning is seen as a deeper level of processing, which leads to better memory. b. “Is it in capital letters?” Incorrect. This question requires a shallower level of processing and that leads to poorer memory. 15. Which of the following examples represents the shallowest processing as described by Craik and Lockhart? a. recalling an object’s function b. attending to the sound of a word c. thinking about the meaning of a word d. recalling that an object was rectangular Answer: b. attending to the sound of a word Correct. Thinking about the appearance of a word is a shallower thought process than thinking about its meaning. c. thinking about the meaning of a word Incorrect. Thinking about meaning requires a deeper level of processing than does thinking about more superficial aspects of the word itself, such as its sound. 16. Which model of memory proposes that the deeper a person processes information, the better it will be remembered? a. levels-of-processing model b. parallel distributed processing model c. information-processing model d. three stage Answer: a. levels-of-processing model Correct. Levels of processing refer to the level of processing depth. c. information-processing model Incorrect. Information processing isn’t necessarily concerned with the depth of a thought process. 17. Craik and Lockhart’s model of memory states that how long a memory will be remembered depends on __________. a. the type of memory it is stored in b. the place in the brain where the memory is stored c. the amount of extinction that the memory has suffered d. the depth of processing associated with learning the materials Answer: d. the depth of processing associated with learning the materials Correct. According to the levels-of-processing model, deeper processing results in better memory. c. the amount of extinction that the memory has suffered Incorrect. Craik and Lockhart did not use extinction as a process in their model. 18. Believers in the information-processing model of memory are likely to agree that __________. a. the brain has nothing in common with a computer b. studying computers can give you useful insights into human information processing c. auditory information is retained in the sensory register for up to 2 seconds d. information flows from one memory system to the next Answer: b. studying computers can give you useful insights into human information processing Correct. Computers serve as a model for cognitive psychologists. a. the brain has nothing in common with a computer Incorrect. Modern neuroscience considers the brain to be like a computer. 19. Which of the following examples represents deep processing as described by Craik and Lockhart? a. repeating a word aloud ten times b. attending to the sound of a word c. thinking about the meaning of a word d. looking at the shapes of the letters in a word Answer: c. thinking about the meaning of a word Correct. Thinking about a word’s meaning requires a deeper level of processing. b. attending to the sound of a word Incorrect. Attending to the sound of a word is not a deep level of processing, as it takes place at the perceptual level. 20. In the __________ model, memory is seen as a simultaneous process, with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of networks “stretched” across the brain. a. levels-of-processing b. parallel distributed processing c. transfer-appropriate processing d. information-processing Answer: b. parallel distributed processing Correct. The parallel distributed processing model is seen as a simultaneous process involving a network. d. information-processing Incorrect. Information-processing models don’t involve a network. 21. In the parallel distributed processing model of memory, __________. a. information is simultaneously stored in a network that stretches across the brain b. information is stored simultaneously in unconnected regions of the brain c. information is associated in sets of classically conditioned neurons across the neocortex d. None of these are correct. Answer: a. information is simultaneously stored in a network that stretches across the brain Correct. The parallel distributed processing model of memory model uses a network. b. information is stored simultaneously in unconnected regions of the brain Incorrect. The information is simultaneously stored in a network that stretches across the brain. 22. Information is simultaneously stored across a network that stretches across the brain in the __________. a. Craik and Lockhart model of memory b. multistore model of memory c. information-processing theory of memory d. parallel distributed processing model of memory Answer: d. parallel distributed processing model of memory Correct. The parallel distributed processing model is seen as a simultaneous process involving a network. c. information-processing theory of memory Incorrect. Information-processing models don’t involve a network. 23. Which model of memory is most similar in conceptualization to the way computers function? a. Craik and Lockhart’s model b. extinction c. information-processing model d. parallel distributed processing model Answer: c. information-processing model Correct. The information-processing model of memory uses the way a computer functions as its model for human thought. d. parallel distributed processing model Incorrect. Parallel distributed processing is not the dominant form of computer architecture. 24. The three parts of the information-processing model of memory are __________. a. sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory b. CS, UCS, UR, and CR c. encoding, storage, and retrieval d. shallow, medium, and deep processing Answer: a. sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory Correct. These are the three parts of the information-processing model. c. encoding, storage, and retrieval Incorrect. These are processes but not the parts of the information-processing model. 25. Why did research participants in Sperling’s experiment recall so few letters stored in sensory memory? a. They stopped paying attention after a few stimuli. b. Proactive interference reduced the effectiveness of recall. c. The stress of participating in this research became excessive. d. The remaining stimuli quickly faded from sensory memory. Answer: d. The remaining stimuli quickly faded from sensory memory. Correct. The stimuli faded quickly before they could be read. a. They stopped paying attention after a few stimuli. Incorrect. Attention wasn’t relevant to sensory memory. 26. Which memory system provides us with a very brief representation of all the stimuli present at a particular moment? a. primary memory b. sensory memory c. long-term memory d. short-term memory Answer: b. sensory memory Correct. Sensory memory stores brief images. d. short-term memory Incorrect. Sensory memory provides very brief sensory representation. Short-term memory is verbal in nature and limited in capacity. 27. A display of 12 letters is flashed on a screen in front of you followed by a tone. You attempt to recall a portion of the display based on the specific tone you heard. What aspect of your memory is this experiment designed to assess? a. primary memory b. sensory memory c. long-term memory d. short-term memory Answer: b. sensory memory Correct. This was one of the first sensory memory experiments ever done. d. short-term memory Incorrect. Testing short-term memory was done with verbal items in a list form. 28. You are out for a drive with the family and are lucky enough to get a window seat. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in __________. a. echoic memory b. iconic memory c. long-term memory d. short-term memory Answer: b. iconic memory Correct. Iconic memory is sensory and the first stage of the memory systems. d. short-term memory Incorrect. This storage location is not first, as the sensory memory system of iconic memory comes before it. 29. The fleeting images we see as we look out the car window occur in ________. a. sensory memory b. short-term memory c. semantic memory d. working memory Answer: a. sensory memory Correct. Sensory memory is the first and briefest type of memory that information encounters on its way into storage. b. short-term memory Incorrect. Before information gets to short-term memory, it must first be encoded into sensory memory. 30. Long ago, during the early days of television, when a television set was turned off it took a while for the last image that was on the screen to fade away. This phenomenon is most like __________. a. iconic memory b. echoic memory c. short-term memory d. long-term memory Answer: a. iconic memory Correct. Iconic memory is like a fading image. b. echoic memory Incorrect. Echoic memory is concerned with hearing and not vision. 31. Using the partial report method, Sperling found the capacity of iconic memory to be around __________. a. four or five items b. nine or ten items c. all the letters present d. one to two items Answer: c. all the letters present Correct. All the letters were available but for a limited amount of time. a. four or five items Incorrect. This was what the participants reported but it was not the true capacity of iconic storage. Using this estimate, Sperling then calculated the true capacity of iconic storage. 32. The key to the partial report method of Sperling’s study of sensory memory was to __________. a. have the participants report the entire matrix of letters they saw as fast as they could b. have the participants report the entire matrix of letters but mask the letters after presentation with a very bright light c. cue the participants, using a tone, as to which line of the matrix they were to report d. test the use of chunking Answer: c. cue the participants, using a tone, as to which line of the matrix they were to report Correct. A cue was used by Sperling to allow the participants to retrieve the marked set of letters and let Sperling measure the duration of sensory memory. b. have the participants report the entire matrix of letters but mask the letters after presentation with a very bright light Incorrect. Masking was used by a later study. 33. In the partial report method of Sperling’s study of sensory memory, the participants were to report __________. a. one of three lines of letters as indicated by the sound of a tone immediately presented after the letters had disappeared b. only one or two of the letters in the cued line c. the first letter of each line only d. the middle letter of each line Answer: a. one of three lines of letters as indicated by the sound of a tone immediately presented after the letters had disappeared Correct. The participants had to report the line of letters that was indicated by the tone. c. the first letter of each line only Incorrect. They could usually get the whole line and that was used to measure sensory memory capacity. 34. Iconic memory is to echoic memory as ________. a. implicit is to explicit b. auditory is to visual c. visual is to auditory d. quick is to slow Answer: c. visual is to auditory Correct. Iconic memory refers to the visual sensory memory, while echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory. b. auditory is to visual Incorrect. This is the opposite of the correct answer. 35. Which of the following distinguished sensory memory (SM) from short-term memory (STM)? a. STM holds only a small amount of separate pieces of information b. STM holds a large amount of separate pieces of information c. SM holds a large amount of separate pieces of information d. STM holds a small amount of uniform information Answer: c. SM holds a large amount of separate pieces of information Correct. Sensory memory has a rather large capacity, while the capacity of short-term memory is only thought to be a handful of chunks of information. b. STM holds a large amount of separate pieces of information Incorrect. In fact the relative capacity of short term memory is a smaller than that of sensory memory. 36. Which of the following might be the most appropriate analogy for eidetic imagery? a. a table b. a modem c. a rainbow d. a photograph Answer: d. a photograph Correct. Yes, it’s like a picture and is sometimes called photographic memory. c. a rainbow Incorrect. Eidetic imagery is more like a photograph and is even called photographic memory. 37. A time machine provides you the opportunity to interview Sigmund Freud. During the interview, Freud admits that he never wanted to attend medical school. When you ask him how he made it through, he says, “I had eidetic imagery.” What does he mean by that? a. He relied on the ability to associate odd images with material he needed to remember. b. He had a photographic memory, which helped him remember the material he had to learn. c. He was able to imagine how cells in a patient’s body were acting when he prescribed drugs and, thus, he could adjust dosages. d. In order to remember the long list of diseases he would encounter, he created drawings that helped him remember. Answer: b. He had a photographic memory, which helped him remember the material he had to learn. Correct. Eidetic imagery is sometimes called photographic memory. c. He was able to imagine how cells in a patient’s body were acting when he prescribed drugs and, thus, he could adjust dosages. Incorrect. Although the word imagine is used, it’s not the same as remembering an image. 38. One problem with relying on eidetic imagery to study for tests is that _________. a. you remember too much material and the professor will think you are cheating b. eidetic images fade in .25 second as Sperling has shown c. you may be able to recall the material but you don’t necessarily understand it d. it only helps you remember things from other cultures Answer: c. you may be able to recall the material but you don’t necessarily understand it Correct. Material in eidetic imagery hasn’t been understood; it is only like a picture of a page of text. b. eidetic images fade in .25 second as Sperling has shown Incorrect. Eidetic images last a long time. The problem is that the material is not interpreted or understood. 39. What is one of the real-world uses of iconic storage? a. It is where photographic memories are kept. b. It is the process that covers up the disruption that would occur from saccades. c. It increases depth of processing. d. none of these Answer: b. It is the process that covers up the disruption that would occur from saccades. Correct. It does help with disruption and serves as an input to later memory systems. a. It is where photographic memories are kept. Incorrect. Although it involves images, iconic storage is not the locus of photographic memory. 40. Suzy looks up from her lunch, realizing that Jacques has just said something to her. What was it? Oh, yes, he has just asked her if she wants to go to the movies. Suzy’s ability to retrieve what Jacques said is due to her ____________. a. iconic sensory memory b. echoic sensory memory c. short-term memory d. tactile sensory memory Answer: b. echoic sensory memory Correct. Auditory information is first put into echoic memory. c. short-term memory Incorrect. Short-term memory is the stage that occurs after echoic sensory memory, which is being used here. 41. Which type of memory allows us to have meaningful conversations? a. iconic memory b. echoic memory c. distributed memory d. procedural memory Answer: b. echoic memory Correct. The brief memory of what someone has just heard allows that person enough time to make sense of it and respond appropriately. a. iconic memory Incorrect. Iconic memory is visual memory, which is not as useful in conversation as echoic (auditory) memory. 42. The duration of iconic memory is _______ than echoic memory, but iconic’s capacity is probably ________. a. shorter; larger b. longer; larger c. longer; about the same d. shorter; about the same Answer: a. shorter; larger Correct. Echoic memory lasts longer but stores less. c. longer; about the same Incorrect. No, it stores more and is shorter. 43. Information gets from sensory memory to short-term memory through the process of __________. a. elaborative rehearsal b. maintenance rehearsal c. automatic encoding d. selective attention Answer: d. selective attention Correct. Sensory information must be attended to or it is not sent on to short-term memory. b. maintenance rehearsal Incorrect. Sensory memory doesn’t rely on rehearsal, which is a short-term memory process. 44. Sitting in a very noisy restaurant, you are able to screen out all the other conversations around you so you can listen to the friend with whom you are conversing. This is an example of __________. a. Broadbent’s forgetting theory b. the homecoming queen party phenomenon c. selective attention d. intimacy Answer: c. selective attention Correct. This is an example of selection attention, as you are paying attention only to what interests you. a. Broadbent’s forgetting theory Incorrect. Broadbent is better identified with selective attention and not memory. 45. Bethany is trying to focus on a conversation across the room during a party she is attending. This is because she thinks she heard her name above the din of the conversation. Her ability to hear her name is due to the mechanism of __________. a. Broadbent’s forgetting theory b. the homecoming queen party phenomenon c. selective attention d. intimacy Answer: c. selective attention Correct. Selective attention is the ability to focus on what interests you. a. Broadbent’s forgetting theory Incorrect. Broadbent did not have a forgetting theory. 46. Someone a short distance away, to whom you have been paying no attention, quietly speaks your name, and suddenly you attend to that person. This is an example of __________. a. Broadbent’s process of selective memory b. the phi phenomenon c. the cocktail party effect d. cue-controlled inhibition Answer: c. the cocktail party effect Correct. This is an example of the cocktail party effect, which refers to hearing your name stand out in a crowded situation such as a cocktail party. a. Broadbent’s process of selective memory Incorrect. This is an example of the cocktail party effect. Selective memory is not a real term used by Broadbent. 