CH-5 Learning – Psychology: Dsm 5 : Exam Guide

5. Learning 1. __________ is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice. a. Learning b. Adaptation c. Memory enhancement d. Muscle memory Answer: a. Learning Correct. Experience or practice that leads to a long-term behavior change is referred to as learning. b. Adaptation Incorrect. Adaptation is a sensory effect that describes a perceptual change to a given stimulus level. Perceptual changes are not behavioral changes and, thus, are not considered to be learning. 2. Changes controlled by a genetic blueprint, such as an increase in height or the size of the brain, are examples of ___________________. a. maturation b. learning c. habituation d. growth cycles Answer: a. maturation Correct. Alterations due to a genetic blueprint would be examples of maturation. d. growth cycles Incorrect. Growth cycles is not a term used in our text. 3. Learning is said to be a relatively permanent change in behavior because ________. a. it is thought that learning changes the nerve fiber patterns in your muscles b. once you learn something, you will never fail to remember it or carry out the correct action c. it is thought that when learning occurs some part of the brain physically changes d. memory processes, unlike learning processes, are not permanent Answer: c. it is thought that when learning occurs some part of the brain physically changes Correct. These changes in the brain make a temporary record of what was learned. b. once you learn something, you will never fail to remember it or carry out the correct action Incorrect. Unfortunately, learning something does not mean that you won’t fail to remember it. 4. Which of the following statements about learning is NOT true? a. Learning is another word for “maturation.” b. Learning is relatively permanent. c. Learning involves changes in behavior. d. Learning involves experiences. Answer: a. Learning is another word for “maturation.” Correct. Unlike learning, maturation is a biologically and genetically based process and not an experiential one. d. Learning involves experiences. Incorrect. Learning does involve experience, and the statement is true. The question asks which statement is NOT true. 5. As an infant, Stephanie received many penicillin injections from the doctor. When she later saw a photographer in a white coat that was similar to the doctor’s coat, she started to cry. This is an example of _______________. a. instrumental learning b. observational learning c. classical conditioning d. habituation Answer: c. classical conditioning Correct. Stephanie’s experience is an example of classical conditioning. b. observational learning Incorrect. Observational learning involves watching others in a learning experience; in this example, Stephanie experienced these events herself. 6. One might expect that classical conditioning was discovered by a psychologist. However, it was discovered by a ____________. a. physician who was studying the age at which children start to walk b. physiologist who was studying memory processes in monkeys c. physiologist who was studying digestion d. dog trainer who was trying to come up with the best way to reward animals for their performances in his shows Answer: c. physiologist who was studying digestion Correct. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning and he was a physiologist. d. dog trainer who was trying to come up with the best way to reward animals for their performances in his shows Incorrect. Ivan Pavlov, a well-known Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning. Although some dog trainers may have had a reasonably pragmatic set of training principles, they didn’t scientifically study them or publish their findings. 7. The researcher responsible for discovering classical conditioning was _____________. a. Skinner b. Tolman c. Kohler d. Pavlov Answer: d. Pavlov Correct. The researcher responsible for discovering classical conditioning was Pavlov. a. Skinner Incorrect. Skinner was a well-known contributor to the study of learning but his work centered on operant or instrumental conditioning. 8. Which of the following statements regarding Pavlov is accurate? a. Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion. b. Pavlov was elated when his student first noticed that the dogs were salivating before tasting the food. c. Pavlov continued his Nobel Prize–winning research on digestion after documenting conditioning. d. Pavlov stressed the importance of speculating about the dog’s feelings toward the food. Answer: a. Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion. Correct. Pavlov was studying digestion, and salivation is one of the initial processes in digestion. d. Pavlov stressed the importance of speculating about the dog’s feelings toward the food. Incorrect. Pavlov was not concerned with feelings or any other internal mental states in his initial experiments. He was studying the physiology of digestion. 9. Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. In terms of Pavlov’s analysis of learning, salivation would be referred to as ________. a. an unconditioned response b. a voluntary response c. a conditioned response d. a digestive reflux Answer: a. an unconditioned response Correct. The unconditioned response is a naturally occurring process when the animal is stimulated. Salivation is such a process in response to food. d. a digestive reflux Incorrect. Although salivation is part of digestion, the best answer is the unconditioned response because it is more specific and part of Pavlov’s conceptualization. 10. Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than to the original, natural stimulus is called ________________. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. memory linkage d. adaptation Answer: a. classical conditioning Correct. A classically conditioned response occurs when the subject learns to make a reflexive response to a new stimulus. b. operant conditioning Incorrect. Operant conditioning deals with voluntary behavior and not reflexive responses that occur automatically. Classical conditioning entails learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original. 11. Which of the following events most intrigued Pavlov and led to his discoveries? a. The dogs seemed to enjoy the food. b. The assistant salivated along with the dogs when the dogs started to eat. c. The dogs stopped salivating after seeing the assistant so many times. d. The dogs started to salivate when they saw Pavlov’s assistant and before they got the food. Answer: d. The dogs started to salivate when they saw Pavlov’s assistant and before they got the food. Correct. Pavlov was fascinated with why the dogs learned this connection between the assistant and the food. b. The assistant salivated along with the dogs when the dogs started to eat. Incorrect. Pavlov was not studying his assistant’s reactions; he was interested in the salivation of the dogs. 12. Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of dogs, and they began to salivate. The food acted as a (an) ____________. a. unconditioned response b. unconditioned stimulus c. conditioned response d. conditioned stimulus Answer: b. unconditioned stimulus Correct. The food acted as an unconditioned stimulus that automatically evoked the conditioned response. Food automatically causes one to salivate. d. conditioned stimulus Incorrect. The food acted as an unconditioned stimulus that automatically evoked salivation. The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral and food is not a neutral stimulus. 13. The abbreviation UCS stands for ____________. a. unconditional statement b. uniform conditioned subject c. unconditional sensation d. unconditioned stimulus Answer: d. unconditioned stimulus Correct. UCS stands for unconditioned stimulus. a. unconditional statement Incorrect. Unconditional statement is not a term associated with learning theory. 14. In the context of classical conditioning, which of following components “elicits” a response? a. UCR b. UCS c. CER d. CSR Answer: b. UCS Correct. The unconditioned stimulus is one of three types of stimulating classical conditioning that can produce a response. The other two are a conditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. c. CER Incorrect. CER refers to a conditioned emotional response, which is not a form of a stimulus. 15. In a conditioning experiment, a sound is paired with a brief puff of air to the eye of the rabbit. After several pairings, the rabbit ultimately blinks its eye when it hears the sound. Which of the following is true? a. The blinking of the eye serves as stimulus. b. The puff of air serves as the unconditioned stimulus. c. The puff of air serves as the conditioned stimulus. d. The blinking of the eye serves as the conditioned stimulus. Answer: b. The puff of air serves as the unconditioned stimulus. Correct. The puff of air elicits a reflexive response without learning taking place, so it is an unconditioned stimulus. d. The blinking of the eye serves as the conditioned stimulus. Incorrect. the blinking of the eye is a response, not a stimulus. 16. The abbreviation UCR stands for _____________. a. unconditional reinforcement b. uniform conditioned rule c. unconditional retention d. unconditioned response Answer: d. unconditioned response Correct. UCR stands for unconditioned response. a. unconditional reinforcement Incorrect. UCR stands for unconditioned response, which is a part of the classical conditioning paradigm. The abbreviation is not used for a reinforcement term. 17. Every time Maricella goes to work in the morning, she notices that her dog sulks in the corner of the room and looks very sad. Over several weeks, she notices that the dog gets unhappy when she picks up her car keys, immediately before leaving the house. Which phenomenon of learning best describes the dog’s behavior? a. classical conditioning b. innate learning c. punishment by removal d. instinctive drift Answer: a. classical conditioning Correct. The dog has come to associate the sound of the keys with the departure of Maricella, and his sadness has become a conditioned response. c. punishment by removal Incorrect. While the dog may experience the departure of Maricella as a punishment, this does not explain his association with the sound of her car keys. 18. Alan always turns the aquarium light on before putting fish food into the tank. After a while he notices that the fish swim to the top to look for the food as soon as he turns on the light. In this example, the ________________ is the unconditioned stimulus. a. presence of Alan near the aquarium b. fish swimming to the top c. aquarium light d. fish food Answer: d. fish food Correct. The fish food is the unconditioned stimulus because by definition food is an unconditioned stimulus. a. presence of Alan near the aquarium Incorrect. Alan’s presence is not what brings about a response, either conditioned or unconditioned, in this example. 19. When Pavlov placed meat powder or other food in the mouths of canine subjects, they began to salivate. The salivation was a(n) ____________. a. unconditioned response b. unconditioned stimulus c. conditioned response d. conditioned stimulus Answer: a. unconditioned response Correct. The salivation was reflexive to the presentation of food and, thus, was an unconditioned response. c. conditioned response Incorrect. Because salivation was initially reflexive for food and not to another stimulus, such as a sound, salivation would be considered an unconditioned response. 20. Sue noticed that whenever she opened the door to the pantry, her dog would come into the kitchen and act hungry, by drooling and whining. She thought that because the dog food was stored in the pantry, the sound of the door had become a(n) ______. a. unconditioned stimulus b. conditioned stimulus c. unconditioned response d. conditioned response Answer: b. conditioned stimulus Correct. A conditioned stimulus is one that has been a signal for the UCS. In this case the door sound signals food. d. conditioned response Incorrect. The sound cannot be a response because the sound was a stimulus presented to the dog. 21. Imagine that you flinch after seeing lightning because in previous instances the lightning is followed by thunder, which scared you. In this scenario, lightning can be interpreted as being a(n): a. unconditioned stimulus. b. unconditioned response. c. conditioned stimulus. d. conditioned response. Answer: c. conditioned stimulus. Correct. the conditioned, or learned stimulus, is lightning because it only elicited a response after learning took place. a. unconditioned stimulus. Incorrect. in this example, the thunder is the unconditioned stimulus because it elicits a response before learning occurs. 22. Imagine that you try to condition someone so that a particular sound elicits a literal “knee jerk response.” Which of the following is accurate? a. The initial strike to the knee is the CS. b. The initial knee jerk response is the CR. c. The sound is the CS. d. The anticipation of being struck in the knee is the CSR. Answer: c. The sound is the CS. Correct. If you learned to respond to the sound with a previously reflexive response, the sound becomes a conditioned stimulus. b. The initial knee jerk response is the CR. Incorrect. Because the initial knee jerk took place without learning, it is a US. 23. Harmony notices that her cat salivates as soon as her cat hears the sound of Harmony opening a can with an electric can opener. In this example, the _______________ is the conditioned stimulus. a. can of cat food b. sound of the electric can opener c. dish that Harmony puts the food in d. cat scurrying into the kitchen Answer: b. sound of the electric can opener Correct. The sound of the can opener is a stimulus that causes a conditioned response in the cat. c. dish that Harmony puts the food in Incorrect. Although the dish might also have become a conditioned stimulus, in this example Harmony noticed that salivation came in response specifically to the sound of the can opener. 24. Miranda notices that her cat salivates as soon as her cat hears the sound of the electric can opener. In this example, the sound of the can opener is the ______________. a. primary stimulus b. positive reinforcer c. conditioned stimulus d. secondary reinforcer Answer: c. conditioned stimulus Correct. In this example, the sound of the electric can opener is the conditioned stimulus because it causes a natural, reflexive response of salivation in the cat. d. secondary reinforcer Incorrect. In this example, the sound of the electric can opener is the conditioned stimulus. You might think the cat enjoys hearing the sound and it takes on reinforcing properties. However, the question focuses on the behavior and, thus, the sound acts as the conditioned stimulus. 25. The abbreviation CS stands for _____________. a. conditioned stimulus b. correlated stimulus c. conventional structure d. conditional situation Answer: a. conditioned stimulus Correct. CS stands for conditioned stimulus, which refers to an event that produces a response after learning has taken place. c. conventional structure Incorrect. Conventional structure is not a term that is used in learning theory. 26. Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of the dogs, and they began to salivate. Pavlov’s student noticed that after a few days the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the student’s footsteps. The salivation to the sound of the footsteps was a _______. a. primary reinforcer b. positive reinforcer c. conditioned response d. secondary reinforcer Answer: c. conditioned response Correct. Since salivation is not a natural reflexive response to footsteps, the situation was one in which salivation became a response to the sound and, thus, is referred to as a conditioned response. d. secondary reinforcer Incorrect. A reinforcer is a stimulus, whereas the salivation is a response—in this case, a conditioned response. 27. The abbreviation CR stands for ______________. a. conditional reinforcement b. contingent reflex c. conditioned response d. contingent reflection Answer: c. conditioned response Correct. CR stands for conditioned response. a. conditional reinforcement Incorrect. CR stands for conditioned response. The abbreviation is specifically defined as conditioned response even though conditioned reinforcement is a term used in learning theory. 28. In Pavlov’s classic experiments, the repeated presentations of the metronome along with the food was called the _______________ step of the classical conditioning process. a. acquisition b. testing c. extinction d. spontaneous recovery Answer: a. acquisition Correct. In the acquisition step there is a repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS, and the organism is in the process of acquiring learning. Repeated presentations of the metronome paired with the food caused the animals to acquire the conditioned response. d. spontaneous recovery Incorrect. Spontaneous recovery occurs when the conditioned response reappears after extinction. 29. You decide that you are going to condition your dog to salivate to the sound of a metronome. You sound the metronome and then several minutes later you give the dog a biscuit. You do this several times but no conditioning seems to occur. This is probably because _________. a. the metronome was not a distinctive sound b. the metronome should have been sounded after the animal ate the biscuit c. you should have had an even longer interval between the metronome and the biscuit d. the biscuit was given too long after the sound of the metronome Answer: d. the biscuit was given too long after the sound of the metronome Correct. Pavlov found that the CS and UCS must be only seconds apart in order to condition salivation. Longer intervals were not successful. b. the metronome should have been sounded after the animal ate the biscuit Incorrect. The CS occurring after the UCS has been found not to yield strong classical conditioning. 30. You decide that you are going to condition your dog to salivate to the sound of a metronome. You give the dog a biscuit, and then a second later you sound the metronome. You do this several times, but no conditioning seems to occur. This is probably because ___________. a. the metronome was not a distinctive sound b. the metronome should have been sounded before the dog ate the biscuit c. you should have had a longer interval between the metronome and the biscuit d. Pavlov found that the CS and UCS must be only seconds apart in order to condition salivation Answer: b. the metronome should have been sounded before the dog ate the biscuit Correct. One of the basic principles of classical conditioning is that the CS must come before the UCS. d. Pavlov found that the CS and UCS must be only seconds apart in order to condition salivation Incorrect. This statement is true but does not explain that the conditioning didn’t work because the CS must precede the UCS. 31. The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus is called _____________. a. stimulus generalization b. stimulus adaptation c. response generalization d. transfer of habit strength Answer: a. stimulus generalization Correct. Responding to a similar stimulus is called stimulus generalization. c. response generalization Incorrect. The subject is generalizing to a stimulus and, thus, the process is called stimulus generalization. 32. The fact that you prefer blondes because your last love interest was a blonde best illustrates ________. a. stimulus generalization b. generalization gradient c. stimulus discrimination d. discrimination gradient Answer: a. stimulus generalization Correct. Stimulus generalization occurs when we respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. c. stimulus discrimination Incorrect. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal recognizes that different stimuli should evoke different responses. 33. After Little Albert acquired a conditioned fear of rats, Watson wanted to see how he would react to a white rabbit, cotton wool, and a Santa Claus mask. He was studying whether or not _____________________ had occurred. a. behavior modification b. stimulus discrimination c. extinction d. stimulus generalization Answer: d. stimulus generalization Correct. Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response spreads to a similar stimulus. In this case, it was from rat to rabbit. a. behavior modification Incorrect. Behavior modification is a clinical technique that uses conditioning. Stimulus generalization was the issue. 34. Which of the following processes occur in both operant conditioning and classical conditioning? a. extinction b. spontaneous recovery c. generalization d. all of these Answer: d. all of these Correct. All of these processes occur in both operant conditioning and classical conditioning. a. extinction Incorrect. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning demonstrate all of these effects. 35. After Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the metronome, he experimented with sounding the metronome and then failing to present the dogs with any food right away. Soon they stopped salivating to the sound of the metronome. This represents the process called ___________________. a. acquisition b. testing c. extinction d. spontaneous recovery Answer: c. extinction Correct. Extinction occurs when the CR no longer predicts the CS and the organism no longer responds to the stimulus. b. testing Incorrect. Testing is not a term used in this paradigm. 36. When the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS (food, in this case), the CR will “die out” in a process called ______________. a. CR fading b. extinction c. habituation d. generalization fading Answer: b. extinction Correct. The CR will fade in a process known as extinction or when a repeated presentation of the CS leads to the fading of the CR. d. generalization fading Incorrect. Generalization fading is not a term used in our conditioning models. 37. You train your dog, Milo, to salivate at the sound of a bell. Then you ring the bell every five minutes and don’t follow the ringing with food for Milo. He salivates less and less and finally stops salivating at all when the bell rings. But the next morning, when you ring the bell, Milo salivates! What term is used to explain the reappearance of this response? a. counterconditioning b. instinctive drift c. spontaneous recovery d. stimulus discrimination Answer: c. spontaneous recovery Correct. Milo’s response spontaneously recovered. a. counterconditioning Incorrect. Counterconditioning would have occurred if the animal was conditioned to some other stimuli, but this was not the case. 38. The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred is called ______. a. counterconditioning b. instinctive drift c. spontaneous recovery d. stimulus discrimination Answer: c. spontaneous recovery Correct. The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction is called spontaneous recovery. a. counterconditioning Incorrect. Counterconditioning occurs when the animal is conditioned to some other stimulus. 39. An animal is conditioned to salivate to a metronome using Pavlovian procedures. After the conditioning is established, the animal is then put through an extinction procedure and the conditioned salivation disappears. Then the animal is removed from the test situation for several days. When returned to the test situation, the conditioned response is seen again. The effect is known as ________. a. spontaneous recovery b. higher-order conditioning c. extinction d. stimulus generalization Answer: a. spontaneous recovery Correct. When a conditioned response briefly reappears after it has been extinguished, this is called spontaneous recovery. b. higher-order conditioning Incorrect. Higher-order conditioning refers to a chain of conditioned responses established from the first pairing, which is not the situation described here. The reappearance of an extinguished response is called spontaneous recovery. 40. What could John Watson have done to eliminate Little Albert’s conditioned fear? a. Show Albert a toy dog instead of a live rat. b. Let Albert touch a Santa Claus beard repeatedly. c. Show Albert a rat many times without a loud noise following. d. Have Albert hear a loud noise many times without a rat present. Answer: c. Show Albert a rat many times without a loud noise following. Correct. Showing Albert a rat without the loud noise would teach Albert that nothing scary coincides with the presence of the rat. a. Show Albert a toy dog instead of a live rat. Incorrect. The toy dog wasn’t a conditioned stimulus because seeing it repeatedly probably wouldn’t have helped Albert. He needed to see the rat repeatedly. 41. What would you predict about Little Albert based on the principle of spontaneous recovery? a. Even after his fear of a rat was extinguished, the fear could come back. b. After his fear of loud noises was extinguished, the fear could come back. c. His fear of rats would disappear if he saw a rat without hearing a loud noise. d. His fear of loud noises would disappear if he heard a loud noise without a rat present. Answer: a. Even after his fear of a rat was extinguished, the fear could come back. Correct. In spontaneous recovery the conditioned response can briefly reappear when the original CS returns, although the response is usually weak and short-lived. c. His fear of rats would disappear if he saw a rat without hearing a loud noise. Incorrect. Although the statement is true, it doesn’t answer the question about spontaneous recovery, which involves the resurfacing of the fear even after it has seemingly been extinguished. 42. After a CS comes to elicit the CR, the CS now can be paired with a new neutral stimulus and this second neutral stimulus will start to elicit a CR. This process is called _______________. a. higher-order conditioning b. neoclassical conditioning c. generalization d. operant conditioning Answer: a. higher-order conditioning Correct. This process is called higher-order conditioning because another, or higher, layer of associations is being added. c. generalization Incorrect. Responding to a similar stimulus is called generalization; in this case, it is not a similar stimulus but an entirely new stimulus that is paired with the original. 43. When a strongly conditioned CS is used to make another stimulus into a second CS, the effect is known as ____________. a. spontaneous recovery b. higher-order conditioning c. extinction d. stimulus generalization Answer: b. higher-order conditioning Correct. The use of a strong CS to create a second CS is called higher-order conditioning. d. stimulus generalization Incorrect. Stimulus generalization doesn’t involve pairing a CS with another different CS. It refers to stimuli that are similar to the CS evoking a CR without that similar stimulus ever having been used as part of the conditioning process. 44. Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at a metronome sound that was paired with a meat stimulus. After the CS–UCS linkage was strongly established, Pavlov then presented the dog with several flashes of a light followed by the metronome sound. After a few days, when the light flashes were presented by themselves, the dog salivated. This is an example of ___________. a. higher-order conditioning b. neoclassical conditioning c. generalization d. operant conditioning Answer: a. higher-order conditioning Correct. This process of using a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned stimulus out of the neutral stimulus is called higher-order conditioning. d. operant conditioning Incorrect. Operant conditioning refers to voluntary responses, such as bar presses for food, not involuntary responses, such as salivation. 45. The learning of phobias is a very good example of which certain type of classical conditioning? a. instinctive drift b. innate learning c. conditioned taste aversion d. conditioned emotional response Answer: d. conditioned emotional response Correct. Phobias are often acquired through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a fear-inducing stimulus, leading to a conditioned emotional response. For example, a person may develop a fear of dogs after being bitten by one. In this case, the neutral stimulus (the sight of a dog) becomes associated with fear (the unconditioned response) due to the experience of being bitten. c. conditioned taste aversion Incorrect. Conditioned taste aversion is a specific type of classical conditioning where an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with nausea or sickness. This type of conditioning is not directly applicable to the learning of phobias, which typically involve fear responses to stimuli other than taste. 46. In the “Little Albert” study, the fear-producing stimulus used as a UCS was the ______. a. white rat b. loud noise c. fear of the rat d. fear of the noise Answer: b. loud noise Correct. Noise was the unconditioned stimulus as it automatically evoked fear. a. white rat Incorrect. Albert did not have a reflexive fear response to the rat so it couldn’t be the unconditioned stimulus. He did have a reflexive fear response to the noise, and that was the unconditioned stimulus. 47. Little Albert was conditioned to fear a: a. white mouse. b. brown mouse. c. white rat. d. white puppy. Answer: c. white rat. Correct. The case of Little Albert is famous for demonstrating the ability to condition a phobia of a white rat. a. white mouse. Incorrect. In fact, little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rats, not a white mouse. 48. John Watson offered a live, white rat to Little Albert and then made a loud noise behind his head by striking a steel bar with a hammer. The white rat served as the __________________ in his study. a. discriminative stimulus b. counterconditioning stimulus c. conditioned stimulus d. unconditioned stimulus Answer: c. conditioned stimulus Correct. The child was conditioned to respond to this stimulus with fear, even though he was not originally afraid of the rat. d. unconditioned stimulus Incorrect. An unconditioned stimulus is one that the child automatically responds to with fear, such as a loud noise. 