47. The only time selective attention is not working at its peak is __________. a. during deep sleep, and it is still functioning even then b. during REM sleep, as dreams block attention c. when your short-term memory contains more than nine items d. when you are storing items in eidetic imaginal memory Answer: a. during deep sleep, and it is still functioning even then Correct. The filter is not working at its peak during deep sleep. b. during REM sleep, as dreams block attention Incorrect. The filter is not working at its peak during stage 4 sleep. 48. Which theorist is associated with the idea that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory through the processes of selective attention? a. Thorndike b. Atkinson c. Sperling d. Broadbent Answer: d. Broadbent Correct. Broadbent is associated with the idea that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory through the process of selective attention. c. Sperling Incorrect. Sperling measured the duration of sensory memory in a classic paper, but the theory belongs to Broadbent. 49. Laboratory studies using the recall of letters and numbers indicate that short-term memory is probably coded __________. a. verbally b. visually c. semantically d. physically Answer: a. verbally Correct. Short-term memory is verbally coded. b. visually Incorrect. Short-term memory is not visual but rather auditory. 50. Which memory system is the one that is a working, active system that processes the information within it? a. long-term memory b. short-term memory c. secondary memory d. cognitive dissonance Answer: b. short-term memory Correct. Short-term memory is the one that is active and working. c. secondary memory Incorrect. Secondary memory is an obsolete and little used term. 51. Suppose you’re pitching in a baseball game facing a good hitter. You remember that you struck him out with a fastball the last time he was up. You also remember that your coach told you always to try to be unpredictable, so you decide to throw a curve ball this time. In making this decision, you are primarily using your ________. a. central executive b. fight-or-flight response c. modality-specific memory d. long-term potentiation Answer: a. central executive Correct. The central executive is the part of our working memory that helps us with organization and decision-making. b. fight-or-flight response Incorrect. There is nothing in this question deals with the fight-or-flight response of the autonomic nervous system. 52. Micah is trying to remember the specific route he took to the library the night before. What part of working memory is he accessing? a. the articulatory loop b. the visual sketchpad c. the internal executive d. the control sequence Answer: b. the visual sketchpad Correct. The visual sketchpad is part of the working memory that deals with immediate visual or graphical information a. the articulatory loop Incorrect. The articulatory loop is the part of working memory that deals with immediate auditory information. 53. According to Baddeley, which memory system is best conceived of as three interrelated systems: central executive, visual sketchpad, and auditory recorder? a. sensory memory b. working memory c. long-term memory d. procedural memory Answer: b. working memory Correct. Working memory is seen as three interconnected systems. d. procedural memory Incorrect. Procedural memory is a form of long-term memory. 54. What “magic number” did Miller find to be the capacity of short-term memory? a. 11 b. 9 c. 7 d. 5 Answer: c. 7 Correct. Seven is Miller’s magic number, referring to the number of items human beings can hold in their short-term memory. d. 5 Incorrect. Miller found the number of items human beings can hold in short-term memory to be seven. 55. Bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held in short-term memory through the process of ______. a. chunking b. categorizing c. rote rehearsal d. cueing Answer: a. chunking Correct. The combination of information into meaningful units is called chunking. d. cueing Incorrect. Cueing refers to a retrieval effect that does not involve combining units of information. 56. If one wants to increase the capacity of short-term memory, more items can be held through the process of __________. a. chunking b. decoding c. rote rehearsal d. data compression Answer: a. chunking Correct. More items can be held through chunking, a process whereby bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held. d. data compression Incorrect. Data compression is a term from computer usage. 57. Chunking is a means of ______. a. immediately forgetting irrelevant details b. combining information into meaningful units c. arranging details into a hierarchy from most to least important d. storing long-term memories Answer: b. combining information into meaningful units Correct. Chunking is a means of combining information into meaningful units. c. arranging details into a hierarchy from most to least important Incorrect. Arranging details into a hierarchy might be a form of chunking but does not totally define the term. 58. Loni is asked to memorize the letters I K T E A L N in no particular order. She memorizes them by reorganizing them into the words INK and LATE. This tactic is called ______. a. cueing b. shadowing c. rote rehearsal d. chunking Answer: d. chunking Correct. The tactic of combining bits of information into meaningful chunks is called chunking. a. cueing Incorrect. Cueing refers to a hint given at recall. 59. Maria finds that it is easier to remember her student ID number if she thinks of it in segments, such as the first three digits, then the next two, and then the final four. Each of these short segments of the number are called ________. a. codes b. cues c. chunks d. stores Answer: c. chunks Correct. Chunks refer to groups of individual bits of information that increase the efficiency of our short-term memories. a. codes Incorrect. A code refers to a particular system or process for remembering information. The best answer to this question is chunks. 60. In the 1950s, George Miller estimated the number of items that could be stored in short-term memory to be the magic number __________. a. 5, plus or minus 4 b. 7, plus or minus 2 c. 9, plus or minus 3 d. 11, plus or minus 1 Answer: b. 7, plus or minus 2 Correct. Miller found the capacity of short-term memory to be 7+2. c. 9, plus or minus 3 Incorrect. Miller found the capacity of short-term memory to be 7+2. 61. Jamal is trying to buy something over the phone. He asks his partner to read him his credit card number. However, when he tries to repeat it to the sales clerk on the other end of the line, he can’t remember all the numbers. Jamal is coming up against __________. a. the decay of numerical memory b. the extinction of auditory traces c. George Miller’s magic number 7, plus or minus 2 d. the limits of procedural memory Answer: c. George Miller’s magic number 7, plus or minus 2 Correct. Credit card numbers are too long for short-term memory, according to Miller. a. the decay of numerical memory Incorrect. Numerical memory is not a term in current usage. 62. Suppose Tamika looks up a number in the telephone book. After getting a busy signal, a minute or so later she tries to call again - but has already forgotten the number! This example illustrates the limited duration of ________ memory. a. sensory b. short-term c. echoic d. implicit Answer: b. short-term Correct. Short-term memory has a duration of approximately 30 seconds if information is not rehearsed. c. echoic Incorrect. Echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory, which only lasts a second or two. 63. Maintenance rehearsal is defined as ________________. a. processing the physical features of the stimulus to be remembered b. analyzing new material in order to make it memorable c. associating new material to be learned with information maintained in long-term memory d. repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory Answer: d. repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory Correct. Maintenance rehearsal is the practice of repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory. It is not the best way to get items into long-term memory. a. processing the physical features of the stimulus to be remembered Incorrect. Maintenance rehearsal is the practice of repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory. 64. Repeating items over and over in order to aid memory is known as ______ rehearsal. a. repetitive b. imagery c. elaborative d. maintenance Answer: d. maintenance Correct. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating bits of information to aid memory. It is not the best strategy for getting information into long-term memory. a. repetitive Incorrect. In maintenance rehearsal, items to be remembered are repeated over and over again inside a person’s head. 65. You try to remember a phone number by repeating it over and over to yourself. What type of rehearsal are you using? a. condensed b. permanent c. elaborative d. maintenance Answer: d. maintenance Correct. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating bits of information to aid memory. In maintenance rehearsal, items to be remembered are repeated over and over again inside a person’s head, but it is not a good strategy. c. elaborative Incorrect. In maintenance rehearsal, items to be remembered are repeated over and over again inside a person’s head. Elaborative rehearsal is a better strategy. 66. What are the two major types of rehearsal (for moving information from short-term to long-term memory)? a. condensed and expanded b. elaborative and permanent c. maintenance and permanent d. elaborative and maintenance Answer: d. elaborative and maintenance Correct. Elaborative and maintenance are the two major types of rehearsal. b. elaborative and permanent Incorrect. Elaborative and maintenance are the two major types of rehearsal. 67. _______ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of information to long-term memory compared to _______ rehearsal. a. Permanent; condensed b. Condensed; permanent c. Elaborative; maintenance d. Maintenance; elaborative Answer: c. Elaborative; maintenance Correct. Elaborative rehearsal leads to longer-lasting memories than does maintenance rehearsal, because the deeper the processing, the better the memory. d. Maintenance; elaborative Incorrect. Elaborative rehearsal leads to longer-lasting memories than does maintenance rehearsal. Repeating items over and over, as in maintenance rehearsal, has not been found to be very effective. 68. When memories are stored in long-term memory, which of the following forms of information is used? a. sounds b. visual images c. meanings of words and concepts d. all of the above Answer: d. all of the above Correct. Long-term memory is coded in terms of sounds, images, and meanings of words and concepts. c. meanings of words and concepts Incorrect. Long-term memory is coded in terms of sounds and images as well as words. 69. Which memory system has an unlimited capacity and can keep information for hours or decades? a. short-term memory b. long-term memory c. sensory memory d. implicit memory Answer: b. long-term memory Correct. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity. a. short-term memory Incorrect. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity. Short-term memory lasts only about 30 seconds and can hold only seven or so items at one time. 70. The portion of memory that is more or less permanent is called ______. a. primary memory b. working memory c. eidetic memory d. long-term memory Answer: d. long-term memory Correct. Long-term memory is more or less permanent. b. working memory Incorrect. Long-term memory is more or less permanent. Working memory is used to manipulate information retrieved from long-term memory. 71. If one wanted to use the best method to get storage in long-term memory, one would use ______________. a. maintenance rehearsal b. rote rehearsal c. elaborative rehearsal d. sleep learning Answer: c. elaborative rehearsal Correct. The best method is elaborative rehearsal, as it makes you engage the material at a deeper level. a. maintenance rehearsal Incorrect. The best method is elaborative rehearsal, as maintenance rehearsal does not process the information at a deep enough level. 72. The best analogy for the way long-term memory is conceptualized would be _________. a. a revolving door b. a filing cabinet c. a desktop d. a television Answer: b. a filing cabinet Correct. Long-term memory can be thought of as a huge filing cabinet in which items are stored in an organized manner. d. a television Incorrect. The item most similar in concept to long-term memory is a filing cabinet, as memory stores items in an organized manner just like a good filing system. 73. You are learning a list of items for a test by relating the items to each other and to information that you already have stored in memory. Which type of rehearsal are you using? a. condensed b. permanent c. maintenance d. elaborative Answer: d. elaborative Correct. Elaborative rehearsal involves relating the items to each other and to information that you already have stored in memory, and it is the best strategy for getting information into long-term memory. c. maintenance Incorrect. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the items over and over in your head. Elaborative rehearsal, which involves relating the items to each other and to information that you already have stored in memory, is a much better strategy. 74. It is thought that long-term memory never can get filled up. The term used to describe the capacity of long-term memory is _______________. a. 7, plus or minus 2 b. about 10,000 items c. limited by the size of a person’s brain d. unlimited Answer: d. unlimited Correct. The capacity of long-term memory is unlimited. Given the number of neurons and connections, it is unlikely that capacity would be limited. c. limited by the size of a person’s brain Incorrect. The capacity of long-term memory is unlimited; no one has ever found a brain-size limitation. 75. Which type of long-term memory is most resistant to loss with Alzheimer’s disease? a. procedural b. semantic c. episodic d. none of these Answer: a. procedural Correct. Procedural memory, which is unconscious, is most resistant to loss. It is a separate system from the others and usually regards skills. d. none of these Incorrect. Procedural memory is rarely lost. Episodic and semantic memories are more easily lost by people with Alzheimer’s. 76. A police officer is shot in a gun battle with bank robbers. Although emergency brain surgery saves his life, it leaves him unable to store new information. The officer’s family is applying to the state for compensation for his injuries. When asked to provide a diagnosis of the difficulties he suffers, what will they write? a. proactive amnesia b. anterograde amnesia c. retrograde amnesia d. retroactive amnesia Answer: b. anterograde amnesia Correct. Anterograde amnesia occurs when new long-term memories cannot be formed. c. retrograde amnesia Incorrect. Retrograde amnesia deals with not being able to get old information out of storage. 77. Which type of long-term memory is most difficult to bring into conscious awareness? a. episodic memory b. procedural memories c. declarative memories d. semantic memory Answer: b. procedural memories Correct. Procedural memory, such as how to tie shoes, is unconscious. d. semantic memory Incorrect. It is difficult to bring procedural memory into conscious awareness. It is not difficult to consciously recall something that is part of semantic memory, like a word meaning or a math term. 78. Memories for general facts and personal information are called _________. a. episodic memory b. procedural memories c. declarative memories d. factual memory Answer: c. declarative memories Correct. Memories for general facts and personal information are called declarative memories. d. factual memory Incorrect. Factual memory is not the term used; declarative memory stores general facts. 79. Patients with anterograde amnesia were taught to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem. It was later found that they _______________. a. remembered solving the problem and could do so again b. didn’t remember the problem and couldn’t solve it c. remembered solving the problem but couldn’t do it again d. didn’t remember solving the problem but could do it again Answer: d. didn’t remember solving the problem but could do it again Correct. It was later found that they didn’t remember solving the problem but could do it again. a. remembered solving the problem and could do so again Incorrect. It was later found that they didn’t remember solving the problem but could do it again. This is because anterograde amnesia involves an inability to store new information into long-term memory. 80. Declarative memories are to ________ memories as procedural memories are to __________ memories. a. implicit; explicit b. explicit; implicit c. general knowledge; personal facts d. personal facts; general knowledge Answer: b. explicit; implicit Correct. Procedural memories are to implicit memories as declarative memories are to explicit memories. a. implicit; explicit Incorrect. Declarative memories are consciously accessible, so they are not implicit. Procedural memories are skill based, and you are not consciously aware of them. 81. General knowledge, language, and concepts are seen as parts of ___________. a. episodic memory b. procedural memories c. declarative memories d. semantic memory Answer: d. semantic memory Correct. Semantic memory includes general knowledge, language, and concepts, among other things. b. procedural memories Incorrect. Procedural memory is used for skills and is usually nonverbal. 82. Personal facts and memories of one’s personal history are parts of ___________. a. episodic memory b. procedural memories c. declarative memories d. semantic memory Answer: a. episodic memory Correct. Episodic memory includes personal facts and memories. c. declarative memories Incorrect. Declarative memory is concerned with general facts and not personal ones. 83. Recalling the definition of long-term memory is an example of ________. a. episodic memory b. semantic memory c. working memory d. implicit memory Answer: b. semantic memory Correct. Semantic memory refers to the memory of the meanings of words, concepts, and general facts about the world. a. episodic memory Incorrect. Episodic memory refers to memories of events that are associated with a particular time, place, and circumstance. 84. In the game show Jeopardy! contestants are tested on general information. The type of memory used to answer these kinds of questions is _________. a. procedural b. semantic c. episodic d. working Answer: b. semantic Correct. Semantic memory concerns common knowledge. d. working Incorrect. The type of memory needed to access the answers to these kinds of questions is semantic and not a form of short-term memory. Working, or short-term, memory is not permanent. 85. Remembering your first day of college classes is an example of ________ memories. a. episodic b. semantic c. working d. implicit Answer: a. episodic Correct. Episodic memory refers to memories of events that are associated with a particular time, place, and circumstance. b. semantic Incorrect. Semantic memory includes general knowledge, language, and concepts, among other things. 86. Jesse still has very vivid memories of his first romantic kiss. This example illustrates a specific form of ________ memory known as a(n) ________ memory. a. semantic; autobiographical b. episodic; autobiographical c. semantic; personal d. episodic; personal Answer: b. episodic; autobiographical Correct. Autobiographical memories refer to memories of things that have occurred in our own lives. d. episodic; personal Incorrect. The form of episodic memory that is referred to in this question is called autobiographical, not personal memory. 87. Talya, a psychology major, just conducted a survey for class where she asked students about their opinions regarding evolution. When Talya thinks back on this experience, which of the following statements is accurate? a. Talya will be using her episodic memory only. b. Talya will be using her semantic memory only. c. Talya’s ability to recall the factual details about the survey illustrates episodic memory, while her recollections of talking with the students illustrates semantic memory d. Talya’s ability to recall the factual details about the survey illustrates semantic memory, while her recollections of talking with the students illustrates episodic memory Answer: d. Talya’s ability to recall the factual details about the survey illustrates semantic memory, while her recollections of talking with the students illustrates episodic memory Correct. Correct. Episodic memory refers to memories of events that are associated with a particular time, place, and circumstance, while semantic memory includes general knowledge, language, and concepts, among other things. a. Talya will be using her episodic memory only. Incorrect. Talya would be using both episodic and semantic memory in this example. 88. Which of the following statements is true about semantic and episodic memories? a. The former is always implicit, and the latter is always explicit. b. The former is always explicit, and the latter is always implicit. c. Both of them are always implicit. d. Under the right circumstances, both memories can demonstrate implicit and explicit characteristics. Answer: d. Under the right circumstances, both memories can demonstrate implicit and explicit characteristics. Correct. Under the right circumstances, both memories can demonstrate implicit and explicit characteristics. a. The former is always implicit, and the latter is always explicit. Incorrect. Under the right circumstances, both memories can demonstrate implicit and explicit characteristics. Neither one is locked into being just explicit or implicit. 89. _____________ memory is constantly updated. a. Procedural b. Declarative c. Semantic d. Episodic Answer: d. Episodic Correct. Episodic memory is revised and updated more or less constantly to keep track of day-to-day life. b. Declarative Incorrect. Declarative memory deals with facts and is not updated every day. Episodic memory is revised and updated more or less constantly, as it is the record of your day-to-day life. 90. Declarative memories are to ________ memories as nondeclarative memories are to __________ memories. a. implicit; explicit b. explicit; implicit c. general knowledge; personal facts d. personal facts; general knowledge Answer: b. explicit; implicit Correct. Nondeclarative memories are to implicit memories as declarative memories are to explicit memories. a. implicit; explicit Incorrect. Declarative memories are consciously accessible, so they are not implicit. Nondeclarative memories are skill based, and you are not consciously aware of them. 91. Long-term memory is thought to be organized in the form of ___________. a. semantic networks or nodes of related information spreading out from a central piece of knowledge b. conditioned responses and associations c. alphabetical lists of semantic concepts, time-based lists of life events, body-part–specific motor skills d. none of these Answer: a. semantic networks or nodes of related information spreading out from a central piece of knowledge Correct. Long-term memory is thought to be organized in the form of semantic networks or nodes of related information spreading out from a central piece of knowledge. c. alphabetical lists of semantic concepts, time-based lists of life events, body-part–specific motor skills Incorrect. Long-term memory is thought to be organized in the form of semantic networks or nodes of related information spreading out from a central piece of knowledge. Studies do not show a list arrangement, as items seem to be recalled in a related fashion and not serially. 92. According to the semantic network model, it would take less time to answer “true” to which sentence? a. “A salmon is an animal.” b. “A salmon is a fish.” c. “A canary is an animal.” d. All of these would take the same time. Answer: b. “A salmon is a fish.” Correct. Salmon and fish are conceptually closer and, thus, comparing them would be faster than comparing something like salmon and animals that are conceptually further apart. d. All of these would take the same time. Incorrect. Salmon and fish are conceptually closer and, thus, comparing them would be faster than comparing something like salmon and animal that are conceptually further apart. 93. According to the semantic network model, it would take more time to answer “true” to which sentence? a. “A salmon is an animal.” b. “A salmon is a fish.” c. “A canary is a bird.” d. All of these would take the same time. Answer: a. “A salmon is an animal.” Correct. It would take more time to answer “true” to “A salmon is an animal.” d. All of these would take the same time. Incorrect. It would take more time to answer “true” to “A salmon is an animal.” The concept in the model is that salmon and fish are closer together and, thus, comparing them would be faster than comparing something like salmon and animal, which would be further away. 94. In the semantic network model of memory, concepts that are related in meaning _________________. a. are not physically proximal b. are archaic c. are stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related d. All of these are true Answer: c. are stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related Correct. This is an assumption of the Semantic Network Model. d. All of these are true Incorrect. Only answer c is correct. 95. The Internet, with its series of links from one site to many others, is a good analogy for the organization of ______________. a. short-term memory b. episodic memory c. long-term memory d. procedural memory Answer: c. long-term memory Correct. Long-term memory is organized with links that branch out to other links in a manner similar to the organization of the Internet. d. procedural memory Incorrect. Procedural memory is the memory that stores skills, whereas the Internet is more like the network models of long-term memory. 96. If memory were like the sea, we could say that ______ is long-term memory, ______ are the specific memories, and _______ are retrieval cues. a. the sea; fish; hooks b. a boat; worms; fish c. a boat; hooks; worms d. an island; worms; fishing poles Answer: a. the sea; fish; hooks Correct. The sea is long-term memory, fish are the memories, and hooks are retrieval cues. d. an island; worms; fishing poles Incorrect. The sea is long-term memory, fish are the memories, and hooks are retrieval cues. The sea is a large container (long-term memory), it contains fish (specific memories), and you catch fish with hooks (cues). 97. How do retrieval cues help you to remember? a. They provide inferences. b. They help chunk information. c. They direct you to relevant information stored in long term memory. d. They provide numbers for ideas. Answer: c. They direct you to relevant information stored in long term memory. Correct. Cues help prime your long-term memory to find a specific piece of information that is needed. b. They help chunk information. Incorrect. Chunking is a process that is used in short-term memory. Cues are related to long-term memory. 98. Someone asks you to name the twenty-second president of the United States, but you can’t remember. To aid your memory, the person then tells you that the president’s name is the same as that of a large city on Lake Erie. Upon hearing the hint, you instantly realize that Grover Cleveland is the answer. In this situation, the hint acted as a(n) ______. a. elaborative rehearsal cue b. cross code c. structural cue d. retrieval cue Answer: d. retrieval cue Correct. The hint that made you think of the city of Cleveland helped you retrieve the name of Grover Cleveland. a. elaborative rehearsal cue Incorrect. You are not rehearsing or repeating anything in this task as you would in an elaborative rehearsal process. 99. When asked to recall the date of John Kennedy’s assassination, Peter draws a blank; however, when asked whether it was October 24, 1962, November 22, 1963, or February 1, 1965, he correctly answers with the second of the choices. This example most clearly demonstrates the value of ______. a. state-dependent memory b. retrieval cues c. cross links in deep structure d. mnemonic devices Answer: b. retrieval cues Correct. This example most clearly demonstrates the value of retrieval cues as Peter probably had the date stored in memory and then just had to take a set of dates and check which one he had stored. d. mnemonic devices Incorrect. This example most clearly demonstrates the value of retrieval cues. A mnemonic is a poem or acronym that aids memory through aiding retrieval. 100. Which of the following statements is true of retrieval cues? a. They are important in helping us remember items stored in long term memory. b. They are aids in rote rehearsal in short term memory. c. They can be helpful in both long- and short term memory. d. They have been recently shown to have little effect on the accessibility of information. Answer: a. They are important in helping us remember items stored in long term memory. Correct. Retrieval cues are important in helping us remember items stored in long term memory. Think of trying to find your keys and trying to remember where you last saw them. That’s how you would use retrieval cues. d. They have been recently shown to have little effect on the accessibility of information. Incorrect. Retrieval cues are important in helping us remember items stored in long term memory. In fact, lack of retrieval has been seen as a major cause of forgetting. 101. The best place to take your biology exam to ensure good retrieval of biology concepts is in _____________. a. the biology classroom b. an auditorium to prevent cheating c. the English classroom d. the special testing room used for all exams Answer: a. the biology classroom Correct. If you could take the test where you studied, that would be the best. d. the special testing room used for all exams Incorrect. The special testing room won’t give you any retrieval cues; the best place is in the biology classroom. 102. “The effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of cues present when the memory was encoded to the cues present when the memory is retrieved.” What concept does this statement describe? a. memorability b. registered learning c. encoding specificity d. accessible decoding Answer: c. encoding specificity Correct. Encoding specificity is being described as it refers to the similarity of the learning and testing situation and how it aids performance. b. registered learning Incorrect. Encoding specificity is being described. Registered learning is not a real term. 103. Encoding specificity refers to _______________. a. using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories b. particular codes such as Morse code to transform information into bits c. the discrete and specific links that occur in a Collins and Quillan network d. none of these Answer: a. using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories Correct. Encoding specificity refers to using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories. c. the discrete and specific links that occur in a Collins and Quillan network Incorrect. Encoding specificity refers to using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories. Although such cues might lead to forming a network such as Collins and Quillan proposed, the process is not referred to in terms of their model. 104. Godden and Baddeley found that if you study on land, you do better when tested on land, and if you study underwater, you do better when tested underwater. This finding is an example of _______________. a. memorability b. registered learning c. encoding specificity d. accessible decoding Answer: c. encoding specificity Correct. Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 finding is an example of encoding specificity. d. accessible decoding Incorrect. Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 finding is an example of encoding specificity. Accessible decoding is not a term in current use. 105. The research of Eich and Metcalf would suggest that if you were really happy when you were learning math, you should be ______ when taking the math exam to do well. a. calm b. nervous c. happy d. depressed Answer: c. happy Correct. You should be happy when taking the final exam for best retrieval because matching moods leads to best retrieval. a. calm Incorrect. You should match your mood if you can and, thus, you should be happy. 106. Which of the following pairings would result in the best overall memory? a. sad during learning and happy at recall b. happy during learning and sad during recall c. serious during learning and serious during recall d. intoxicated during learning and intoxicated during recall Answer: c. serious during learning and serious during recall Correct. State-dependent memories suggests that retrieval of information is easier when we are in the same psychological state during retrieval as we were during encoding. b. happy during learning and sad during recall Incorrect. This inconsistency between the encoding and retrieval states would probably interfere with memory. 107. Which of the following is an example of a test using recall? a. short answer b. essay c. fill-in-the-blank d. All of these are examples that use recall. Answer: d. All of these are examples that use recall. Correct. All of these are examples that use recall. c. fill-in-the-blank Incorrect. All of these are examples that use recall. Fill-ins are just one type. 108. Under most circumstances, when you are intentionally trying to remember an item of information, ___________ is an easier task than __________. a. recognition; recall b. recall; recognition c. priming; the savings method d. the savings method; priming Answer: a. recognition; recall Correct. Recognition is an easier task than recall. b. recall; recognition Incorrect. Recognition is an easier task than recall. Recognition always entails a hint that enables you to check the given answers against memory. 109. Janie is taking an exam in her history class. On the exam there is a question that asks her to state and discuss the five major causes of the Trans-Caspian War. Janie remembers four of them. She knows there is a fifth and can almost remember it; she knows that it is something like taxes. Janie is walking down the stairs, when all of a sudden, she remembers that the fifth point is taxes, but it is too late. Janie was suffering from ______________. a. encoding problems b. storage inversion c. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon d. evaluation overload Answer: c. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Correct. Janie was suffering from the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon as she felt the information was almost ready to be said or on the tip of her tongue. a. encoding problems Incorrect. Janie was suffering from tip-of-the-tongue effects. She probably had encoded the information, but she couldn’t find it; thus, it was a retrieval problem. 110. When the sound of the word is the aspect that cannot be retrieved, leaving only the feeling of knowing the word without the ability to pronounce it, this is known as _________. a. encoding failure b. extinction of acoustic storage c. auditory decay d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Answer: d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Correct. This is known as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. a. encoding failure Incorrect. This is known as the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) effect. The information had been encoded but when you couldn’t find it and only have a sense that it is in memory, you have TOT. 111. Studies have found that the best way to overcome the tip-of-the-tongue effect is to _____________. a. try even harder to remember the items b. take a nap c. forget about it and let the item just come to you d. None of these will work. Answer: c. forget about it and let the item just come to you Correct. Studies have found that the best way to overcome the tip-of-the-tongue effect is to forget about it because then the item might just come to you. a. try even harder to remember the items Incorrect. Studies have found that the best way to overcome the tip-of-the-tongue effect is to try to forget about it; the item might just come to you. Trying harder sometimes just locks in the item you are incorrectly recalling. 