49. Little Albert’s acquired fear of a white rat was a classic example of a(n) _____________________ response. a. classical counterconditioned b. conditioned emotional c. positively reinforced d. negatively reinforced Answer: b. conditioned emotional Correct. The case of Little Albert was used to demonstrate conditional emotional responses. a. classical counterconditioned Incorrect. Counterconditioning does not necessarily deal with emotional responses like the one seen in the case of Little Albert. 50. An important discovery stemming from Watson and Rayner’s experiment was that: a. phobias can be reversed. b. some phobias are more probable due to preparedness. c. children experience phobias more often than had previously been thought. d. phobias may be explained by using principles of classical conditioning. Answer: d. phobias may be explained by using principles of classical conditioning. Correct. Watson and Rayner’s experiment with Little Albert demonstrated the ability to condition a phobia with classical conditioning. a. phobias can be reversed. Incorrect. One of the ethical objections that many people have to this experiment is that Little Albert’s phobia was never reversed by Watson and Rayner. 51. What was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the case of Little Albert? a. a rat b. a loud noise c. a high chair d. a small enclosed space Answer: b. a loud noise Correct. The UCS was a loud noise because it automatically evoked a fear response. a. a rat Incorrect. The rat was a neutral stimulus that didn’t at first elicit a fear response and, thus, was the CS. 52. What was the conditioned stimulus (CS) in the case of Little Albert? a. a white rat b. a loud noise c. a high chair d. a small enclosed space Answer: a. a white rat Correct. The white rat was a neutral stimulus that at first didn’t elicit a fear response but that, after conditioning, became a conditioned stimulus. b. a loud noise Incorrect. The UCS was the loud noise because it automatically evoked a fear response. 53. Watson’s experiment with Little Albert demonstrated that fears might be __________. a. based on classical conditioning b. deeply rooted in the innate unconscious of infants c. based on the principle of observational learning d. based on Skinner’s analysis of positive reinforcement Answer: a. based on classical conditioning Correct. Watson took a neutral stimulus, the rat, and paired it with a fear-producing noise to make the rat a fear-inducing stimulus. b. deeply rooted in the innate unconscious of infants Incorrect. There was no focus on the unconscious in Watson’s experiment. He was demonstrating the relationship of classical conditioning to phobias. 54. The learning of phobias is a very good example of which certain type of classical conditioning? a. instinctive drift b. innate learning c. conditioned taste aversion d. conditioned emotional response Answer: d. conditioned emotional response Correct. Fears often develop as a result of classical conditioning, a process known as a conditioned emotional response. b. innate learning Incorrect. While it is possible to learn phobias through innate learning, the best answer is conditioned emotional response. 55. It is even possible to become classically conditioned by simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus in a process called ________________. a. vicarious conditioning b. conditioned emotional responses c. stimulus generalization d. higher-order conditioning Answer: a. vicarious conditioning Correct. You can become conditioned by watching through a process called vicarious conditioning. d. higher-order conditioning Incorrect. Higher-order conditioning involves linking one conditioned stimulus to another. It does not involve watching someone. 56. Which learning theorist is responsible for the discovery of conditioned taste aversions? a. Seligman b. Garcia c. Skinner d. Watson Answer: b. Garcia Correct. Garcia was responsible for the discovery of taste aversions. a. Seligman Incorrect. Garcia was responsible for the discovery of taste aversions. Seligman is known for his work on learned helplessness. 57. Last month Walter became sick after eating two chili dogs, so he no longer likes chili dogs. Walter has experienced ____________. a. blocking b. conditioned taste-aversion c. operant taste conditioning d. noncontingent conditioning Answer: b. conditioned taste-aversion Correct. Taste aversion is the term for a learned aversion to a particular food based on a previous bad experience with that food. c. operant taste conditioning Incorrect. Operant conditioning relates to voluntary behavior, whereas a taste aversion, such as the one Walter experienced, is an involuntary response. 58. What is likely to happen to rats that drink a saccharin solution and are then shocked? a. They will develop an aversion to saccharin. b. They will refuse to drink any water and die. c. They will not develop an aversion to saccharin solutions. d. They will die as a result of the shocks they received in the research. Answer: c. They will not develop an aversion to saccharin solutions. Correct. The rats will not develop an aversion to saccharin because rats are biologically prepared to associate taste with nausea, not shock. a. They will develop an aversion to saccharin. Incorrect. Taste of food in mammals such as rats is associated with nausea, not shocks. 59. An important example of conditioned taste aversions might be ____________. a. chemotherapy patients losing their appetites for food served around the same time they had their treatments b. farmers leaving out sheep meat laced with a nauseating substance for coyotes to find in hopes of teaching them not to eat sheep c. Both of these are examples of taste aversions. d. Neither of these are examples of conditioned taste aversions. Answer: c. Both of these are examples of taste aversions. Correct. Both choices involve being conditioned to avoid certain tastes associated with nausea. d. Neither of these are examples of conditioned taste aversions. Incorrect. Both choices involve being conditioned to avoid certain tastes associated with nausea. 60. A farmer is being troubled by coyotes eating his sheep. In an attempt to solve the problem, he kills a sheep and laces its body with a nausea-inducing drug. He leaves the sheep out where he knows the coyotes roam. He hopes they will learn not to eat the sheep. The farmer is attempting to apply the research of _____________ to accomplish this. a. Bandura b. Skinner c. Tolman d. Garcia Answer: d. Garcia Correct. Garcia worked on taste aversion. b. Skinner Incorrect. Skinner studied operant conditioning, whereas this effect is a classical conditioning phenomenon. 61. A farmer is being troubled by coyotes eating his sheep. In an attempt to solve the problem, he kills a sheep and laces its body with a nausea-inducing drug. He leaves the sheep out where he knows the coyotes roam. He hopes they will learn not to eat the sheep. The farmer is attempting to apply the principle of _____________ to accomplish this. a. observational learning b. latent learning c. instrumental conditioning d. conditioned taste aversions Answer: d. conditioned taste aversions Correct. The farmer hopes that the taste of the sheep will evoke a conditioned response. b. latent learning Incorrect. Latent learning has occurred when an animal or person seems not to learn something but later demonstrates the learned behavior in question. In this example, the farmer is attempting to cause a conditioned taste aversion in local coyotes to protect his sheep. 62. Conditioned taste aversions are an example of something called __________. a. biological preparedness b. inherited conditioned dispositions c. long-term spontaneous recovery d. single repetition conditioning Answer: a. biological preparedness Correct. Biological preparedness refers to the innate predisposition of organisms to learn certain associations more easily than others due to evolutionary factors. In the case of conditioned taste aversions, humans and animals are biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that have made them sick in the past. This is because such learning has survival advantages, helping to prevent ingestion of harmful substances. d. single repetition conditioning Incorrect. Single repetition conditioning is not a recognized term in psychology. Conditioning typically involves multiple repetitions of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to establish a conditioned response. The term "single repetition conditioning" does not accurately describe the process of conditioned taste aversions or other forms of classical conditioning. 63. Taste aversion is an example of: a. punishment that is contingent on the behavior exhibited. b. classical conditioning from a single pairing of CS and US. c. simultaneous conditioning. d. operant conditioning Answer: b. classical conditioning from a single pairing of CS and US. Correct. Taste aversion is an unusual demonstration of classical conditioning, where it does not require repeated pairings of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli to develop a conditioned response. d. operant conditioning Incorrect. your authors present a taste aversion as an effective demonstration of classical conditioning, not operant conditioning. 64. Generally, it is best to present the CS followed immediately by the US for conditioning to occur. One exception to this rule is illustrated by: a. food aversions. b. conditioning voluntary responses. c. tactile aversions. d. conditioning eye blink responses. Answer: a. food aversions. Correct. Classically conditioned food aversions can occur even when there is a significant time delay between the CS and the US. d. conditioning eye blink responses. Incorrect. To classically condition an eyeblink response, the CS and US would have to be presented almost simultaneously. 65. Human beings generally have an aversion to bitter and sour foods. Some researchers suggest that this is because foods that are inedible or even poisonous are often bitter or sour. The tendency of human beings to find these potentially harmful foods repulsive is an example of _____________________. a. classical conditioning b. vicarious conditioning c. conditioned emotional response d. biological preparedness Answer: d. biological preparedness Correct. The survival value associated with learning to avoid dangerous foods is an example of biological preparedness. c. conditioned emotional response Incorrect. The question does not refer to any emotional reaction as a consequence of the unpleasant taste. 66. Conditioned taste aversions are an example of something called __________. a. biological preparedness b. inherited conditioned dispositions c. long-term spontaneous recovery d. single repetition conditioning Answer: a. biological preparedness Correct. Conditioned taste aversions are an example of biological preparedness, referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations based on taste, sight, or smell that are relevant to their survival. b. inherited conditioned dispositions Incorrect. Inherited conditioned dispositions is not a term used in discussing conditioned taste aversions. The correct term is biological preparedness. 67. Your parakeet eats some cooked spaghetti. Later, the parakeet gets ill. What would the research on biological preparedness predict? a. The parakeet will probably not eat shell macaroni because it smells similar to spaghetti. b. The parakeet will probably not eat shell macaroni because it tastes similar to spaghetti. c. The parakeet will probably not eat linguini noodles because they are long and thin and look similar to spaghetti. d. The parakeet will eat spaghetti again. Answer: c. The parakeet will probably not eat linguini noodles because they are long and thin and look similar to spaghetti. Correct. Birds find food through sight and will avoid anything that looks similar to something that made them sick in the past—in this case, the long thin pasta. a. The parakeet will probably not eat shell macaroni because it smells similar to spaghetti. Incorrect. Birds respond to sight more than smell, so the parakeet would not pay attention to how a food smells in deciding whether or not to eat it. 68. Which is the most important characteristic of a food that is linked to a conditioned taste aversion for birds? a. taste b. smell c. vision d. touch Answer: c. vision Correct. Vision is the most important characteristic of a food that is linked to a conditioned taste aversion for birds. b. smell Incorrect. Vision is the important characteristic for birds. Smell is most important for dogs. 69. Unlike mammals, birds seem to develop conditioned aversions to food based on which sense? a. taste b. smell c. vision d. touch Answer: c. vision Correct. Birds seem to develop conditioned aversions to food based on vision as compared to smell-oriented animals like dogs. a. taste Incorrect. Birds seem to develop conditioned aversions to food based on vision. The stimulus that is conditioned varies in different animal species. Birds are more visually oriented animals than dogs, for instance. 70. Pavlov’s model of classical conditioning was based on the idea that the conditioned stimulus, through its association close in time with the unconditioned stimulus, came to activate the same place in the animal’s brain that was originally activated by the unconditioned stimulus. This was known as _____________. a. stimulus substitution b. the cognitive perspective c. the Skinner model d. higher-order conditioning Answer: a. stimulus substitution Correct. This was known as stimulus substitution. b. the cognitive perspective Incorrect. This was known as stimulus substitution. Although referencing the brain might seem to imply cognition, this wasn’t part of Pavlov’s conceptualization. Cognition involves a defined thought process and that was not part of Pavlov’s theory. 71. The current view of why classical conditioning works the way it does, advanced by Rescorla and others, adds the concept of _____________ to conditioning theory. a. generalization b. habituation c. memory loss d. expectancy Answer: d. expectancy Correct. Rescorla explained that animals must have an expectancy created by the pairing of a stimulus (or absence of a stimulus) with an unpleasant experience. a. generalization Incorrect. Generalization, or the spread of the response to various stimuli, isn’t a new addition to the theory. 