112. Moishe can remember only the first two items and the last two items on the grocery list that his wife just read to him over the phone. The other five items in between are gone. This is an example of the _____________. a. encoding specificity effect b. serial position effect c. TOT effect d. reintegrative effect Answer: b. serial position effect Correct. The finding is known as the serial position effect, as it refers to the ability to better remember things at the beginning and end of a list. c. TOT effect Incorrect. TOT is when you know the item but can’t retrieve it at a particular moment, which is not the case in this example. Moishe’s problem is with the serial position effect. 113. The fact that it is easier to recall items at the beginning and end of a list of unrelated items is known as the __________. a. phi phenomenon b. implicit memory effect c. serial position effect d. sequestering effect Answer: c. serial position effect Correct. The finding is known as the serial position effect, as it refers to the ability to better remember things at the beginning and end of a list. d. sequestering effect Incorrect. The finding is known as the serial position effect. The sequestering effect is not a term used in memory research. 114. When given a list of items to remember, people tend to do better at recalling the first items on the list than the middle of the list. This is known as the __________. a. phi phenomenon b. recency effect c. chunking effect d. primacy effect Answer: d. primacy effect Correct. This is known as the primacy effect or having a better memory for the beginning of the list as compared to the middle. b. recency effect Incorrect. This is known as the primacy effect. The recency effect refers to improved memory for items at the end of the list. 115. Adrianna is trying to memorize the names of the bones in the hand. She had gone through a list of them when her phone rang. After she gets off the phone, she is MOST likely to remember the first few bone names because of the ________. a. elaboration effects b. recency effect c. primacy effect d. maintenance effect Answer: c. primacy effect Correct. The primacy effect suggests that we have a strong memory of things that are presented to us at the beginning of a list of items. b. recency effect Incorrect. The recency effect suggests that we have a strong memory of things that are presented to us at the end of a list of items. 116. When given a list of items to remember, you are more likely to remember _______. a. the items in the beginning better than those in the middle or at the end b. the items in the middle more than those at the beginning or at the end c. the items at the end more than those in the middle or at the beginning of the list d. the items at the beginning and at the end more than those in the middle of the list Answer: d. the items at the beginning and at the end more than those in the middle of the list Correct. When given a list of items to remember, you are more likely to remember the items at the beginning and at the end more than those in the middle of the list. b. the items in the middle more than those at the beginning or at the end Incorrect. People are more likely to remember the items at the beginning and at the end of a list than those in the middle because of the recency effect in short-term memory and the primacy effect in long-term memory. 117. Which of the following statements is true about the serial position curve? a. It is used as evidence of separate long-term and short-term memory systems. b. It is found when someone tries to recall items in long-term memory, such as the names of the presidents. c. It is due, in part, to the fact that the middle items of a serial list get less rehearsal than items at the beginning of the list. d. All of these are true. Answer: d. All of these are true. Correct. All of these answers are true. a. It is used as evidence of separate long-term and short-term memory systems. Incorrect. All of these answers are true. 118. When given a list of items to remember, people tend to do better at recalling the last items on the list. This is known as the ______. a. phi phenomenon b. chunking effect c. recency effect d. primacy effect Answer: c. recency effect Correct. The recency effect helps you recall the last thing your significant other said when you would rather watch TV and your significant other is going on and on. d. primacy effect Incorrect. This is known as the recency effect as the last items are remembered best. The primacy effect is having a better memory for the beginning of the list as compared to the middle. 119. Moishe can remember only the first two items and the last two items on the grocery list that his wife just read to him over the phone. The other five items in between are gone. His memory of things at the end of the list demonstrates the a. encoding specificity effect b. primacy effects c. recency effect d. TOT effect. Answer: c. recency effect Correct. The recency effect refers to remembering things at the end of a list. b. primacy effects Incorrect. The primacy effect refers to remembering things at the beginning of a list. 120. According to primacy and recency effects, when reading the chapters of the textbook, you are most likely to forget ________. a. the information you first read b. the information you most recently read c. the information in the middle of the chapter d. the information from the summary Answer: c. the information in the middle of the chapter Correct. The primacy and recency effects suggest that we remember things that are presented to us at the beginning and end of the list. Therefore we would have the most difficulty remembering items in the middle of a list. a. the information you first read Incorrect. The primacy effect suggests that we would be least likely to forget this information. 121. Examples of tests that use recognition are _____________. a. multiple choice b. matching c. none of these d. both multiple choice and matching Answer: d. both multiple choice and matching Correct. Both multiple-choice and matching tests use recognition. In both you are given the correct answer to test against memory, which involves recognition. c. none of these Incorrect. Both multiple-choice and matching tests use recognition. In both you are given the correct answer to test against memory, which involves recognition. 122. In one study, over 2,500 photographs were shown to participants, one every 10 seconds. Participants were then shown pairs of photographs in which one member of each pair was one of the previously seen photographs. Accuracy for identifying the previously seen photos was __________. a. 10 to 20 percent b. 50 to 60 percent c. 70 to 80 percent d. 85 to 95 percent Answer: d. 85 to 95 percent Correct. Accuracy for identifying the previously seen photos was 85 to 95 percent. a. 10 to 20 percent Incorrect. Accuracy for identifying the previously seen photos was 85 to 95 percent. 123. False positives occur when a person incorrectly “matches” a stimulus that is merely similar to a real memory to that memory. One major problem with eyewitness testimony is that _______________. a. extinction of auditory memories causes the witness to forget what was said b. witnesses are prone to habituate to the courtroom and forget what happened c. false positives can cause eyewitness testimony to be quite inaccurate d. None of these are true. Answer: c. false positives can cause eyewitness testimony to be quite inaccurate Correct. False positives can cause eyewitness testimony to be quite inaccurate and innocent people may to go to jail. b. witnesses are prone to habituate to the courtroom and forget what happened Incorrect. False positives can cause eyewitness testimony to be quite inaccurate. Thus, an innocent person may be found guilty and sent to jail. 124. The case of Father Bernard Pagano, who was identified by seven eyewitnesses as a criminal, was an instance of a ____________. a. tip-of-the-tongue effect b. retrieval failure c. primacy effect d. false positive Answer: d. false positive Correct. The Pagano case was an instance of a false positive or identifying someone as committing a crime when that person didn’t do it. a. tip-of-the-tongue effect Incorrect. The Pagano case was an instance of a false positive. Tip-of-the-tongue effect occurs when people can’t readily recall an item totally It is not an instance of identifying someone who didn’t do a crime. 125. A witness on the stand swears that he saw someone commit a crime. Must you believe that the testimony is valid when a witness testifies so forcefully? a. Yes, because seeing is believing. b. No, because eyewitnesses are not usually honest. c. Yes, because eyewitnesses are very confident about their testimony. d. No, because there is a great possibility of a “false positive” identification. Answer: d. No, because there is a great possibility of a “false positive” identification. Correct. A great number of “false positive” identifications have been made. Witnesses sometimes construct memories after the fact and convince themselves of their validity. a. Yes, because seeing is believing. Incorrect. Eyewitnesses have been shown to be incorrect, even when they sound very convincing. 126. The most influential researcher into eyewitness memory has been ______. a. Broadbent b. Sperling c. Loftus d. Treisman Answer: c. Loftus Correct. The most influential researcher into eyewitness memory has been Loftus. a. Broadbent Incorrect. The most influential researcher into eyewitness memory has been Loftus. Broadbent is best known for research on attention. 127. Many middle-aged adults can vividly recall where they were and what they were doing the day that John F. Kennedy was assassinated, although they cannot remember what they were doing the day before he was assassinated. This is an example of ______. a. an eidetic image b. a flashbulb memory c. a semantic memory d. a procedural memory Answer: b. a flashbulb memory Correct. This is an example of a flashbulb memory, which is like a flash picture of a highly emotional event and is not always accurate. a. an eidetic image Incorrect. This is an example of a flashbulb memory. Eidetic images are perfect images formed by a person with photographic memory; they are of anything the person sees, not just highly significant events. 128. Flashbulb memories ______. a. are not subject to periodic revision b. usually concern events that are emotionally charged c. are almost always highly accurate d. usually concern events from early childhood Answer: b. usually concern events that are emotionally charged Correct. Flashbulb memories usually concern events that are emotionally charged. c. are almost always highly accurate Incorrect. Flashbulb memories usually concern events that are emotionally charged but quite often they are incorrect if the details are checked. 129. Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called ______. a. eidetic images b. elaborative rehearsals c. flashbulb memories d. eyewitness images Answer: c. flashbulb memories Correct. Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called flashbulb memories. a. eidetic images Incorrect. Eidetic images are perfect images formed by a person with photographic memory; they are images of anything the person experiences, not just highly significant or emotional events. 130. Which of the following is most likely to be memorable for most people? a. a photograph of a dead soldier b. a photograph of a bird c. a photograph of the earth from space d. a random photograph Answer: a. a photograph of a dead soldier Correct. Because this would elicit strong emotions, it would probably be encoded as a flashbulb memory. c. a photograph of the earth from space Incorrect. Although this might be an amazing photograph, the lack of emotions associated with it would not make it the best answer to this question. 131. Your memory for the moment you heard about the planes crashing into New York’s Twin Towers would be most appropriately termed a(n) ________ memory. a. episodic b. autobiographical c. flashbulb d. repressed Answer: c. flashbulb Correct. This incredibly emotional memory would be an example of a flashbulb memory. b. autobiographical Incorrect. While this memory may be autobiographical in nature, the best answer to this question is a flashbulb memory. 132. Which of the following statements about flashbulb memories is true? a. Flashbulb memories tend to be about as accurate as other types of memories. b. People feel unconfident about their recall of flashbulb memories. c. A major news event automatically causes a person to store a flashbulb memory. d. Your memory of how you felt at the onset of a flashbulb memory rarely changes over time. Answer: a. Flashbulb memories tend to be about as accurate as other types of memories. Correct. Although researchers used to think of flashbulb memories were more accurate than other memories, recent research has debunked that belief. b. People feel unconfident about their recall of flashbulb memories. Incorrect. In fact, while people’s confidence about the accuracy of flashbulb memories is very high, the actual accuracy of those memories is about equal to other types of memory. 133. As memories get older, they are most likely ____________________. a. to get lost b. to become stronger, more accurate, and more vivid c. to be regarded as unreliable by the person using them d. to become changed or altered in some fashion Answer: d. to become changed or altered in some fashion Correct. As memories get older, they are most likely to become changed or altered in some fashion. More new items interfere with them. c. to be regarded as unreliable by the person using them Incorrect. Studies show that people usually don’t realize how unreliable their memories actually are. As memories get older, they are most likely to be changed or altered in some fashion. 134. For which famous memory researcher is memory a problem-solving activity in which the problem is to give a coherent account of some past event, and the memory is the solution to that problem? a. Bartlett b. Meyer c. Ebbinghaus d. Skinner Answer: a. Bartlett Correct. The researcher in question is Bartlett. c. Ebbinghaus Incorrect. The researcher in question is Bartlett. Ebbinghaus was concerned with the memory for nonsense syllables and not stories like Bartlett. 135. Retrieving information from long-term memory is done by assembling information from various brain locations in a process known as ______________. a. consolidation b. reintegration c. constructive processing d. automatic processing Answer: c. constructive processing Correct. Bits and pieces of information are gathered from various areas of the brain and put back together in a process called constructive processing. a. consolidation Incorrect. Bits and pieces of information are gathered from various areas and put back together in a process called constructive processing. Consolidation is the process of establishing memories. 136. Rochelle remembered getting “B’s” in her English lit classes in college. But years later when she applied for a job and took out her transcript, she was shocked to find that she had actually gotten “C–” grades. She then started telling everyone she remembers being a pretty poor student. Her erratic memory of her mediocre performance is most likely due to ___________. a. her poor memory b. hindsight bias c. consolidation d. eidetic imagery Answer: b. hindsight bias Correct. Her altered recall of her memories of the past is most likely due to hindsight bias as Rochelle wants to think the best of herself. a. her poor memory Incorrect. Although Rochelle may have a poor memory, which is why she received a C–, the most likely reason is hindsight bias. 137. In this view, memories are literally “built” from the pieces stored away at encoding. This view is called ______________. a. constructive processing b. hindsight bias c. adaptation of memory traces d. flashbulb integration Answer: a. constructive processing Correct. Building memory is constructive processing. d. flashbulb integration Incorrect. Flashbulb integration is a made-up term. 138. It’s Thanksgiving and the whole family has gotten together. You start to reminisce about your childhood and get into an argument with your brother. Both of you claim that you were the innocent victim of the other. This is an example of __________. a. constructive processing b. hindsight bias c. adaptation of memory traces d. flashbulb integration Answer: a. constructive processing Correct. You are constructing a memory to favor yourself. b. hindsight bias Incorrect. This is an example of constructive processing or altering the memory at recall. 139. Based on Loftus’s 1978 study, subjects viewed a slide presentation of an accident, and some of the subjects were asked a question about a blue car when the actual slides contained pictures of a green car. When these same subjects were asked about the color of the car at the accident, they were found to be confused. This is an example of the ____________. a. instant replay effect b. constructive processing effect c. levels-of-processing effect d. misinformation effect Answer: d. misinformation effect Correct. This is an example of the misinformation effect where new information replaces older information. It has been a crucial addition to our knowledge of why court proceedings sometimes lead to the wrong conclusions about guilt or innocence. b. constructive processing effect Incorrect. Although constructive processing is what caused them to reconstruct their memories, the effect in this example is known as the misinformation effect. New information interfered with old information. 