72. Rescorla’s modern conceptualization of classical conditioning is based on the idea that ______________. a. the CS substitutes for the UCS b. there is a biological readiness for conditioning to occur between the CS and UCS c. the CS has to provide information about the coming of the UCS d. reinforcement must occur by providing a pleasant event Answer: c. the CS has to provide information about the coming of the UCS Correct. The subject has to have some cognitive appreciation of the contingency. a. the CS substitutes for the UCS Incorrect. Rescorla theorized that the CS has to provide information about the coming of the UCS and predict the latter’s coming. Substitution was an earlier theory of Pavlov’s. 73. Some researchers believe that classical conditioning takes place only because: a. the pairing of the CS and US doesn’t provide useful information about the likelihood of occurrence of the US. b. the pairing of the CS and UR provides useful information about the likelihood of occurrence of the CS. c. the pairing of the CS and US provides useful information about the likelihood of occurrence of the US. d. the pairing of the US and UR provides information about the likelihood of occurrence of the US. Answer: c. the pairing of the CS and US provides useful information about the likelihood of occurrence of the US. Correct. This cognitive model suggests that expectation underlies the entire phenomenon of classical conditioning. d. the pairing of the US and UR provides information about the likelihood of occurrence of the US. Incorrect. Is the pairing of the CS and US that is thought to provide information about the occurrence of the US in the future that underlies the cognitive explanation of classical conditioning. 74. Which theorist proposed the cognitive perspective that explains that classical conditioning occurs because of expectancy? a. Pavlov b. Garcia c. Rescorla d. Skinner Answer: c. Rescorla Correct. The cognitive explanation of classical conditioning was proposed by Robert Rescorla. a. Pavlov Incorrect. Pavlov suggested that stimulus substitution, and not expectancy, explained classical conditioning. 75. According to Rescorla’s theory, the CS must _______ the UCS or conditioning does not occur. a. replace b. come after c. appear simultaneously with d. predict Answer: d. predict Correct. Rescorla found that the CS must predict the UCS for conditioning to take place. c. appear simultaneously with Incorrect. Rescorla found that the CS must predict the UCS for conditioning to take place. A simultaneous appearance would not give any information useful in prediction. 76. ________ classical conditioning, operant conditioning requires the organism to voluntarily produce the ________. a. Like; response b. Unlike; response c. Unlike; consequence d. Like; stimulus Answer: b. Unlike; response Correct. classical and operant conditioning are different in that classical conditioning requires reflexive responses were operant conditioning deals with voluntary responses. a. Like; response Incorrect. This answer is incorrect, because classical and operant conditioning are not alike in this manner. 77. There are two kinds of behavior that all organisms are capable of doing. If Inez blinks her eyes because a gnat flies close to them, that’s _____________. But if she then swats at the gnat, that’s _____________. a. voluntary; involuntary b. involuntary; voluntary c. operant; instrumental d. instrumental; classical Answer: b. involuntary; voluntary Correct. Blinking is a reflex (involuntary), whereas swatting is purposeful (voluntary) behavior. a. voluntary; involuntary Incorrect. Blinking is a reflex (involuntary), whereas swatting is purposeful (voluntary) behavior. 78. The kind of learning that applies to voluntary behavior is called __________________. a. operant conditioning b. classical conditioning c. effective based learning d. spontaneous recovery Answer: a. operant conditioning Correct. Operant conditioning involves a choice to move and is, thus, voluntary behavior. b. classical conditioning Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, such as salivation. 79. Who was one of the first researchers to explore and outline the laws of voluntary responses? a. Pavlov b. Watson c. Skinner d. Thorndike Answer: d. Thorndike Correct. Thorndike was the pioneer of the laws of voluntary behavior. c. Skinner Incorrect. Thorndike first explored and outlined the laws of voluntary behavior. Skinner later greatly expanded on his work. 80. Thorndike was known for his work with ______. a. a Skinner box b. a puzzle box c. modeling d. monkeys Answer: b. a puzzle box Correct. Thorndike was known for his work with a puzzle box. c. modeling Incorrect. Modeling was a much later process proposed for observational learning. 81. Which of the following is NOT an example of operant behavior? a. a child doing her homework after she receives her teacher’s approval for her behavior b. a rat pressing a bar after receiving food for this behavior c. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented d. a rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behavior Answer: c. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented Correct. The dog’s blinking its eyes is not operant behavior because it is reflexive, involuntary behavior, whereas operant behavior is voluntary. d. a rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behavior Incorrect. The rat’s pressing the bar is operant behavior because it is voluntary. 82. A child learns that whenever he eats all of his dinner he gets a cookie for dessert. This type of learning is BEST explained by _______________. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. biofeedback theory d. social learning theory Answer: b. operant conditioning Correct. The child’s voluntary behavior—eating his dinner—is rewarded with the cookie. d. social learning theory Incorrect. If this were an example of social learning, the child would have to watch someone else get a reward for eating dinner. 83. The person MOST closely associated with the Law of Effect is ______. a. Watson b. Skinner c. Pavlov d. Thorndike Answer: d. Thorndike Correct. Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect. a. Watson Incorrect. Watson is best known for work that was done much later than that of Thorndike. 84. Skinner was to rats as Thorndike was to _____________________. a. cats b. rabbits c. dogs d. pigeons. Answer: a. cats Correct. Thorndike put cats in a puzzle box to demonstrate his Law of Effect. c. dogs Incorrect. Seligman is the theorist most noted for using dogs in his demonstration of learned helplessness. 85. When good things happen to someone, the probability of repeating the behavior that occurred before the good things increases. This best illustrates: a. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle b. the law of effect. c. generalization. d. the law of desirable consequences. Answer: b. the law of effect. Correct. The law of effect suggests that behaviors are followed by pleasant outcome will tend to be repeated and behaviors are followed by unpleasant outcomes will tend not to be repeated. a. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle Incorrect. This is a principle from physics, not psychology. 86. Any behavior that is voluntary is referred to as a(n) _____________________. a. response b. antecedent c. operant d. stimulus Answer: c. operant Correct. An operant is any behavior that is voluntary. a. response Incorrect. A response could be voluntary or involuntary (reflexive). 87. “If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.” This is a statement of ________________. a. the law of positive reinforcement b. Rescorla’s cognitive perspective c. Thorndike’s Law of Effect d. Garcia’s conditional emotional response Answer: c. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Correct. Thorndike’s Law of Effect speaks to both pleasurable and unpleasurable consequences. a. the law of positive reinforcement Incorrect. Although it sounds like a statement of positive reinforcement, it is not. Positive reinforcement is defined differently. 88. A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on ______. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. vicarious learning d. cognitive learning Answer: b. operant conditioning Correct. A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on operant conditioning. Skinner developed the box in his work on operant conditioning. a. classical conditioning Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses and Skinner boxes use voluntary responses to study operant conditioning. 89. A box used in operant conditioning of animals that limits the available responses and, thus, increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur is called a ______. a. trial box b. response box c. Watson box d. Skinner box Answer: d. Skinner box Correct. The box is called a Skinner box. a. trial box Incorrect. The box in question is called a Skinner box. Subjects undergo many trials but the term is not used for the apparatus. 90. In operant conditioning, _____________ is necessary to create the association between the stimulus and the repetition of a voluntary response. a. reinforcement b. the law of negative effect c. conditional emotional linkages d. a long time delay Answer: a. reinforcement Correct. Reinforcement causes the association between the stimulus and the voluntary response to be learned. c. conditional emotional linkages Incorrect. Although principles like the Law of Effect suggest emotional linkages, the correct answer needs to consider reinforcement as the necessary principle. 91. Reinforcement is to punishment as: a. decrease is to increase. b. increase is to decrease. c. positive is to negative. d. giving is to receiving. Answer: b. increase is to decrease. Correct. Reinforcement attempts to increase behavior, while punishment attempts to decrease a behavior. c. positive is to negative. Incorrect. A positive operant outcome occurs when a person is given something, and a negative outcome occurs when a person has to be removed from them. 92. Under what circumstances will a reinforcer make the target response more likely to occur again? a. if it is a primary reinforcer b. if it is a positive reinforcer c. if it is a negative reinforcer d. regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer, a reinforcer makes a response more likely to occur. Answer: d. regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer, a reinforcer makes a response more likely to occur. Correct. Any reinforcer makes the target response more likely to occur again regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer. b. if it is a positive reinforcer Incorrect. Any reinforcer makes the target response more likely to occur again regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer. 93. A reinforcer is a consequence that _____________________ a behavior, while a punisher is a consequence that _____________________ a behavior. a. motivates; stimulates b. weakens; strengthens c. inhibits; motivates d. strengthens; weakens Answer: d. strengthens; weakens Correct. A reinforcer strengthens a behavior while a punisher weakens a behavior. b. weakens; strengthens Incorrect. A reinforcer strengthens a behavior while a punisher weakens a behavior. 94. A _____________________ reinforcer is any reward that satisfies a basic, biological need, such a hunger, thirst, or touch. a. primary b. negative c. positive d. secondary Answer: a. primary Correct. A primary reinforcer satisfies basic, biological needs. d. secondary Incorrect. A secondary reinforcer gains its value through an association with a primary reinforcer. 95. Of the following, ________ would serve as a primary reinforcer for most people. a. food b. praise c. money d. attention Answer: a. food Correct. A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a basic biological or survival need. b. praise Incorrect. Because praise does not satisfy one of our inmates, unlearned needs, it is not a primary reinforcer. 96. Secondary reinforcers differ from primary reinforcers in that secondary reinforcers ________. a. can potentially reinforce or punish behavior b. do not satisfy physical needs whatsoever c. do not inherently satisfy physical needs d. only pertain to intangible objects or events, such as praise Answer: c. do not inherently satisfy physical needs Correct. Secondary reinforcers are not required for survival, and often get their value through an Association with a primary reinforcer. a. can potentially reinforce or punish behavior Incorrect. Reinforcers do not punish behavior, whether they are primary or secondary. 97. Kelsey just told her family a really funny joke that she made up herself. In order to use a primary reinforcer to encourage her in her joke-telling, Kelsey’s dad might _______________. a. offer her money b. applaud her appropriate behavior c. offer her praise for a job well done d. offer her a piece of candy Answer: d. offer her a piece of candy Correct. A primary reinforcer is one that relates to food, drink, shelter, touch, or other biologically based necessities. c. offer her praise for a job well done Incorrect. Praise is not a biologically based necessity, such as food or drink. 98. ________ is an example of a primary reinforcer, whereas ________ is an example of a secondary reinforcer. a. A cupcake; a certificate of achievement given to a student b. A kiss; money c. Water; food d. A gold star; cupcake Answer: a. A cupcake; a certificate of achievement given to a student Correct. A cupcake relates to food, drink, shelter, touch, and other biologically based needs, whereas a certificate does not. d. A gold star; cupcake Incorrect. A gold star is an example of a secondary reinforcer, whereas a cupcake is an example of a primary reinforcer. 99. A _________ reinforcer, such as money or praise, gets its value through an association with a _________ reinforcer. a. positive; negative b.primary; secondary c. natural; artificial d. secondary; primary Answer: d. secondary; primary Correct. Secondary reinforcers get their value through an association with a primary reinforcer that satisfies a biological need. a. positive; negative Incorrect. Both positive and negative reinforcers can be primary or secondary. This is not the best answer. 100. Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer? a. water b. food c. shelter d. a gold star Answer: d. a gold star Correct. A gold star is a secondary reinforcer because it has no intrinsic biological value. c. shelter Incorrect. A gold star is a secondary reinforcer because it is learned to be reinforcing. Shelter meets a basic biological need for comfort and, therefore, is a primary reinforcer. 101. A grandmother gives her grandchild a cookie because the child cleaned her room. What is the cookie in this example? a. punisher b. positive reinforcer c. negative reinforcer d. conditioned response Answer: b. positive reinforcer Correct. The cookie is a positive reinforcer because it increases the probability that the child will clean her room. d. conditioned response Incorrect. A conditioned response is an involuntary behavior in response to a conditioned stimulus. 102. Positive reinforcement is to negative reinforcement as ________. a. good is to bad b. increase is to decrease c. reward is to punish d. present is to remove Answer: d. present is to remove Correct. A positive operant outcome occurs when a person is given something, and a negative outcome occurs when a person has to be removed from them. b. increase is to decrease Incorrect. Reinforcement attempts to increase behavior, while punishment attempts to decrease a behavior. 