140. According to Elizabeth Bowman, ____________. a. hypnosis makes production of false memories easier b. hypnosis increases confidence in memories, even fake ones c. therapists have produced false memories through hypnosis d. all of these statements are true. Answer: d. all of these statements are true. Correct. All of these statements are true. Despite TV portrayals and the opinions of nonscientific psychologists, hypnosis is not that reputable. a. hypnosis makes production of false memories easier Incorrect. All of these statements are true. 141. Which of the following statements about memory retrieval while under hypnosis is NOT TRUE? a. These memories are more accurate than other kinds of memories. b. Age regression through hypnosis can increase the accuracy of recall of early childhood memories. c. Therapists have induced false memories through hypnosis. d. All of the statements are not true. Answer: d. All of the statements are not true. Correct. Hypnosis is no guarantee of accurate memories. b. Age regression through hypnosis can increase the accuracy of recall of early childhood memories. Incorrect. Although this is not true, all of the statements are also not true. Hypnosis is not regarded as really an aid to the courts. 142. Which of these individuals is the most typical person involved in a case in which memories of past childhood abuse are recalled later in life? a. Thirty-year-old Charlotte who sought therapy for anxiety, depression, and recent weight gain with a therapist who uses hypnosis b. Thirty-year-old Steve who sought therapy for symptoms that developed after serving in Desert Storm c. Ten-year-old Willard who was referred by a pediatrician for symptoms that appear to meet the diagnostic criteria for hyperactivity d. Fifty-year-old Agnes who fell, hit her head, and suddenly began remembering that her brother abused her sexually when she was eight years old Answer: a. Thirty-year-old Charlotte who sought therapy for anxiety, depression, and recent weight gain with a therapist who uses hypnosis Correct. Hypnosis is not really that reputable a treatment among scientifically oriented therapists. Much research has shown it to be based on social conformity rather than inducing a real trance. d. Fifty-year-old Agnes who fell, hit her head, and suddenly began remembering that her brother abused her sexually when she was eight years old Incorrect. Recovered memories of abuse have not been found to be related to injury. 143. Which technique is widely used by therapists to help clients recover lost childhood memories? a. hypnosis b. “truth” serum c. Gestalt therapy d. electroconvulsive therapy Answer: a. hypnosis Correct. Hypnosis is widely used by therapists to help clients recover lost childhood memories. Remember that hypnosis is not well respected by scientifically trained therapists. c. Gestalt therapy Incorrect. Hypnosis is widely used by therapists to help clients recover lost childhood memories. Gestalt therapy doesn’t use hypnosis as a core technique. 144. Researchers using MRI scanning have found that _______________. a. false memories of visual images and visual images of real events are processed in different brain locations b. false memories of visual images and visual images of real events are processed in much the same way c. they could not localize where false visual images were processed d. they could not localize where correct or real visual images were processed Answer: b. false memories of visual images and visual images of real events are processed in much the same way Correct. Researchers using MRI scanning have found that false memories of visual images and visual images of real events are processed in overlapping brain locations. d. they could not localize where correct or real visual images were processed Incorrect. Researchers using MRI scanning have found that false memories of visual images and visual images of real events are processed in overlapping brain locations. 145. Pezdek and colleagues found that for a person to interpret thoughts and fantasies about false events as true memories ________________. a. the event must seem as vivid as possible b. the person must believe in hypnosis c. they must be plausible d. they must hear about the event several times Answer: c. they must be plausible Correct. Pezdek found that plausible false events were more likely to be remembered as false memories than were implausible false events. d. they must hear about the event several times Incorrect. Repetition of the events was not found to be a factor. 146. A. R. Luria studied an individual with phenomenal memory. This person was a ____________. a. gestaltiker b. hypnotist c. child prodigy d. mnemonist Answer: d. mnemonist Correct. This person was a mnemonist, or someone with exceptional memory. The term comes from the Greek god of memory. a. gestaltiker Incorrect. This person was a mnemonist. There is no such thing as a gestaltiker. 147. A. R. Luria studied a mnemonist with phenomenal memory. This person had several problems associated with the ability. Which was one was reported in your textbook? a. repressed memory syndrome b. tip-of-the-tongue aphasia c. separating trivial from important memories. d. cognitive penetrance Answer: c. separating trivial from important memories. Correct. Trivial memories interfered with important ones. a. repressed memory syndrome Incorrect. He did not suffer from repressed memory syndrome. 148. Ebbinghaus found that information is forgotten ____________. a. more rapidly as time goes by b. gradually at first, then with increasing speed c. quickly at first, then tapers off gradually d. most quickly one day after learning Answer: c. quickly at first, then tapers off gradually Correct. Ebbinghaus found that information is forgotten quickly at first, then tapers off gradually. d. most quickly one day after learning Incorrect. Ebbinghaus found that information is forgotten quickly at first, then tapers off gradually. After a day, the rate of forgetting becomes stable. 149. In the curve of forgetting developed by Ebbinghaus, the greatest amount of forgetting occurs _____________. a. within the first hour after learning new material b. within the first day after learning new material c. near the end of the retrieval period d. near the middle of the retrieval period Answer: a. within the first hour after learning new material Correct. The greatest amount of forgetting occurs within the first hour after learning new material. c. near the end of the retrieval period Incorrect. The greatest amount of forgetting occurs within the first hour after learning the material. The rate of forgetting was fairly stable after a long retrieval period. 150. Your teacher has given each student the name of a key figure in the history of psychology. The assignment is to describe at least one significant contribution made by this person. If your historical figure is Hermann Ebbinghaus, what contribution might you describe to the class? a. He described the limits of sensory storage. b. He discovered the parts of the brain responsible for processing memories. c. He created nonsense syllables in order to study memory in a “pure” form. d. He developed a series of memory aids that is still used by students today. Answer: c. He created nonsense syllables in order to study memory in a “pure” form. Correct. Ebbinghaus created nonsense syllables that were crucial to studying learning. a. He described the limits of sensory storage. Incorrect. Ebbinghaus created nonsense syllables that were crucial to studying learning. Sperling was crucial in the study of sensory storage. 151. What type of stimuli did Hermann Ebbinghaus use in his memory experiments? a. words b. numbers c. pictures d. nonsense syllables Answer: d. nonsense syllables Correct. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables because he wanted a stimulus that would seem similar to the neutral stimuli used in conditioning experiments. a. words Incorrect. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to avoid the associations that words would have. He wanted a stimulus that would seem similar to the neutral stimuli used in conditioning experiments. 152. You are invited to take part in a study by a researcher trying to replicate the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus. What might this researcher ask you to do? a. “Write down all the words you can remember.” b. “Read this poem and then interpret its meaning.” c. “Listen to me: BEC, DAX, FER, KOJ; now repeat what I said.” d. “Listen to these sounds and write down words that come to mind.” Answer: c. “Listen to me: BEC, DAX, FER, KOJ; now repeat what I said.” Correct. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to avoid previous associative links. d. “Listen to these sounds and write down words that come to mind.” Incorrect. He would probably say, “BEC, DAX, FER, KOJ; now repeat what I said.” Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables because they had no previous associations. 153. Most people have difficulty actually recognizing the correct image of the Lincoln penny. The most likely cause of this problem is _______________. a. interference b. memory trace decay c. encoding failure d. repression Answer: c. encoding failure Correct. The most likely cause of these problems is encoding failure. Who notices those details unless you are a numismatist—look it up. Not noticing causes the information not to be processed or encoded. b. memory trace decay Incorrect. The most likely cause of this problem is encoding failure. You probably never notice and stored this level of detail. 154. A psychologist asks people to recall the name of their kindergarten teacher. Surprisingly, the majority of people correctly do this and comment, “Gee whiz, I haven’t thought about that old bat [or old coot] in years!” Their ability to do so is a severe problem for which theory of forgetting? a. interference theory b. decay or disuse c. encoding failure d. retroactive interference Answer: b. decay or disuse Correct. Their ability to do so is a severe problem for the decay or disuse theory of forgetting because people are able to remember even when they haven’t used that particular memory trace for a very long time. If decay was a constant process, that memory and all those from that time should be gone. However, we do have clear memories from long ago. c. encoding failure Incorrect. Their ability to do so is a severe problem for the decay or disuse theory of forgetting. 155. Decay theory works well to explain forgetting in _____________. a. sensory memory only b. short-term memory only c. long-term memory only d. sensory memory and short-term memory Answer: d. sensory memory and short-term memory Correct. Decay has been proposed to explain forgetting in both sensory memory and short-term memory. a. sensory memory only Incorrect. Decay has been proposed to explain forgetting in both sensory memory and short-term memory. 156. Proactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when _____________. a. older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information b. newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information c. information is not attended to and fails to be encoded d. information that is not accessed decays from the storage system over time Answer: a. older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information Correct. Proactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information. b. newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information Incorrect. Proactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information. Retroactive interference is the reverse, as described in this choice. 157. You start out using Firefox, then change to Explorer because your company demands that browsers be Microsoft products. If you have trouble with Explorer, it is most likely due to ______________. a. proactive interference b. retroactive interference c. anterograde interference d. consolidation problems Answer: a. proactive interference Correct. In proactive interference, older information interferes with newer information. b. retroactive interference Incorrect. In retroactive interference, newer information interferes with older information. In this example, the old interferes with the new, which is proactive interference. 158. Imagine that the first car you learned to drive was a manual transmission with a clutch, but the car you drive now is an automatic. Sometimes you find yourself reaching for the clutch that is no longer there. This example illustrates ________. a. retroactive interference b. proactive interference c. retrograde amnesia d. anterograde amnesia Answer: b. proactive interference Correct. Proactive interference is the tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the retrieval of newer, more recently learned material. a. retroactive interference Incorrect. Retroactive interference is the tendency for new or recently learned material to interfere with the retrieval of older material. 159. Forgetting in long-term memory is most likely due to _____________. a. interference from other information b. decay or disuse c. encoding failure d. none of these Answer: a. interference from other information Correct. Forgetting in long-term memory is most likely due to interference from other information. b. decay or disuse Incorrect. Forgetting in long-term memory is most likely due to interference from other information. Decay or the fading of information has not been conclusively shown to occur and, in fact, there is evidence against it. 160. Shalissa has two exams today. One is in French and the other is in history. Last night she studied French before history. When she gets to her history test, all she can remember is French! Shalissa’s memory is suffering from _____________. a. cue-dependent forgetting b. proactive interference c. decay d. retroactive interference Answer: b. proactive interference Correct. Shalissa’s memory is suffering from proactive interference. d. retroactive interference Incorrect. Shalissa’s memory is suffering from proactive interference as old information is knocking out the new. Retroactive interference is the reverse. 161. _________________ is the tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the retrieval of newer, more recently learned material. a. Cue-dependent forgetting b. Proactive interference c. Decay d. Retroactive interference Answer: b. Proactive interference Correct. Proactive interference is the tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the retrieval of newer, more recently learned material. d. Retroactive interference Incorrect. Retroactive interference is the tendency for new or recently learned material to interfere with the retrieval of older material. 162. Jessica took psychology in the fall semester and is now taking sociology. Several of the concepts are similar, and Jessica finds that she sometimes has trouble recalling some of the major psychological theorists. She keeps getting them confused with sociological theorists. Jessica’s problem is most likely due to _______________. a. decoding failure b. retroactive interference c. proactive interference d. Toronto syndrome Answer: b. retroactive interference Correct. In retroactive interference, new information interferes with older information. c. proactive interference Incorrect. In proactive interference, older information interferes with newer information, but in this example the situation is reversed. 163. Retroactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when _________. a. older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information b. newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information c. information is not attended to and fails to be encoded d. information that is not accessed decays from the storage system over time Answer: b. newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information Correct. Retroactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information. d. information that is not accessed decays from the storage system over time Incorrect. Retroactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information. Decay refers to the information fading on its own. 164. Shalissa has two exams today. One is in French and the other is in history. Last night she studied French before history. When she gets to her French test, all she can remember is history! Shalissa’s memory is suffering from ____________. a. cue-dependent forgetting b. proactive interference c. decay d. retroactive interference Answer: d. retroactive interference Correct. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with old. b. proactive interference Incorrect. In proactive interference, old information interferes with new. In Shalissa’s situation, the new information (history) is interfering with the old (French), which is called retroactive interference. 165. When newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information, this is called ______________. a. cue-dependent forgetting b. proactive interference c. decay d. retroactive interference Answer: d. retroactive interference Correct. In retroactive interference, new information interferes with old. b. proactive interference Incorrect. In proactive interference, old information interferes with new. 166. Evidence suggests that short-term memories are stored in the _____________. a. cerebellum b. prefrontal lobes of the cortex c. hippocampus d. amygdala Answer: b. prefrontal lobes of the cortex Correct. Evidence suggests that short-term memories are stored in the prefrontal lobes of the cortex. c. hippocampus Incorrect. Evidence suggests that short-term memories are stored in the prefrontal lobes of the cortex. The hippocampus is involved in processing thoughts. 167. Short-term memories appear to be localized in the _________________. a. occipital lobe b. cingulate gyrus c. amygdala d. prefrontal lobes Answer: d. prefrontal lobes Correct. Short-term memories appear to be stored in the prefrontal lobes. b. cingulate gyrus Incorrect. Short-term memories appear to be stored in the prefrontal lobes. This area might be involved but not as the storage area. 168. Evidence suggests that procedural memories are stored in the _____________. a. cerebellum b. prefrontal and temporal lobes of the cortex c. hippocampus d. amygdala Answer: a. cerebellum Correct. Evidence suggests that procedural memories are stored in the cerebellum. c. hippocampus Incorrect. Evidence suggests that procedural memories are stored in the cerebellum. The hippocampus is involved in other memory systems. 169. Which of the following statements is TRUE? a. All memories are stored in one place in the brain. b. Memories are randomly distributed throughout the brain. c. Different parts of the brain are specialized for the storage of memories. d. Almost all memories are primarily stored in the brain stem. Answer: c. Different parts of the brain are specialized for the storage of memories. Correct. Different parts of the brain are specialized for the storage of memories. a. All memories are stored in one place in the brain. Incorrect. Different parts of the brain are specialized for the storage of memories. Many sites are active depending on the specific task. 170. Mateo is 70 years old and had a stroke last year. He is now unable to remember how to get to and return from his new doctors office using a specific route. What brain structure was potentially damaged by Mateo’s stroke? a. his amygdala b. his hypothalamus c. his hippocampus d. his cerebellum Answer: c. his hippocampus Correct. Research has found that the hippocampus is essential in the formation and encoding of new memories. a. his amygdala Incorrect. While the amygdala may be related to fear-based memories, the best answer to this question is the hippocampus. 171. A man known as H. M. lost the ability to form new memories after an operation removed portions of his ____________. a. cortex and medulla b. cerebellum and pons c. hippocampus d. hypothalamus and thalamus Answer: c. hippocampus Correct. H. M. lost the ability to form new memories after an operation removed portions of his hippocampus. d. hypothalamus and thalamus Incorrect. H. M. lost the ability to form new memories after an operation removed portions of his hippocampus. The hypothalamus is concerned with motivation and the thalamus with sensation. 172. In the famous case of H. M., after having part of his brain removed, he could no longer ______. a. pay attention to specific stimuli b. retrieve memories c. form new memories d. make sense of memories Answer: c. form new memories Correct. In the famous case of H. M., after having part of his brain removed, he could no longer form new memories. b. retrieve memories Incorrect. In the famous case of H. M., after having part of his brain removed, he could no longer form new memories. In these cases, older memories are still available. 173. H. M., a famous amnesiac, gave researchers solid information that the ______________ was important in storing new long-term memories. a. hippocampus b. amygdala c. frontal lobes d. cerebellum Answer: a. hippocampus Correct. The role of the hippocampus in the formation of new long-term memories was first made apparent in the case of H. M. b. amygdala Incorrect. The amygdala is involved in emotion and memory. However, the role of the hippocampus in the formation of new long-term memories was first made apparent in H.M.’s case. 174. A patient’s chart indicates he just had surgery to remove his hippocampus as a result of a tumor. What change do you anticipate in the patient after the operation? a. The patient will not be able to process colors. b. The patient will have problems experiencing hunger. c. The patient will not be able to remember new information. d. The patient will not be able to perform tasks such as block designs. Answer: c. The patient will not be able to remember new information. Correct. Damage to the hippocampus results in long-term memory problems. d. The patient will not be able to perform tasks such as block designs. Incorrect. The patient will not be able to remember new information because the hippocampus is crucial in storing information in long-term memory. 175. In the famous case of H. M., after having part of his brain removed, he could ______. a. no longer form new explicit memories b. read the same magazine over and over and not realize that he was reading it over and over c. still form procedural memories d. All of these choices are correct Answer: d. All of these choices are correct Correct. All of these choices are correct. c. still form procedural memories Incorrect. All of these choices are correct. 176. ______________ appears to be responsible for the storage of new long-term memories. If it is removed, the ability to store anything new is completely lost. a. The cerebellum b. The prefrontal and temporal lobes of the cortex c. The hippocampus d. The amygdala Answer: c. The hippocampus Correct. The hippocampus is responsible for the storage of new long-term memories. d. The amygdala Incorrect. The hippocampus is responsible for the storage of new long-term memories. The amygdala is related to emotional processing. 177. When a person’s ____________ is damaged or removed, anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new memories, results. a. hippocampus b. prefrontal lobe c. amygdala d. cerebellum Answer: a. hippocampus Correct. When a person’s hippocampus is damaged or removed, anterograde amnesia results. d. cerebellum Incorrect. When a person’s hippocampus is damaged or removed, anterograde amnesia results. The cerebellum’s loss would interfere with the formation of conditioned responses. 178. Malcolm, aged 35, is severely depressed. Because of this he is given electroconvulsive therapy. After treatment, he is sent home and does much better. However, his TV-watching behavior is strange. Malcolm thinks that last year’s episodes of his favorite series are new. Malcolm is showing signs of ______________. a. anterograde amnesia b. retrograde amnesia c. childhood amnesia d. senile dementia Answer: b. retrograde amnesia Correct. Malcolm is showing signs of retrograde amnesia, which is the loss of past memories. a. anterograde amnesia Incorrect. Malcolm is showing signs of retrograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia would entail his not remembering older memories. However, he does do that. 179. If ____________ is like losing a document in the computer because of a power loss, __________ is like pushing the “save” key and having the document disappear instead of being stored. a. anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia b. retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia c. adolescent amnesia, conductive amnesia d. procedural amnesia, implicit amnesia Answer: b. retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia Correct. If retrograde amnesia is like losing a document in the computer because of a power loss, anterograde amnesia is like pushing the “save” key and having the document disappear instead. a. anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia Incorrect. If retrograde amnesia is like losing a document in the computer because of a power loss, anterograde amnesia is like pushing the “save” key and having the document disappear instead. 180. Work with electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) for severe depression suggests that consolidation ___________. a. only takes a short time b. may take months to complete c. may take years to complete d. may take weeks to complete Answer: c. may take years to complete Correct. Work with ECT for severe depression suggests that consolidation may take years to be complete. a. only takes a short time Incorrect. Work with ECT for severe depression suggests that consolidation may take years to complete. 181. Malcolm, aged 35, is severely depressed. Because of this he is given electroconvulsive shock therapy. After treatment, he is sent home and does much better. However, his TV-watching behavior is strange. Which is the most likely behavior pattern? a. Malcolm does not remember that he has a TV. b. Malcolm does not remember any episodes of shows going back 25 years. c. Malcolm thinks that last year’s episodes of his favorite series are new. d. Malcolm can no longer understand long sentences if they occur in the dialogue. Answer: c. Malcolm thinks that last year’s episodes of his favorite series are new. Correct. Studies show that ECT can disrupt memory consolidation for memories created as long as three years prior to the therapy. a. Malcolm does not remember that he has a TV. Incorrect. ECT would not interfere with very long-term memories such as the purchase of a TV set more than three years ago. 182. Retrograde amnesia is to anterograde amnesia as ________. a. mild is to severe b. severe is to mild c. remembering old is to learning new d. remembering new is to learning old Answer: c. remembering old is to learning new Correct. Retrograde amnesia deals with not being able to get old information out of storage. d. remembering new is to learning old Incorrect. Anterograde amnesia occurs when new long-term memories cannot be formed. 183. People with dementia typically have a memory problem known as ____________. a. amygdaloid amnesia b. inferograde amnesia c. retrograde amnesia d. anterograde amnesia Answer: d. anterograde amnesia Correct. The type of memory problem that people with dementia, including Alzheimer’s, typically have is called anterograde amnesia. c. retrograde amnesia Incorrect. The type of memory problem that people with dementia, including Alzheimer’s, typically have is called anterograde amnesia. They cannot form new memories. 184. Loss of memory from the point of injury or illness forward is called _________________ a. anterograde amnesia b. retrograde amnesia c. consolidation d. infantile amnesia Answer: a a. anterograde amnesia Correct. Loss of memory from the point of illness or injury forward is called anterograde amnesia. b. retrograde amnesia Incorrect. Loss of memory from the point of illness or injury forward is called anterograde amnesia. 185. Which of these is an example of what has been called infantile amnesia? a. Betty, age 25, can recall only good memories of what happened when she was 4 to 5 years old. b. Johnny, age 10, has no memory of a family vacation that occurred when he was 2 years old. c. When faced with a horrible stressor, some people return to an earlier stage of development, such as infancy, for the comfort that it provides. d. Despite the fact that Alice, age 35, played the piano from ages 3 through 13, she has very little ability to do so now. Answer: b. Johnny, age 10, has no memory of a family vacation that occurred when he was 2 years old. Correct. Infantile amnesia refers to the tendency to not remember things that happened before the age of 3. d. Despite the fact that Alice, age 35, played the piano from ages 3 through 13, she has very little ability to do so now. Incorrect. Infantile amnesia doesn’t refer to skills; rather, it refers to the tendency to not remember things that happened before the age of 3. 186. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for between ____ and _____ percent of all dementia cases in the United States. a. 50-70 b. 60-80 c. 70-90 d. 90-95 Answer: b. 60-80 Correct. Alzheimer's disease accounts for approximately 60-80% of all dementia cases in the United States. This is a widely accepted statistic in the medical community and is supported by various research studies and epidemiological data. d. 90-95 Incorrect. d. This range is significantly higher than the actual prevalence of Alzheimer's disease; it doesn't account for 90-95% of dementia cases in the United States. 187. Which of the following is the proper sequence of symptom development in most cases of Alzheimer’s disease? a. Anterograde amnesia followed by retrograde amnesia b. Retrograde amnesia followed by proactive amnesia c. Retroactive amnesia followed by anterograde amnesia d. Retrograde amnesia followed by anterograde amnesia Answer: a. Anterograde amnesia followed by retrograde amnesia Correct. In most cases of Alzheimer's disease, the proper sequence of symptom development involves anterograde amnesia, which is the inability to form new memories, followed by retrograde amnesia, which is the loss of memories already formed. Incorrect. b. Retrograde amnesia followed by proactive amnesia b. "Proactive amnesia" is not a commonly recognized term in the context of Alzheimer's disease symptomatology. 188. The breakdown of which of the following seems to be responsible for the impaired ability to form new memories? a. Gama-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) in the hypothalamus b. Leptin in the pancreas c. Serotonin in the amygdala d. Acetylcholine in the hippocampus Answer: d. Acetylcholine in the hippocampus Correct. Acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter primarily found in the hippocampus, plays a crucial role in memory formation. Its breakdown or deficiency is strongly linked to the impaired ability to form new memories, as seen in Alzheimer's disease. Incorrect. c. Serotonin in the amygdala c. While serotonin is involved in various brain functions including mood regulation, its breakdown is not directly implicated in the impaired ability to form new memories characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. TRUE OR FALSE 1. Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory, in which an afterimage or icon will be held in neural form for about .50 to 2.00 seconds. Answer: False Rationale: Iconic memory actually holds visual information for a very brief duration, typically less than half a second, rather than the .50 to 2.00 seconds mentioned. It's extremely fleeting and serves as a buffer between the visual input and further processing. 2. Iconic memory allows the eye to fuse the images from each tiny movement of the eye into a smooth, continuous pattern. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is accurate. Iconic memory helps in creating a coherent visual experience by retaining visual impressions for a very short duration, allowing the brain to blend images from successive eye movements into a seamless perception. 3. Iconic memory allows us to remember the beginnings of sentences long enough to have meaningful conversations. Answer: False Rationale: Iconic memory primarily deals with visual sensory information, such as retaining images for brief moments. Remembering the beginnings of sentences for meaningful conversations involves more complex cognitive processes related to working memory or short-term memory rather than iconic memory. 4. Echoic memory is the auditory form of sensory memory, which takes the form of an echo that lasts for up to 1.5 seconds. Answer: False Rationale: Echoic memory indeed deals with auditory sensory information, but its duration typically extends beyond 1.5 seconds, often up to several seconds. It serves as a short-term buffer for auditory information, allowing for processing and comprehension. 5. Short-term memory is where information is held while it is conscious and being used. Answer: True Rationale: Short-term memory temporarily holds information while it's being actively manipulated or used in cognitive tasks. It's a crucial component of working memory, facilitating tasks like mental arithmetic, comprehension, and decision-making. 6. Short-term memory is where information is held before conscious use of the material and is unlimited in capacity. Answer: False Rationale: Short-term memory does have a limited capacity, contrary to the statement. The classic estimate is about 7 ± 2 items, although this can vary depending on factors like individual differences and the nature of the information being processed. 7. One task useful in testing short-term memory capacity is the digit-span test. Answer: True Rationale: The digit-span test is indeed a common method for assessing short-term memory capacity. It involves the participant repeating back a series of digits in the same order they were presented, which provides a measure of their short-term memory span. 8. Short-term memory can hold about 12 plus or minus 2 bits of information. Answer: False Rationale: The statement misinterprets the classic estimate of short-term memory capacity. The commonly cited figure is around 7 ± 2 items, not 12. This refers to the number of discrete chunks of information that can be held in short-term memory at once. 9. Elaborative rehearsal is defined as the rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory. Answer: False Rationale: Elaborative rehearsal involves encoding information in a meaningful way by connecting it with existing knowledge or mental imagery. It's a deeper level of processing than simple repetition and is more effective for transferring information into long-term memory. 10. Elaborative rehearsal is a way of transferring information from short-term memory into long-term memory by making that information meaningful in some way. Answer: True Rationale: Elaborative rehearsal involves making meaningful associations or connections with new information, which aids in the transfer of that information from short-term memory to long-term memory. This process enhances encoding and retention. 11. Declarative memory can be divided into semantic memory and episodic memory. Answer: True Rationale: Declarative memory, also known as explicit memory, encompasses conscious memories of facts and events. It can indeed be divided into semantic memory, which stores general knowledge and concepts, and episodic memory, which stores personal experiences and events. 12. Declarative memory can be divided into short-term memory and working memory. Answer: False Rationale: Short-term memory and working memory are components of immediate memory, which is a subset of declarative memory. Declarative memory, however, refers specifically to the long-term storage and retrieval of facts and events. 13. Episodic memory consists of personal facts and memories of one’s personal history. Answer: True Rationale: Episodic memory involves the recollection of specific events or experiences from one's personal past, including details of time, place, emotions, and associated contextual information. 14. Recall is a type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” out of memory with few or no cues. Answer: True Rationale: Recall involves retrieving information from memory without the aid of external cues or prompts. It requires the individual to generate the information independently based on their internal memory representations. 15. Recognition is the ability to match information with stored images or facts. Answer: True Rationale: Recognition involves identifying or acknowledging previously encountered information when it is presented again. It's akin to matching incoming stimuli with stored memory representations, whether they are images, facts, or other forms of information. 