103. Mark and Kathy take their 2-year-old son to the supermarket every Saturday. Each week, the same sequence of events unfolds: Their son screams, demanding that they buy him treats. Although they refuse to give in to his demands, he continues to scream. Finally, either Mark or Kathy gets in their son’s face and yells at the top of their lungs “Shut up!” He stops screaming instantly. What operant conditioning concepts are illustrated in this story? a. The parents are using negative reinforcement to increase their son’s screaming. b. The parents are in a very dysfunctional marriage; their child’s screaming is his way of trying to get his parents to remain married. c. The parents are using punishment to suppress the screaming; their use of punishment is negatively reinforced by the cessation of screaming. d. Their son probably learned how to scream by observing his parents at home, and now he is reinforced on a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement. Answer: c. The parents are using punishment to suppress the screaming; their use of punishment is negatively reinforced by the cessation of screaming. Correct. The parents are using punishment, and they are negatively reinforced as cessation of screaming is a classic negative reinforcer. a. The parents are using negative reinforcement to increase their son’s screaming. Incorrect. The parents are not attempting to increase their son’s screaming, but rather to make it stop. 104. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is ________ and, thus ________ the probability of a response. a. removed; increases b. removed; decreases c. presented; increases d. presented; decreases Answer: a. removed; increases Correct. Negative reinforcement entails removing a noxious stimulus to get the subject to learn to do a behavior. Incorrect. A negative reinforcer is one that is already present and then is removed in order to increase the probability of a response. A stimulus whose presentation decreases the probability of a response would be an example of positive punishment. 105. Bill hates to clean up after dinner. One night, he volunteers to bathe the dog before cleaning up. When he finishes with the dog and returns to the kitchen, his wife has cleaned everything up for him. Which of the following statements is most likely TRUE? a. Bill will start cleaning up the kitchen before he bathes the dog. b. Bill’s wife has positively reinforced him for bathing the dog. c. Bill’s wife has negatively reinforced him for bathing the dog. d. Bill will never bathe the dog again. Answer: c. Bill’s wife has negatively reinforced him for bathing the dog. Correct. Bill’s wife negatively reinforced him for bathing the dog by removing something unpleasant—the task of cleaning up the kitchen. b. Bill’s wife has positively reinforced him for bathing the dog. Incorrect. Positive reinforcement would occur if Bill’s wife gave him something to reward him for bathing the dog, but in this case she removed something unpleasant—his having to do the dishes. 106. When Joe thinks about his sorely missed girlfriend he drinks alcohol, which helps dull his feelings. This best illustrates: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. positive punishment. d. negative punishment. Answer: b. negative reinforcement. Correct. Drinking the alcohol “takes away” Joe’s pain, so he is more likely to drink when he thinks about his girlfriend in the future. This demonstrates negative reinforcement. a. positive reinforcement. Incorrect. Nothing is being given to Jon in this example, so it could not be a positive operant outcome. 107. Fred is afraid of spiders. He won’t even watch a nature show on TV about them. When he sees a picture of a spider, he has a panic attack, but when he avoids looking at the image, his panic goes away. Fred’s avoidance of spiders is being __________________. a. extinguished, because he feels anxious after doing so b. recovered spontaneously, because he will never get better c. positively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down d. negatively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down Answer: d. negatively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down Correct. The termination of a stimulus, in this case panic, is negative reinforcement. c. positively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down Incorrect. Positive reinforcement occurs when someone gets something positive as a reward for certain behavior. In this case, Fred is not getting anything, rather he is having his anxiety removed by his avoidance of spiders. 108. What kind of reinforcement is used if Sally’s parents give her $10 every time she accumulates six As on her tests? a. gradual reinforcement b. sporadic reinforcement c. continuous reinforcement d. partial reinforcement Answer: d. partial reinforcement Correct. Sally is on a partial reinforcement schedule because she is not reinforced for every behavior; she is reinforced only after a certain number of behaviors. a. gradual reinforcement Incorrect. Gradual reinforcement is not a term used in the conditioning paradigm. 109. You walk up to a soda machine and put in a dollar, and are rewarded with a bottle of root beer. When you put in another dollar, you get another soda. Assuming that the machine has a limitless supply of root beer, which kind of reinforcement schedule does this machine operate on? a. partial reinforcement b. interval reinforcement c. continuous reinforcement d. ratio reinforcement Answer: c. continuous reinforcement Correct. Each and every response is followed by a reinforcer a. partial reinforcement Incorrect. Partial reinforcement occurs when the reinforcement is received after some, but not all, responses. 110. Which of the following statements is true about operant conditioning? a. Neither partial nor continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist for long periods of time. b. Continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through partial or intermittent reinforcement. c. Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through continuous reinforcement. d. Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement lead to behaviors that persist for equally long periods of time. Answer: c. Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through continuous reinforcement. Correct. Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that persist longer as the subject keeps looking for eventual reinforcement. b. Continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through partial or intermittent reinforcement. Incorrect. Continuous reinforcement leads to very quick extinction as the animal or subject quickly learns the conditioning contingency is no longer operative. Extinction is delayed by partial reinforcement. 111. The partial reinforcement effect refers to the fact that a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses ____________. a. will be more resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) b. will be less resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) c. will be more variable in its resistance to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) d. will be totally resistant to extinction unlike a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) Answer: a. will be more resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) Correct. The response will be more resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response). b. will be less resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement (a reinforcer for each and every correct response) Incorrect. The response will be more resistant to extinction than when a reinforcer is given for each and every correct response as in a continuous schedule. The variable schedules teach the animal or subject to persevere at the behavior in order to get a reward. 112. A monthly paycheck best represents a ________ schedule of reinforcement. a. fixed interval b. variable interval c. fixed ratio d. variable ratio Answer: a. fixed interval Correct. In this case, the reinforcement is received after a specific amount of time has passed. This demonstrates a fixed interval schedule of partial reinforcement. b. variable interval Incorrect. If the paycheck was received after a changing amount of time, this would demonstrate a variable interval schedule of reinforcement. 113. Reinforcement that is given for a response emitted after each hour and half (e.g., 10 a.m., 11:30 a.m., 1 p.m.) in time is most likely to be a ________ schedule a. variable ratio b. variable interval c. fixed interval d. fixed ratio Answer: c. fixed interval Correct. In this case, the reinforcement is received after a specific amount of time has passed. This demonstrates a fixed interval schedule of partial reinforcement. b. variable interval Incorrect. If the reinforcement was received after a changing amount of time, this would demonstrate a variable interval schedule of reinforcement. 114. When the number of responses is important to a schedule of reinforcement, that schedule is called a _____________ schedule. a. ratio b. interval c. conditioned d. time-delayed Answer: a. ratio Correct. Ratio schedules’ reinforcement is based on the number of responses made by a subject. b. interval Incorrect. Interval schedules are based on the time between responses. Ratio schedules’ reinforcement is based on the number of responses made by a subject. 115. Maricella works as a seamstress. Her boss tells her that every time she completes five shirts, she will receive $5. When done with the five shirts, she dumps them into a bin and gets paid. Her pattern of shirt completion is most likely to be _____. a. rapid shirt completion with a short break after each five completed b. long pauses after she receives the $5 c. a slow, steady rate of shirt-making without pauses d. a fast, steady rate of shirt-making without pauses Answer: a. rapid shirt completion with a short break after each five completed Correct. In a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, the pattern is rapid response and short breaks after each reinforcement. In this case, the $5 represents the reinforcement. b. long pauses after she receives the $5 Incorrect. Her pattern of shirt completion is most likely to be rapid shirt completion with a short break after each five completed. 116. Al must build 25 radios before he receives $20. What schedule of reinforcement is being used? a. a variable-ratio schedule b. a fixed-ratio schedule c. a fixed-interval schedule d. a continuous schedule Answer: b. a fixed-ratio schedule Correct. A fixed-ratio schedule demands a set number of responses, in this case 25. c. a fixed-interval schedule Incorrect. A fixed-interval schedule is based on the time between responses. 117. Catching fish when fishing in a lake would most likely represent which of the following schedules of reinforcement? a. Variable interval b. Fixed ratio c. Fixed interval d. Interval ratio Answer: a. Variable interval Correct. Because you never know how long you’ll have to sit with your line in the water before you get a fish, this demonstrates variable interval reinforcement. c. Fixed interval Incorrect. If there was a way to guarantee that a fish would bite on your line after a specific amount of time had passed, this would demonstrate a fixed interval reinforcement. 118. Unlike other schedules of reinforcement, ________ results in a “scalloped” pattern of responses on a cumulative frequency graph. a. fixed ratio b. fixed interval c. variable interval d. variable ratio Answer: b Correct. The correct answer is b. Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement result in a "scalloped" pattern of responses on a cumulative frequency graph. This means that responses increase gradually as the time for reinforcement approaches and then drops off immediately after reinforcement is delivered. This pattern reflects the characteristic behavior of organisms under fixed interval schedules, where there's a burst of activity just before the expected reinforcement time. a. fixed ratio Incorrect. a. Fixed ratio schedules involve reinforcement after a fixed number of responses, typically resulting in a high and steady rate of responding without the "scalloped" pattern. 119. Which schedule of reinforcement tends to get the highest response rate? a. Fixed interval b. Variable ratio c. Variable interval d. Fixed ratio Answer: d Correct: The correct answer is d. Fixed ratio schedules of reinforcement tend to produce the highest response rates. This is because reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses. As the number of responses required for reinforcement is known, individuals tend to respond at a high rate to reach the reinforcement quickly. a. Fixed interval Incorrect. a. Fixed interval schedules involve reinforcement after a fixed period of time, which typically leads to a moderate response rate with a characteristic "scalloped" pattern of responses. 120. For every 5 times that you go to the gym each week, you reward yourself with a treat. This best illustrates which of the following schedules of reinforcement? a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio c. variable interval d. fixed interval Answer: a. fixed ratio Correct. This example demonstrates reinforcement being given after a specific number of behaviors has occurred. This demonstrates fixed ratio reinforcement. d. fixed interval Incorrect. If you gave yourself the reward every seven days, irrespective of the number of times he went to the gym, this would demonstrate fixed interval reinforcement. 121. Getting paid for each basket of apples you gather represents which schedule of reinforcement? a. Fixed interval b. Fixed ratio c. Variable ratio d. Variable interval Answer: b. Fixed ratio Correct. A fixed-ratio schedule demands a set number of responses before reinforcement is received. a. Fixed interval Incorrect. A fixed-interval schedule is based on the time between responses. 122. What has occurred when there is a decrease in the likelihood or rate of a target response? a. punishment b. positive reinforcement c. negative reinforcement d. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement Answer: a. punishment Correct. Punishment is defined as a stimulus that causes a decrease in the likelihood of a behavior. c. negative reinforcement Incorrect. Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response. 123. Which of the following is an example of punishment by removal? a. Receiving harsh criticism for lying to your parents. b. Losing telephone privileges for breaking curfew. c. Getting stung by a bee when walking barefoot outside and stepping on the bee. d. Getting pepper sprayed for making a lewd comment to a stranger. Answer: b. Losing telephone privileges for breaking curfew. Correct. Having something taken away as a means of reducing the behavior is an example of punishment by removal. d. Getting pepper sprayed for making a lewd comment to a stranger. Incorrect. This would be an example of positive punishment, because being sprayed in the face is being given something rather than having something taken away. 124. A stimulus presented to a person or animal that decreases the probability of a particular response is known as __________. a. punishment by application b. punishment by removal c. negative reinforcement d. negative expectation Answer: a. punishment by application Correct. Punishment is defined as a stimulus that causes a decrease in the likelihood of a behavior, and punishment involving a stimulus that is presented or applied is punishment by application. c. negative reinforcement Incorrect. Negative reinforcement, which is often mistaken for punishment, increases the probability of response by removing a noxious stimulus. 125. When a stimulus is removed from a person or animal resulting in a decrease in the probability of response, it is known as __________. a. punishment by application b. punishment by removal c. negative reinforcement d. punishing reinforcement Answer: b. punishment by removal Correct. A decrease in response is accomplished by punishment, and when that punishment involves the removal of some stimulus, it is punishment by removal. c. negative reinforcement Incorrect. Although the term “negative” implies removal, reinforcement always increases the probability of a response. 126. Which of the following statements is true regarding punishment? a. The effect of punishment is often temporary. b. Severe punishment creates fear and anxiety. c. Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. d. All of these statements are true. Answer: d. All of these statements are true. Correct. All of these statements regarding punishment are true. a. The effect of punishment is often temporary. Incorrect. This is not the only thing that occurs. All of these statements regarding punishment are true. 127. Why does fear caused by punishment make the punishment ineffective in changing behavior? a. Fear leads the child to forget the behavior that was punished. b. Fear produces resentment that makes the child rebellious and disobedient. c. Fear interferes with the child’s ability to learn from the punishment. d. None of these. Answer: c. Fear interferes with the child’s ability to learn from the punishment. Correct. Fear interferes with the child’s ability to learn from the punishment due to the emotions and unpleasant sensations generated by the punishment. b. Fear produces resentment that makes the child rebellious and disobedient. Incorrect. Although fear may produce resentment, the more immediate reason why fear makes punishment ineffective is that it interferes with the child’s ability to learn from the punishment. 128. A mother tells a young child that when her father comes home, he will spank her because she was bad. One negative consequence of this punishment is that _________. a. the child will hide from her father and try to avoid him b. the child will lie to her father and say she never was bad c. the child will experience fear and anxiety, which are emotions that do not promote learning. d. All of these negative consequences may occur as they are known consequences of punishment Answer: d. All of these negative consequences may occur as they are known consequences of punishment Correct. All of these negative consequences may occur after punishment. Thus, psychologists are reluctant to recommend punishment as the sole method of behavior change. a. the child will hide from her father and try to avoid him Incorrect. All of these consequences occur, not only the avoidance behavior in this choice. 129. Which of the following criteria helps to increase the effectiveness of punishment? a. when it is swift b. when it is inconsistent c. when it is given with classical conditioning d. when it is vicarious Answer: a. when it is swift Correct. As your authors point out, making the punishment occur quickly after the undesirable behavior increases the effectiveness of the punishment. b. when it is inconsistent Incorrect. As your authors point out, consistent punishment is effective punishment. 130. Punishment is MOST effective ________. a. in most circumstances b. when it occurs immediately after the undesired behavior c. when it is mildly aversive d. in surprisingly few situations Answer: b. when it occurs immediately after the undesired behavior Correct. As your authors point out, making the punishment occur quickly after the undesirable behavior increases the effectiveness of the punishment. c. when it is mildly aversive Incorrect. As your authors point out, punishment has to be rather aversive, not mildly aversive, in order to be effective. 131. Olivia is punished for spilling her cereal. Her parents give her a spanking and send her to her room where she cries. Later, her puppy makes a mess on the floor. Olivia kicks her puppy and puts it out in the yard where it whines sadly. Which of the following statements explains her behavior toward the puppy? a. Olivia is correctly applying Skinnerian principles of negative reinforcement to change her dog’s behavior. b. Olivia is using negative punishment on her dog and it will change the dog’s behavior. c. Olivia is modeling the aggressive behavior her parents demonstrated to her. d. Olivia’s parents probably think that the best way to raise kids is “spare the rod, spoil the child.” Answer: c. Olivia is modeling the aggressive behavior her parents demonstrated to her. Correct. Olivia is modeling the aggressive behavior and that is a problem with punishment. a. Olivia is correctly applying Skinnerian principles of negative reinforcement to change her dog’s behavior. Incorrect. Olivia’s punishment led her to be aggressive. In any case, kicking the dog outside is punishment and not negative reinforcement. 132. An expert on parenting is addressing parents at the local grade school. When the topic of punishment is discussed, what is one outcome of punishment the expert is likely to note for the parents to consider? a. Punishment can also lead to the child acting aggressively. b. Punished children tend to do really well in school. c. Punishment motivates the child to focus on schoolwork. d. Punishment tends to increase the number of nightmares experienced. Answer: a. Punishment can also lead to the child acting aggressively. Correct. Punishment can also lead to the child acting aggressively. d. Punishment tends to increase the number of nightmares experienced. Incorrect. This answer might make sense but increased nightmares haven’t been reported. Aggression has. 133. A child is punished and temporarily stops his or her well-established bad behavior. However, the child soon goes back to acting badly. This is probably because _________. a. the effects of punishment have habituated b. punishment is known only to temporarily suppress or inhibit a behavior c. the bad behavior has spontaneously recovered d. the conditional emotional response to the punishment has generalized to another behavior Answer: b. punishment is known only to temporarily suppress or inhibit a behavior Correct. Punishment seems to have temporary effects and, thus, is not recommended as the only method of behavior change. c. the bad behavior has spontaneously recovered Incorrect. Punishment is known only to temporarily suppress or inhibit a behavior. Spontaneous recovery refers to an extinguished response that recovers strength. That is not the case here. We are dealing with punishment and not extinction. They are different effects. 134. Which strategy will NOT increase the effects of punishment? a. making the punishment occur only on a partial, sporadic schedule b. making the punishment consistent c. pairing punishment of the wrong behavior with reinforcement of the correct behavior d. having the punishment immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish Answer: a. making the punishment occur only on a partial, sporadic schedule Correct. Making the punishment only occur on a partial, sporadic schedule will not increase its effects. c. pairing punishment of the wrong behavior with reinforcement of the correct behavior Incorrect. This pairing will increase the efficacy of punishment. 135. For years, parents have wondered whether physical discipline of their children (spanking, for example) was an effective and acceptable practice. What findings from many research studies have promoted the idea that spanking a child may be a bad idea? a. Children who were spanked at the age of 5 were more likely to show symptoms of depression at the age of 10. b. Spanking showed far more negative long-term effects when used on daughters as opposed to sons. Incorrect. The research cited in the textbook does not distinguish between the effects of using physical punishment on boys and girls. c. Girls who were spanked as a form of punishment in toddlerhood were more likely to experience a premature entry into puberty. d. Children who were spanked at the age of 3 showed more aggressive tendencies by the age of 5. Correct. These findings have suggested that physical discipline may have the unintended outcome of teaching aggression and/or violence. Answer: d 136. How did the research of Taylor, Manganello, Lee, and Rice (2010) differ substantially from those who had come before in the exploration of the impact of spanking on children? a. This research examined only boys who were spanked as children. b. This research controlled for other maternal risk factors, such as neglect and drug use. c. This research examined only girls who were spanked as children. d. This research examined only occasions where children were spanked by their fathers, and not by their mothers. Answer: b. This research controlled for other maternal risk factors, such as neglect and drug use. Correct. By controlling for other maternal risk factors, this research painted a clearer picture of the direct relationship between spanking and the emergency of childhood aggressive tendencies. c. This research examined only girls who were spanked as children. Incorrect. The research noted in this question did not distinguish between boys and girls. 137. In the process of shaping, behaviors are ordered in terms of increasing similarity to the desired response. These behaviors are called _____________. a. primary reinforcers b. successive approximations c. secondary reinforcers d. unconditioned stimuli Answer: b. successive approximations Correct. These behaviors are called successive approximations. c. secondary reinforcers Incorrect. Secondary reinforcers are previously neutral stimuli that have acquired reinforcing qualities by being paired with primary reinforcers. 138. Mary’s parents want her to put her books in her bookcase. At first, they praise her for putting the books together in one pile. Then they praise her for getting the books on the same side of the room as the bookcase. When she gets the books on top of the bookcase, she gets praise. Finally, her parents praise her when she puts her books in the bookcase. This is an example of ____________. a. negative reinforcement b. punishment c. extinction d. shaping Answer: d. shaping Correct. Mary is given praise for every step that gets her closer to the desired behavior, a process called shaping. a. negative reinforcement Incorrect. Negative reinforcement involves terminating an unpleasant stimulus. 139. _____________ is an operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced. a. Shaping b. Spontaneous recovery c. Stimulus generalization d. Stimulus discrimination Answer: a. Shaping Correct. Shaping uses approximations of a response to generate a complex behavior. c. Stimulus generalization Incorrect. Stimulus generalization refers to a subject’s responding to stimuli that are similar to the original UCS. 140. ________ refers to a series of smaller behaviors that eventually form a desired and more complex behavior when reinforced operantly. a. Successive approximations b. Successive shaping c. Successive modification d. Approximal modification Answer: a. Successive approximations Correct. The correct answer is a. Successive approximations refer to a series of gradual steps or behaviors that lead to the development or shaping of a desired and more complex behavior through operant reinforcement. Each step brings the individual closer to the target behavior, and reinforcement is provided for each successive approximation until the final behavior is achieved. b. Successive shaping Incorrect. b. While "shaping" is a commonly used term in behavior analysis, the term "successive shaping" is not standard. Shaping refers to the process of reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved. 141. A discriminative stimulus is typically viewed as ________. a. something negative b. a cue c. promoting punishment d. a warning Answer: b. a cue Correct. A discriminative stimulus can help a person or animal distinguish which behaviors would elicit reinforcements and which behavior to elicit punishments. In other words, they are there to queue specific behaviors. a. something negative Incorrect. This is incorrect because a discriminative stimulus can be used to cue a reinforcement or a punishment. 142. Professor Rochelle told her students that if her door was closed it meant that she was unavailable to them and would be angry if they knocked on her door. But if her door was open, it meant that she was in a rare good mood and would answer questions at that time. Professor Rochelle’s door being open was a ___________ for _______________. a. discriminative stimulus; asking questions b. discriminative stimulus; not asking questions c. discriminative response; asking questions d. discriminative response; not asking questions Answer: a. discriminative stimulus; asking questions Correct. Professor Rochelle’s door being open was a discriminative stimulus for asking questions because it let students know what response to make—flee from her wrath or ask her a question. c. discriminative response; asking questions Incorrect. Professor Rochelle’s door being open was a discriminative stimulus and not a discriminative response. 143. A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that ______________. a. provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement b. leads a person to discriminate against one group of people based on ethnicity or race c. cues the person into which schedule of reinforcement is being used in operant conditioning d. Watson used to make Little Albert scared of all fuzzy things Answer: a. provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Correct. A discriminative stimulus lets one know whether a particular stimulus will lead to reinforcement. c. cues the person into which schedule of reinforcement is being used in operant conditioning Incorrect. A discriminative stimulus is not a cue for a reinforcement schedule. 144. An example of a discriminative stimulus might be a ________________. a. stop sign b. the stimulus that acts as a UCS in classical conditioning c. the white rat in Watson’s Little Albert study of producing phobias d. none of these Answer: a. stop sign Correct. A stop sign is a discriminative stimulus because one has to determine the different response that a stop sign should elicit when compared to all other signs. c. the white rat in Watson’s Little Albert study of producing phobias Incorrect. The rat did not have to be picked from a set of other stimuli and, thus, was not a discriminative stimulus. A stop sign is a discriminative stimulus because one has to decide what to do from all the other signs. 