16. Recognition is typically harder than recall. Answer: False Rationale: Generally, recognition is considered easier than recall. In recognition tasks, individuals are presented with cues or options, making it easier to identify the correct information from a set of alternatives. Recall, on the other hand, requires retrieving information without such cues, which can be more challenging. 17. Loftus has found that eyewitness memory is extremely reliable and doesn’t change over time. Answer: False Rationale: Research by Loftus and others has consistently demonstrated the fallibility of eyewitness memory. Eyewitnesses are susceptible to memory distortions, suggestibility, and the incorporation of misinformation over time, leading to inaccuracies in their recollections of events. 18. Constructive processing is the process of altering memories of the past so that they are more positive. Answer: False Rationale: Constructive processing involves the reconstruction of memories based on existing knowledge, expectations, and schemas. It doesn't necessarily aim to make memories more positive; rather, it reflects the brain's tendency to fill in gaps and integrate new information with existing knowledge, which can sometimes lead to distortions or inaccuracies. 19. Loftus and others have found that people constantly update and revise their memories of events, adding information to a memory that occurred later even when that information is in error. Answer: True Rationale: Loftus and other researchers have shown through various studies on memory reconstruction and suggestibility that individuals often incorporate new and sometimes erroneous information into their memories over time. This can lead to the alteration or distortion of the original memory. 20. Hindsight bias is the process of altering memories of the past so that they are more in line with accurate information that is learned later—the Monday morning quarterback effect. Answer: True Rationale: Hindsight bias refers to the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable or obvious than they actually were at the time of occurrence, especially after learning the outcome. It involves reconstructing past events to fit current knowledge or beliefs, akin to the "Monday morning quarterback" effect where decisions seem clearer in hindsight. 21. The misinformation effect refers to the tendency of people who are asked misleading questions or given misleading information to incorporate that information into their memories for a particular event. Answer: True Rationale: The misinformation effect is a well-documented phenomenon in memory research. It demonstrates how external misinformation can distort individuals' recollection of events, leading them to incorporate false details into their memories, especially after exposure to misleading information. 22. The constructive processing effect refers to the tendency of people who are asked misleading questions or given misleading information to incorporate that information into their memories for a particular event. Answer: False Rationale: The term "constructive processing" refers to the broader process of memory reconstruction, where individuals actively build or reconstruct memories based on various factors such as existing knowledge, expectations, and context. It's not specifically about the incorporation of misleading information, as described in the misinformation effect. 23. Hypnosis enhances the confidence people have in their memories, regardless of their accuracy or inaccuracy. Answer: True Rationale: Research has shown that hypnosis can increase individuals' confidence in their memories, even when those memories are inaccurate or distorted. This phenomenon can potentially lead to greater confidence in false memories or suggestions implanted during hypnosis sessions. 24. Memories retrieved while under hypnosis are no more accurate than memories retrieved while not under hypnosis, but persons who retrieve memories under hypnosis are far more reluctant to change their answers even when told that they may be wrong. Answer: True Rationale: Studies have found that memories retrieved under hypnosis are not necessarily more accurate than memories retrieved without hypnosis. However, individuals who retrieve memories under hypnosis often exhibit heightened confidence in those memories and may be less willing to alter their recollections, even when presented with contradictory information. 25. Memories retrieved while under hypnosis are more accurate than memories retrieved while not under hypnosis, but persons who retrieve memories under hypnosis are far less reluctant to change their answers even when told that they may be wrong. Answer: False Rationale: While hypnosis can sometimes enhance confidence in memories, there isn't strong evidence to suggest that memories retrieved under hypnosis are inherently more accurate than those retrieved without hypnosis. Additionally, individuals' reluctance to change their answers under hypnosis may be influenced more by the heightened confidence associated with the hypnotic state rather than the accuracy of the memories. 26. Hypnotized people report more accurate AND inaccurate information than people who are not hypnotized. Answer: True Rationale: Research suggests that hypnosis can lead to both increased recall of accurate information and increased susceptibility to false memories or suggestions. Hypnotized individuals may indeed report a mix of accurate and inaccurate information, depending on various factors such as suggestion, context, and individual susceptibility. 27. Pezdek and colleagues have found that false memories are more likely to be formed for plausible false events than for implausible ones. Answer: True Rationale: Studies by Pezdek and others have demonstrated that individuals are more likely to form false memories for events that are plausible or consistent with their existing knowledge and expectations. Plausible false events can be more easily incorporated into one's memory schema, making them more susceptible to memory distortion. 28. Pezdek and colleagues have found that false memories are more likely to be formed for implausible false events than for plausible ones. Answer: False Rationale: Research findings, including those by Pezdek and colleagues, generally support the opposite conclusion. False memories are more likely to occur for events that are plausible rather than implausible. Implausible events may be more easily recognized as false and therefore less likely to be incorporated into one's memory. 29. A mnemonist is a person with exceptional memory ability. Answer: True Rationale: A mnemonist is indeed an individual who possesses extraordinary memory capabilities, often demonstrating remarkable feats of memorization and recall. These individuals may employ various mnemonic strategies or have innate memory talents that set them apart from the general population. 30. Luria’s mnemonist suffered from the problem of not being able to forget trivial things. Answer: True Rationale: Alexander Luria's case study of the mnemonist S. detailed a person with an exceptional memory capacity but struggled with an inability to forget trivial details. This condition, known as hypermnesia, is characterized by an unusually strong and persistent memory retention, which can lead to difficulties in filtering out irrelevant information. 31. Encoding failure is often the reason some memories cannot be retrieved, because they were never actually encoded in the first place. Answer: True Rationale: Encoding failure occurs when information is not adequately processed or encoded into memory, leading to difficulties in retrieval. Memories that were never encoded effectively are essentially nonexistent in the memory system and thus cannot be retrieved. 32. Memory trace decay theory assumes the presence of a physical memory trace that decays with disuse over time. Answer: True Rationale: Memory trace decay theory posits that memories leave a physical or chemical trace in the brain, and these traces decay over time if the memory is not reinforced or accessed. This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the weakening or deterioration of these memory traces. 33. Memory trace decay theory can explain forgetting from sensory memory and short-term memory but does not adequately explain forgetting from long-term memory. Answer: True Rationale: Memory trace decay theory is more applicable to explaining forgetting from sensory memory and short-term memory, where memories are more transient and subject to rapid decay if not rehearsed. However, it does not fully account for forgetting from long-term memory, where forgetting is often attributed to other factors such as interference or retrieval failure. 34. When newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information, this is called proactive interference. Answer: False Rationale: When newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information, it is referred to as retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the encoding or retrieval of new information. 35. When old information interferes with the retrieval of newer information, this is called retroactive interference. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is true. Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information disrupts the retrieval of previously stored information. It's the opposite of proactive interference, which involves older information interfering with the recall of newer information. 36. Evidence suggests that procedural memories are stored in the cerebellum, whereas short-term memories are stored in the prefrontal and temporal lobes of the cortex. Answer: True Rationale: Research indicates that procedural memories, which involve skills and habits, are primarily stored in the cerebellum. Short-term memories, on the other hand, involve transient processing and are associated with activity in the prefrontal and temporal lobes of the cortex. 37. Evidence suggests that procedural memories are stored in the hippocampus, whereas short-term memories are stored in the occipital and temporal lobes of the cortex. Answer: False Rationale: Procedural memories are indeed associated with structures such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum, not the hippocampus. Short-term memories involve activity in regions of the prefrontal cortex, not the occipital lobe, which is primarily associated with visual processing. 38. Semantic and episodic memories may be stored in the frontal and temporal lobes as well but in different locations than short-term memory. Answer: True Rationale: Semantic and episodic memories, which are types of declarative memories, are thought to involve the frontal and temporal lobes, with different regions implicated in their storage and retrieval. Short-term memory processing is also associated with these lobes but involves different neural circuits. 39. Memory for fear of objects is most likely stored in the cerebellum. Answer: False Rationale: Fear memories, particularly those associated with emotional experiences, are primarily processed and stored in brain structures like the amygdala, not the cerebellum. The cerebellum is more involved in procedural learning and motor functions. 40. The hippocampus appears to be responsible for the storage of new long-term memories. If it is removed, the ability to store anything new is completely lost. Answer: True Rationale: The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation and consolidation of new declarative memories, particularly episodic and semantic memories. If the hippocampus is damaged or removed, the ability to encode new memories is severely impaired, while older memories remain largely intact. 41. ECT, or electroconvulsive shock therapy, can disrupt consolidation and cause retrograde amnesia. Answer: True Rationale: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) can indeed disrupt the consolidation of memories, leading to retrograde amnesia, where memories of events before the treatment are affected. This side effect is often temporary and typically involves memories around the time of treatment rather than memories from distant past events. 42. In anterograde amnesia, memory for anything new becomes impossible, although old memories may still be retrievable. Answer: True Rationale: Anterograde amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories following the onset of amnesia, while older memories remain intact. This means that individuals with anterograde amnesia cannot encode new information into their long-term memory, but they can recall memories from before the onset of amnesia. 43. In anterograde amnesia, memory for anything new becomes impossible, although infantile memories may still be retrievable. Answer: False Rationale: Anterograde amnesia affects the ability to form new memories, regardless of their temporal origin. It does not selectively spare memories from early childhood or infancy. Individuals with anterograde amnesia have difficulty encoding and retaining new information, regardless of when the memories were formed. 44. Infant memories are mostly implicit and, therefore, difficult to bring into conscious awareness. When children become more verbal, their explicit memories become more dominant. Answer: True Rationale: Infant memories are typically implicit and procedural rather than explicit, making them less accessible to conscious awareness. As children develop verbal and cognitive abilities, their explicit memory system matures, allowing them to encode and recall memories in a more detailed and conscious manner. 45. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia found in adults and the elderly. Answer: True Rationale: Alzheimer's disease is indeed the most common form of dementia, particularly in older adults. It accounts for a significant majority of dementia cases and is characterized by progressive cognitive decline, memory loss, and other neurological symptoms. 46. Researchers have identified the cause of Alzheimer’s disease as a decrease in the tangles of gamma-amyloid protein deposits in the brain Answer: False Rationale: The exact cause of Alzheimer's disease is not fully understood, but it involves complex interactions among genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. While the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles in the brain is associated with Alzheimer's pathology, it is not solely responsible for the disease. SHORT ANSWER 1. What is the definition of memory? Answer: Memory refers to the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. It involves the retention and recall of past experiences, knowledge, skills, or perceptions. 2. Name the three parts of the information-processing model of memory. Answer: The three parts of the information-processing model of memory are: • Sensory memory • Short-term memory • Long-term memory 3. What type of memory stores brief visual images and for how long are these images stored? Answer: Brief visual images are stored in sensory memory. Specifically, iconic memory is responsible for retaining these visual impressions for a very short duration, typically less than half a second. 4. Which part(s) of a serial list is/are remembered most poorly? Which part(s) is/are remembered the best? Answer: Typically, the middle part of a serial list is remembered most poorly. This phenomenon is known as the serial position effect. The beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list are remembered the best. 5. What is a false memory? Answer: A false memory is a recollection of an event that did not actually occur or a distortion of an actual event. It can involve remembering details inaccurately or even remembering entire events that never happened. False memories can be unintentionally created through suggestion, leading questions, or other influences on memory retrieval. 6. Define the memory trace decay theory of forgetting. Answer: The memory trace decay theory posits that forgetting occurs because the physical or chemical memory trace, formed during the encoding of memories, gradually decays or fades away over time due to disuse or lack of reinforcement. According to this theory, memories that are not accessed or rehearsed regularly are more susceptible to decay and eventual forgetting. 7. Give a short example of retroactive interference. Answer: Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information disrupts the retrieval of previously stored information. For example, if someone learns a new phone number and then struggles to remember their old phone number, the interference from the newly learned information is causing retroactive interference. 8. What part of H.M.’s brain was damaged and what memory problem did this cause him? Answer: H.M. had bilateral removal of the medial temporal lobes, including structures such as the hippocampus, as a treatment for epilepsy. This caused him to develop severe anterograde amnesia, meaning he was unable to form new long-term memories after the surgery. He also had some retrograde amnesia, affecting memories from before the surgery, but his short-term memory and some long-term memories from before the surgery remained intact. 9. Define infantile amnesia. Answer: Infantile amnesia refers to the phenomenon where adults have few or no memories of events that occurred during early childhood, typically before the age of three or four. Despite the ability to form memories later in life, most people cannot recall events from infancy and early childhood. This is believed to be due to the immaturity of cognitive processes and brain structures during early development. 