145. Bob has learned that he can usually get what he wants from his parents if he keeps whining for something. One day Bob starts whining in the toy store because he wants a GI JOE action figure. His father refuses to give it to him and ignores his whining. What will happen? a. generalization b. extinction c. spontaneous recovery d. discrimination Answer: b. extinction Correct. The whining will extinguish because the behavior is not being reinforced. c. spontaneous recovery Incorrect. The behavior will extinguish. It might show spontaneous recovery later after Bob’s father extinguishes his behavior but the initial situation as presented will lead to extinction. 146. The first time José sees a cat, his mother tells him, “That’s a cat. Can you say cat?” He repeats the word gleefully, and his mother praises him. The next day, he is watching a cartoon and sees a tiger on the television. He points at the tiger and says, “Cat!” This is an example of ____________. a. generalization b. spreading activation c. categorization d. discrimination Answer: a. generalization Correct. This is an example of generalization, the process in which the same reinforced response is evoked by similar stimuli. d. discrimination Incorrect. Discrimination occurs when subjects are trained not to respond to similar stimuli. 147. When Keller and Marian Breland, two psychologists who became animal trainers, decided that it would be cute to have a pig drop a big wooden coin into a box, they found that _______________. a. food was not an effective reinforcer for the pig and so learning didn’t occur b. when given edible roots as reinforcers, the pig learned the task in less than ten trials c. the pig displayed instinctive drift by dropping the coin and pushing it around with its nose. d. the pig showed intrinsic interest in the task and so reinforcement was unnecessary Answer: c. the pig displayed instinctive drift by dropping the coin and pushing it around with its nose. Correct. Despite Skinner’s views, the pig had some built-in behaviors that came to the fore—the principle of instinctive drift. d. the pig showed intrinsic interest in the task and so reinforcement was unnecessary Incorrect. Reinforcement was necessary. 148. In their 1961 paper on instinctive drift, the Brelands determined that three assumptions most Skinnerian behaviorists believed in were not actually true. Which is one of the assumptions that was NOT true? a. The animal comes to the laboratory a tabula rasa, or “blank slate,” and can be taught anything with the right conditioning. b. Differences between species of animals are insignificant. c. All responses are equally able to be conditioned to any stimulus. d. All of these were not true. Answer: d. All of these were not true. Correct. All of these were not true. The Brelands’ work was quite the problem for pure Skinnerians. a. The animal comes to the laboratory a tabula rasa, or “blank slate,” and can be taught anything with the right conditioning. Incorrect. This is correct but all statements (a, b, c) in the question are not true. 149. A behavioral psychologist tries to train a bird to climb a tree to get a reward of a piece of fruit. At first, the bird learns how to climb the tree with its legs and beak. After a while, it starts flapping its wings and hopping around before it starts to climb. Eventually, the bird flies up to the piece of fruit, even though that prevents it from getting the fruit. According to the Brelands’ analysis of biological constraints, the bird is demonstrating ________. a. response generalization b. that it was reverting to behavior that was instinctual for it c. the power of negative reinforcement d. the Law of Effect Answer: b. that it was reverting to behavior that was instinctual for it Correct. The Brelands discovered that animals revert to instinctual behavior in gathering food, a phenomenon they called instinctive drift. d. the Law of Effect Incorrect. The Law of Effect was proposed by Thorndike; since the bird isn’t getting the fruit, that principle is not applicable here. 150. A school issues tokens to the children for good behavior. This issue of a token is an example of ___________. a. classical conditioning b. instinctive drift c. primary reinforcement d. behavior modification Answer: d. behavior modification Correct. Behavior modification is the use of operant conditioning to bring about desired behavior, which is exactly what the school is trying to do. c. primary reinforcement Incorrect. Primary reinforcement satisfies a basic need, such as hunger, which is not the case here; the token is a secondary reinforcer. 151. Which of the following statements is true about behavior modification? a. It involves the process of shaping. b. It is useful only for teaching autistic children. c. It is different from behavior modification. d. It cannot be used with animals. Answer: a. It involves the process of shaping. Correct. Behavior modification involves the process of shaping to encourage slow change in behavior for the desired therapeutic result. d. It cannot be used with animals. Incorrect. There are animal trainers who use principles quite similar to shaping. 152. In order to get her 3rd grade students to memorize the poem written on the chalkboard, Mrs. Thyberg gives the students stickers for each poem they can recite from memory. After earning 5 stickers, a student gets to pick a prize out of the goody box. Mrs. Thyberg is using (a) _____________________ to modify the children’s behaviors. a. token economy b. applied behavior analysis c. negative reinforcement d. classical conditioning. Answer: a. token economy Correct. The teacher is using tokens as rewards for desired behaviors. c. negative reinforcement Incorrect. The students are being reinforced for their behaviors, but the reinforcement is positive, not negative. 153. Ellen, a mentally retarded adult, has just received a “token.” Based on this information, it is most reasonable to assume that Ellen ________. a. just received praise from a co-worker or family member b. literally has received a token that can be traded for some good or privilege c. is homeless, has been begging for money, and received a special coin to use bus d. has successfully just completed a therapy program Answer: b. literally has received a token that can be traded for some good or privilege Correct. Token economies exchange tokens for desirable behaviors. d. has successfully just completed a therapy program Incorrect. This is not an appropriate example to demonstrate the token economy system of behavior modification. 154. Molly is sometimes loud and disruptive in class, and her teacher thinks she acts this way when she wants attention. The teacher worries that yelling at Molly might serve as a positive reinforcer for her bad behavior because it is giving Molly the attention she wants. One behavior modification that might help with this child is _______________. a. use of partial reinforcement b. use of classical conditioning by shocking the child so that she stops speaking out c. use of instinctive drift therapy d. use of time-outs to remove the positive reinforcement that even a scolding gives the child Answer: d. use of time-outs to remove the positive reinforcement that even a scolding gives the child Correct. Time-outs would isolate Molly, giving her the exact opposite of what she wants, and would remove the positive reinforcement that a scolding gives her. b. use of classical conditioning by shocking the child so that she stops speaking out Incorrect. Punishment by shocking will lead to all the problems associated with the use of severe punishment. 155. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) has been used with autistic children. The basic principle of this form of behavior modification is ________. a. partial reinforcement b. classical conditioning c. negative punishment d. shaping Answer: d. shaping Correct. The basic principle is shaping because you need small changes that are within the child’s capacity to implement. a. partial reinforcement Incorrect. The basic principle is shaping because you need to slowly change the behavior of such children as they are not capable of more extensive behavioral changes. 156. An operant conditioning technique in which a learner gains conscious control over his or her own biological response is __________________. a. biofeedback b. contingency training c. cellular training d. social learning Answer: a. biofeedback Correct. Biofeedback is an operant conditioning technique that allows someone to control his or her own biological response. b. contingency training Incorrect. Contingency training is too generic a term. The more specific term is biofeedback as it refers to control of a biological response. 157. A key element in the use of biofeedback is teaching a person to induce a state of _____________ to help gain control over biological functions. a. sleep b. anxiety c. relaxation d. heightened awareness Answer: c. relaxation Correct. Inducing a state of relaxation is a key in the process of biofeedback. d. heightened awareness Incorrect. While becoming more aware of the body’s processes is the goal of biofeedback, this is achieved first by gaining a heightened state of relaxation. 158. Biofeedback is an application of ______. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. social learning d. preparedness Answer: b. operant conditioning Correct. Biofeedback utilizes operant conditioning because it involves voluntary control of previously involuntary processes. a. classical conditioning Incorrect. Biofeedback is related to operant conditioning because it involves voluntary control. Classical conditioning is involuntary in nature with no control. 159. Which of the following would be most appropriate for the use of biofeedback procedures? a. conditioning coyotes to stay away from sheep b. conditioning delinquents to be less aggressive c. conditioning children to be on time for school d. conditioning executives to reduce their blood pressure Answer: d. conditioning executives to reduce their blood pressure Correct. Conditioning executives to reduce their blood pressure would be an appropriate use of biofeedback because they are trying to control a biological process that normally isn’t under voluntary control. c. conditioning children to be on time for school Incorrect. Getting to school on time is a voluntary response, whereas biofeedback techniques involve involuntary, biological responses. 160. Neurofeedback, a newer type of biofeedback, involves trying to change ____________. a. brain wave activity b. blood pressure c. heart rate d. body temperature Answer: a. brain wave activity Correct. Neurofeedback attempts to change brain wave activity. c. heart rate Incorrect. Neurofeedback does not involve monitoring the heart rate; rather, it focuses on neural activity such as brain wave alteration. Cardiac changes would be typical of biofeedback. 161. A person is connected to an electroencephalograph, a machine that records the brain’s electrical activity. The person is reinforced when his or her pattern of brain waves changes in order to treat a disorder such as epilepsy. This technique is best called _________. a. biofeedback b. behavior modification c. operant conditioning d. neurofeedback Answer: d. neurofeedback Correct. Neurofeedback involves monitoring brain waves. a. biofeedback Incorrect. Biofeedback usually is reserved for conditioning systems other than the nervous system. 162. Which of the following types of brain imaging techniques does your textbook note can be used for neurofeedback data collection? a. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) b. Positron emission tomography (PET) c. Computed axial tomography (CAT) d. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Answer: a. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Correct. The correct answer is a. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain imaging technique that can be used for neurofeedback data collection. Neurofeedback involves providing real-time feedback about brain activity to individuals, allowing them to learn to regulate their brain function. fMRI provides detailed images of brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, making it suitable for neurofeedback applications. d. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Incorrect. d. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides detailed structural images of the brain but does not directly measure brain activity in real time, making it less suitable for neurofeedback compared to fMRI. 163. In order to treat a child’s attention problems in a classroom, a technique that uses the EEG and video-game-style technology called _____________ has been employed. a. neurogenetics b. neurofeedback c. biofeedback d. videographics Answer: b. neurofeedback Correct. Neurofeedback uses techniques that resemble video games to help change brain wave activities. c. biofeedback Incorrect. Neurofeedback uses techniques that resemble video games to help change brain wave activities. 164. The concept of latent learning was developed by ______. a. Watson b. Skinner c. Thorndike d. Tolman Answer: d. Tolman Correct. Tolman, in contrast to the behaviorists of his time, thought that latent learning was important and demonstrated the role of cognition in learning. a. Watson Incorrect. Watson would have been opposed to studying latent learning because he focused only on observable behaviors. 165. The idea that learning occurs and is stored up, even when behaviors are not reinforced, is called ______. a. insight b. latent learning c. placebo learning d. innate learning Answer: b. latent learning Correct. Since the learning was not observable, it was deemed to be latent. d. innate learning Incorrect. Innate learning would imply a genetically based process. Latent learning referred to the animal not making a response to a situation but demonstrating that it had retained information about that situation. 166. Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in a behavior change is called ______. a. insight b. innate learning c. vicarious learning d. latent learning Answer: d. latent learning Correct. Since the learning was not observable, it was deemed to be latent. a. insight Incorrect. Insight refers to a sudden realization of a solution in a problem-solving situation. 167. Who is best known for studying the phenomenon of insight in animals? a. Köhler b. Tolman c. Seligman d. Skinner Answer: a. Köhler Correct. Köhler is best known for studying insight in animals. b. Tolman Incorrect. Tolman’s work focused on latent learning. 