10. Describe two hypothesized causes of the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: Two hypothesized causes of Alzheimer's disease include: • Amyloid hypothesis: This theory suggests that the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques in the brain disrupts neuronal function and leads to the development of Alzheimer's symptoms. These plaques are believed to interfere with communication between neurons and contribute to their degeneration. • Tau hypothesis: Another theory proposes that the abnormal aggregation of tau protein, forming neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons, plays a central role in Alzheimer's disease. These tangles disrupt the neuronal structure and function, impairing cell communication and ultimately leading to cell death. ESSAY 1. The information-processing of memory is one of the best-known models in all of psychology. Describe the three stages of memory and their characteristics. Explain how the three-stage model of memory might explain the famous serial position effect. Answer: The three stages of memory according to the information-processing model are: 1. Sensory Memory: Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory where sensory information from the environment is briefly registered and stored. It has a large capacity but a very brief duration, lasting only a fraction of a second. Information in sensory memory is retained in its sensory form, such as visual images (iconic memory) or auditory sounds (echoic memory). 2. Short-term Memory: Short-term memory is the second stage of memory where sensory information that is attended to enters conscious awareness. It has a limited capacity, estimated to hold around 7 ± 2 items, and a relatively short duration, lasting about 20-30 seconds without rehearsal. Short-term memory is responsible for temporary storage and manipulation of information needed for ongoing cognitive tasks. 3. Long-term Memory: Long-term memory is the third and final stage of memory where information that has been encoded from short-term memory is transferred and stored for long-term retention. It has a potentially unlimited capacity and can store information for extended periods, from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory is believed to involve structural and biochemical changes in the brain. The serial position effect can be explained by the three-stage model of memory as follows: • The primacy effect, where items at the beginning of a list are remembered well, is attributed to the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Because the first few items have more time for rehearsal and encoding, they are more likely to be consolidated into long-term memory. • The recency effect, where items at the end of a list are remembered well, is attributed to the retention of items in short-term memory. Since these items were presented most recently, they are still actively held in short-term memory and are readily available for recall. 2. What is iconic memory? Describe what it is and how it works. Be sure to include a description of Sperling’s experiment, which was used to demonstrate and investigate iconic memory. Answer: Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual information from the environment in the form of sensory impressions or images. It allows individuals to retain a detailed representation of visual stimuli for a fraction of a second, even after the stimulus has been removed from view. Sperling's experiment demonstrated the existence and characteristics of iconic memory. In the experiment, participants were briefly presented with a matrix of letters (usually 3 rows of 4 letters each) for a very short duration (about 50 milliseconds). After the presentation, participants were asked to recall as many letters as possible from the matrix. In the full report condition, participants were required to recall all the letters they saw, while in the partial report condition, participants were cued to recall only a specific row of letters indicated by a tone presented after the stimulus display. Sperling found that participants could recall a significantly higher proportion of the letters when cued with the tone immediately following the presentation, indicating that the information was briefly stored in iconic memory. However, recall accuracy decreased rapidly as the delay between stimulus presentation and cue increased, suggesting the transient nature of iconic memory. This experiment provided evidence for the existence of iconic memory and its brief duration, supporting the notion of a sensory memory store for visual information. 3. Let’s say you are a defense attorney and are defending a client on a murder charge. The victim was found in a dark alley. A witness had a glimpse of a shadowy figure standing over the body. The police thoroughly interrogate the witness and arrest a young man. The man has an alibi. There is no other evidence against him, except that of the witness. The witness is positive. What factors may lead you to doubt this strong testimony of the witness? Pretend you are the defense attorney and, with your knowledge of the problems with eyewitness testimony and memory, tell the jury why they should be doubtful of the witness. Answer: Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, I urge you to consider the fallibility of eyewitness testimony in this case. While the witness may seem confident in their identification of my client, there are several factors that should cast doubt on the reliability of their testimony. Firstly, we must acknowledge the conditions under which the witness claims to have seen the perpetrator. The incident occurred in a dark alley, and the witness only caught a glimpse of a shadowy figure. In such low-light conditions and with limited visibility, it is reasonable to question the accuracy of the witness's perception and recollection. Secondly, the process of police interrogation can significantly impact the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Research has shown that suggestive questioning techniques employed by law enforcement can inadvertently influence witnesses' memories, leading to the formation of false memories or the reinforcement of inaccurate details. Furthermore, the witness's certainty in their identification does not necessarily correlate with the accuracy of their memory. Studies have demonstrated that confidence in one's recollection does not always correspond to the reliability of that memory. The witness's confidence may be inflated due to external factors such as the pressure to provide a definitive identification or the desire to assist in solving the crime. In light of these considerations, I urge you to approach the witness's testimony with skepticism and recognize the inherent limitations of eyewitness memory, especially under challenging circumstances. The stakes are high in this case, and we must ensure that justice is served based on credible evidence, not merely on the conviction of one individual based on potentially flawed eyewitness testimony. 4. What is meant by a flashbulb memory? Describe its characteristics. Give an example that is well known. Some psychologists are not impressed by these well-known examples of this phenomenon. What are some of the criticisms of the idea of flashbulb memory? Answer: Flashbulb memory refers to a vivid and detailed recollection of a significant and emotionally charged event. These memories are often experienced with a sense of clarity and confidence, as if a mental photograph has been taken at the moment of the event. Characteristics of flashbulb memories include strong emotional arousal at the time of encoding, the perception of the event's importance, and the belief in the accuracy and vividness of the memory over time. An example of a well-known flashbulb memory is the recollection of individuals regarding the events of September 11, 2001, commonly referred to as 9/11. Many people can vividly remember where they were, what they were doing, and how they felt when they heard about the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. However, some psychologists are skeptical of the idea of flashbulb memory and argue that these memories may not be as accurate or reliable as they initially appear. Critics point out several limitations and criticisms of flashbulb memory, including: 1. Inconsistencies in recall: Despite the strong emotional impact of flashbulb events, individuals may still exhibit inconsistencies and inaccuracies in their recollections over time. Details may become distorted or embellished, and memories may be influenced by subsequent information or societal narratives about the event. 2. Reconstruction of memory: Like other types of memory, flashbulb memories are subject to the reconstructive nature of memory processes. Memories can be influenced by individual biases, beliefs, and experiences, leading to the formation of false or distorted memories over time. 3. Source monitoring errors: Individuals may have difficulty distinguishing between actual experiences and information acquired after the event. This can lead to the incorporation of false details into flashbulb memories, especially if individuals are exposed to misleading or inaccurate information about the event. 4. Lack of consistent evidence: Empirical research on flashbulb memory has yielded mixed findings, with some studies supporting the phenomenon while others question its reliability and uniqueness. The variability in findings suggests that flashbulb memories may not be as consistent or universally experienced as initially believed. 5. The other day, you had to remember some items for an important exam. You are sure you studied them and knew them before you entered the classroom. However, you drew a blank when you took the test. What happened? Why might you not have remembered them? What might you have done to avoid this? Answer: What happened? You experienced what is commonly known as a retrieval failure or tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Despite having encoded the information during studying, you were unable to retrieve it from your memory when needed during the exam. Why might you not have remembered them? There are several reasons why retrieval failure might occur: • Interference: Other information or thoughts may have interfered with the retrieval process, making it difficult to access the target information. • Stress or anxiety: High levels of stress or anxiety during the exam can impair memory retrieval by disrupting cognitive processes. • Ineffective encoding: Despite studying the material, if the information was not encoded effectively or deeply enough, it may be more difficult to retrieve during testing. • Context-dependent memory: The context of the exam environment may have been different from the study environment, leading to context-dependent memory effects where retrieval is more challenging in a different context. What might you have done to avoid this? To avoid experiencing retrieval failure in the future, consider implementing the following strategies: • Practice retrieval: Actively practice retrieving information from memory through techniques such as self-testing, flashcards, or recitation. This strengthens memory retrieval pathways and enhances recall ability. • Use mnemonic devices: Mnemonic strategies can aid encoding and retrieval by providing cues or associations to facilitate memory recall. • Minimize interference: Create a distraction-free study environment to minimize interference from external stimuli and maximize focus on the material being studied. • Manage stress: Implement stress-reduction techniques such as deep breathing, mindfulness, or relaxation exercises to mitigate the negative effects of stress on memory retrieval. • Enhance encoding: Employ effective study techniques such as elaborative rehearsal, chunking, and visualization to enhance encoding and improve the likelihood of successful retrieval during exams. Chapter 6 - Quick Quiz 1 1. _____________ is retention of memory for some period of time. a) Encoding b) Storage c) Retrieval d) Evaluation Answer: b Explanation: Storage puts away material. 2. Which of the following might be the most appropriate analogy for eidetic imagery? a) a table b) a modem c) a rainbow d) a photograph Answer: d Explanation: Yes, it’s like a picture and is sometimes called photographic memory. 3. Repeating items over and over in order to aid memory is known as ______ rehearsal. a) repetitive b) imagery c) elaborative d) maintenance Answer: d Explanation: Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating bits of information to aid memory. It is not the best strategy for getting information into long-term memory. 4. The Internet, with its series of links from one site to many others, is a good analogy for the organization of ______________. a) short-term memory b) episodic memory c) long-term memory d) procedural memory Answer: c Explanation: Long-term memory is organized with links that branch out to other links in a manner similar to the organization of the Internet. 5. The best place to take your biology exam to ensure good retrieval of biology concepts is in _____________. a) the biology classroom b) an auditorium to prevent cheating c) the English classroom d) the special testing room used for all exams Answer: a Explanation: If you could take the test where you studied, that would be the best. 6. A witness on the stand swears that he saw someone commit a crime. Must you believe that the testimony is valid when a witness testifies so forcefully? a) Yes, because seeing is believing. b) No, because eyewitnesses are not usually honest. c) Yes, because eyewitnesses are very confident about their testimony. d) No, because there is a great possibility of a “false positive” identification. Answer: d Explanation: A great number of “false positive” identifications have been made. Witnesses sometimes construct memories after the fact and convince themselves of their validity. 7. For which famous memory researcher is memory a problem-solving activity in which the problem is to give a coherent account of some past event, and the memory is the solution to that problem? a) Bartlett b) Meyer c) Ebbinghaus d) Skinner Answer: a Explanation: The researcher in question is Bartlett. 8. According to Elizabeth Bowman, ____________. a) Hypnosis makes production of false memories easier b) Hypnosis increases confidence in memories, even fake ones c) Therapists have produced false memories through hypnosis d) All of these statements are true. Answer: d Explanation: All of these statements are true. Despite TV portrayals and the opinions of nonscientific psychologists, hypnosis is not that reputable. 9. Short-term memories appear to be localized in the _________________. a) occipital lobe b) cingulate gyrus c) amygdala d) prefrontal lobes Answer: d Explanation: Short-term memories appear to be stored in the prefrontal lobes. 10. People with dementia typically have a memory problem known as ____________. a) amygdaloid amnesia b) inferograde amnesia c) retrograde amnesia d) anterograde amnesia Answer: d Explanation: The type of memory problem that people with dementia, including Alzheimer’s, typically have is called anterograde amnesia. Chapter 6 - Quick Quiz 2 1. ____________ is defined as an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. a) Classical conditioning b) Operant conditioning c) Learning d) Memory Answer: d Explanation: Memory is defined as an active system that receives, stores, and retrieves information. 2. A display of 12 letters is flashed on a screen in front of you followed by a tone. You attempt to recall a portion of the display based on the specific tone you heard. What aspect of your memory is this experiment designed to assess? a) primary memory b) sensory memory c) long-term memory d) short-term memory Answer: b Explanation: This was one of the first sensory memory experiments ever done. 3. Laboratory studies using the recall of letters and numbers indicate that short-term memory is probably coded __________. a) verbally b) visually c) semantically d) physically Answer: a Explanation: Short-term memory is verbally coded. 4. _____________ memory is constantly updated. a) Procedural b) Declarative c) Semantic d) Episodic Answer: d Explanation: Episodic memory is revised and updated more or less constantly to keep track of day-to-day life. 5. The Internet, with its series of links from one site to many others, is a good analogy for the organization of ______________. a) short-term memory b) episodic memory c) long-term memory d) procedural memory Answer: c Explanation: Long-term memory is organized with links that branch out to other links in a manner similar to the organization of the Internet. 6. The fact that it is easier to recall items at the beginning and end of a list of unrelated items is known as the ______. a) phi phenomenon b) implicit memory effect c) serial position effect d) sequestering effect Answer: c Explanation: The finding is known as the serial position effect, as it refers to the ability to better remember things at the beginning and end of a list. 7. Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called ______. a) eidetic images b) elaborative rehearsals c) flashbulb memories d) eyewitness images Answer: c Explanation: Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called flashbulb memories. 8. It’s Thanksgiving and the whole family has gotten together. You start to reminisce about your childhood and get into an argument with your brother. Both of you claim that you were the innocent victim of the other. This is an example of __________. a) constructive processing b) hindsight bias c) adaptation of memory traces d) flashbulb integration Answer: a Explanation: You are constructing a memory to favor yourself. 9. Which technique is widely used by therapists to help clients recover lost childhood memories? a) hypnosis b) “truth” serum c) Gestalt therapy d) electroconvulsive therapy Answer: a Explanation: Hypnosis is widely used by therapists to help clients recover lost childhood memories. Remember that hypnosis is not well respected by scientifically trained therapists. 10. In the curve of forgetting developed by Ebbinghaus, the greatest amount of forgetting occurs _____________. a) within the first hour after learning new material b) within the first day after learning new material c) near the end of the retrieval period d) near the middle of the retrieval period Answer: a Explanation: The greatest amount of forgetting occurs within the first hour after learning new material. Test Bank for Psychology: Dsm 5 Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White 9780205986378