168. You spend days wandering aimlessly around a park with many different paths that end at different parts of the park. One day when you arrive at the park you get a call on your cell phone from your cousin whom you haven’t seen for years, and she says she is waiting for you in a particular section of the park. Even though the paths are complicated and twisted, you manage to find the shortest route to your cousin. Tolman would explain your efficient passage through the park as an example of ____________. a. spontaneous recovery b. insight c. the formation of a cognitive map d. unconscious trial-and-error imagery Answer: c. the formation of a cognitive map Correct. Tolman postulated the concept of the cognitive map, which was in marked contrast to the behaviorist views of the time. b. insight Incorrect. Tolman postulated that such an example would be due to the formation of a cognitive map. Cognitive maps were his explanation of latent learning effects. 169. Which of the following is true of research on insight? a. Researchers have found that only human beings are capable of insight learning. b. Researchers have found support for the existence of both human and animal insight learning. c. Researchers have found that apes are capable of insight only after being taught this by humans. d. Researchers have proven that all creatures, even one-celled organisms such as the amoeba, are capable of insight learning. Answer: b. Researchers have found support for the existence of both human and animal insight learning. Correct. Humans and apes are capable of insight learning. We are very similar genetically and have a common evolutionary ancestor. a. Researchers have found that only human beings are capable of insight learning. Incorrect. Insight was first studied with chimps. 170. The “aha!” experience is known as ________________. a. latent learning b. insight learning c. thoughtful learning d. serial enumeration Answer: b. insight learning Correct. The “aha!” experience is known as insight learning. a. latent learning Incorrect. The “aha!” experience is known as insight learning. Latent learning was an effect studied by Tolman. 171. You need to remove a broken light bulb from a lamp. Without a pair of gloves, you are likely to cut yourself on the jagged glass. Suddenly, it occurs to you that you can use a cut potato to remove the light bulb from the socket. You have just demonstrated ___________. a. generalization b. discrimination c. latent learning d. insight learning Answer: d. insight learning Correct. You have just demonstrated insight learning similar to Kohler’s chimps. c. latent learning Incorrect. The “aha!” experience or sudden realization is known as insight learning. Latent learning was an effect studied by Tolman. 172. John has been working on a math problem late at night without success; he falls asleep. Upon awakening, John suddenly realizes how to answer the problem. This best illustrates which of the following? a. observational learning b. latent learning c. insight learning d. cognitive learning Answer: c. insight learning Correct. The “aha” moment when an answer suddenly hits you is called insight learning. b. latent learning Incorrect. Latent learning demonstrates the ability to acquire information without demonstrating an immediate behavioral response. It is not relevant to this question. 173. The person most closely associated with research on learned helplessness is ______. a. Thorndike b. Wolpe c. Seligman d. Bandura Answer: c. Seligman Correct. Seligman was the discoverer of the important phenomena of learned helplessness. d. Bandura Incorrect. Bandura was most concerned with observational learning. 174. A researcher places dogs in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The dogs are randomly given electric shocks and can do nothing to prevent them or stop them. Later, the same dogs are placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the shocks are given, the dogs do not even try to escape. They just sit and cower. This is an example of ____________. a. learned helplessness b. avoidance learning c. aversive conditioning d. vicarious learning Answer: a. learned helplessness Correct. Since the dogs did not try to escape even when they could, it is as if they learned to be helpless. c. aversive conditioning Incorrect. The effect is one of learned helplessness because the dogs do not try to escape as you might predict in an aversive conditioning situation. 175. In an experiment, two groups of dogs are given shocks to their feet. One group is able to escape the shocks by jumping over a barrier. The second group is harnessed and cannot escape. After several trials, both groups are put in situations where they CAN escape. The first group escapes the shocks but the second group just sits and whines, refusing to attempt to escape. The response of the second group is due to ______. a. learned helplessness b. contingency blocking c. latent learning d. response generalization Answer: a. learned helplessness Correct. Since the dogs did not try to escape even when they could, it is as if they learned to be helpless. c. latent learning Incorrect. The effect is one of learned helplessness because the dogs do not try to escape as you might predict in a latent learning situation. 176. College students faced with unsolvable problems eventually give up and make only half hearted attempts to solve new problems, even when the new problems can be solved easily. This behavior is probably due to ______. a. learned helplessness b. contingency blocking c. latent learning d. response generalization Answer: a. learned helplessness Correct. Students’ lack of success in the past “taught” them to not even bother trying, a phenomenon Seligman called learned helplessness. c. latent learning Incorrect. The students did not show that they learned the problems, so it could not be latent learning of the problem. Because they did not try, it was a case of learned helplessness. 177. Seligman expanded his theory of learned helplessness to explain __________. a. autism b. ADHD c. schizophrenia d. depression Answer: d. depression Correct. One important implication of the theory of learned helplessness was its application to the understanding of depression. a. autism Incorrect. Although learned helplessness seems to be applicable on the surface to autism, it is more applicable to depression as it may explain some of the latter’s processes. 178. While watching the evening news you see a story about domestic abuse and wonder “why would anyone stay in a relationship where they are being abused?” According to Seligman, one factor that may contribute to victim’s staying in abusive relationships is _____________________. a. observational learning b. learned helplessness c. conditioned emotional response d. instinctive drift Answer: b. learned helplessness Correct. Because victims may feel helpless to control their situation, this would be an example of learned helplessness. c. conditioned emotional response Incorrect. Although fear may well play into this situation, Seligman’s work focused on the concept of learned helplessness. 179. Which type of learning occurs when we observe how other people act? a. insight learning b. operant conditioning c. classical conditioning d. observational learning Answer: d. observational learning Correct. Observational learning is based on seeing the actions of others and their consequences. a. insight learning Incorrect. Insight refers to a rapid problem solution and does not necessarily involve observation of others. 180. Observational learning theory’s foremost proponent is ______. a. Watson b. Thorndike c. Skinner d. Bandura Answer: d. Bandura Correct. Observational learning theory’s foremost proponent is Bandura, and it has contributed greatly to our knowledge of media effects on society. b. Thorndike Incorrect. Thorndike was responsible for the Law of Effect. Observational learning is one of Bandura’s discoveries. 181. A girl learns that whenever her brother shares his cookie with her, her mother gives him a piece of candy. The girl starts sharing her treats with her friends when they come over in the hopes of getting a similar reward. The girl’s learning to share is an example of ______. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. contingency theory d. observational learning Answer: d. observational learning Correct. Learning by watching others is known as observational learning. c. contingency theory Incorrect. The girl’s learning to share is an example of observational learning theory. Contingency theory is not related to the concept. 182. Bandura conducted a classic study known as the “Bobo” doll study. The term Bobo refers to ____________. a. Bandura’s pet name for the dog used in the study b. Bandura’s loyal but strange assistant that carried out the study c. Bandura’s nickname that his wife had given him d. the type of inflatable doll that was used in the study Answer: d. the type of inflatable doll that was used in the study Correct. The term Bobo refers to the inflatable doll that was used in the study. a. Bandura’s pet name for the dog used in the study Incorrect. The term Bobo refers to the inflatable doll that was used in the study. 183. A Congressional hearing is taking place in Washington, DC. The representatives are discussing whether the portrayals of violence on children’s TV shows are perhaps contributing to the violence we see in schools today. The work of what psychologist is most relevant to their discussions? a. Bandura b. Tolman c. Skinner d. Pavlov Answer: a. Bandura Correct. Bandura’s work is most relevant to their discussions. c. Skinner Incorrect. Bandura’s work is most relevant to their discussions. Skinner was not concerned with observational learning, which is the core phenomenon under discussion. 184. Learning that takes place without actual performance (a kind of latent learning) is called _____________. a. the learning/performance distinction b. the innate performance preference c. the delayed learning paradigm d. the observational delay effect Answer: a. the learning/performance distinction Correct. Learning that takes place without actual performance (a kind of latent learning) is called the learning/performance distinction. d. the observational delay effect Incorrect. Learning that takes place without actual performance (a kind of latent learning) is called the learning/performance distinction. 185. Michael grows up in a home where his father is generally unloving toward his mother. He observes his father yell and degrade his mother, and he notices that his mother never resists this treatment. Based on the work of Bandura, what might we predict about Michael’s own relationships when he is older? a. Michael will probably treat women very well, as he rebels against the behaviors he saw in his father. b. Michael may treat women with discourtesy and disrespect, as he repeats the behavior he saw in his father. c. Michael will probably have no relationships with women, as his father has taught him that relationships are not worth having. d. Michael will always be very distant from his father, as he has learned that his father does not care about anyone but himself. Answer: b. Michael may treat women with discourtesy and disrespect, as he repeats the behavior he saw in his father. Correct. Bandura’s concept of observational learning suggests that children tend to repeat the behaviors that they see in respected authority figures, including their parents. a. Michael will probably treat women very well, as he rebels against the behaviors he saw in his father. Incorrect. Unless there is some sort of intervention where Michael is taught that his father’s actions are inappropriate, he is more likely to emulate them than to rebel against them. 186. A Congressional hearing is taking place in Washington, DC. The representatives are discussing whether the portrayals of violence on children’s TV shows are perhaps contributing to the violence we see in schools today. What psychological process are the representatives probably considering as the reason that TV influences school violence? a. observational learning b. operant conditioning c. classical conditioning d. insight learning Answer: a. observational learning Correct. They are worried that children will imitate the aggression they see modeled on TV, which is a process called observational learning. d. insight learning Incorrect. Insight learning concerns rapid problem solving that is not necessarily based on observing others. 187. In Bandura’s study with the Bobo doll, the children in the group who saw the model punished did not imitate the model at first. They would only imitate the model if given a reward for doing so. The fact that these children had obviously learned the behavior without actually performing it is an example of ____________. a. latent learning b. operant conditioning c. classical conditioning d. insight learning Answer: a. latent learning Correct. The children were demonstrating latent learning as Tolman first demonstrated. d. insight learning Incorrect. Because it was not a rapid solution to a problem, it was not insight learning. It was a case of latent learning because they made a response that they had not made before. 188. In order to learn anything through observation, the learner must ____________. a. pay attention to the model b. be able to retain the memory of the model’s action c. be capable of reproducing the model’s action d. All of these processes are necessary. Answer: d. All of these processes are necessary. Correct. All of the processes are necessary. a. pay attention to the model Incorrect. This does have to take place but ALL the processes mentioned must occur. 189. For observational learning to occur, each of the following must happen EXCEPT ______. a. paying attention to what the model does b. remembering what the model did c. doing what the model did d. being reinforced for imitating the model Answer: d. being reinforced for imitating the model Correct. Being reinforced for imitating the model is not necessary. b. remembering what the model did Incorrect. Remembering is one of the four elements of observational learning. 190. Cheryl is trying to teach her son to do the laundry by watching her. According to observational learning theory, to be effective what must occur? a. Her son must always model the behavior immediately. b. Her son must be motivated to learn how to do the laundry. c. Her son must be able to complete other tasks while watching her. d. Cheryl must show her son how to do the laundry while she is making dinner. Answer: b. Her son must be motivated to learn how to do the laundry. Correct. Bandura determined that motivation was necessary in order for observational learning to occur. a. Her son must always model the behavior immediately. Incorrect. He does not have to model the behavior immediately in order to learn it; he can learn by watching over time. 191. A young child watches her mother make pancakes. She wants to please her mother so she pays attention. However, when she goes to make them on her own, she can’t break the eggs for the batter without making a terrible mess and dropping them on the floor, no matter how hard she tries. Her attempt failed because of a problem with which part of the necessary components for observational learning? a. attention b. memory c. imitation d. motivation Answer: c. imitation Correct. Her attempt failed because of her inability to crack the eggs. b. memory Incorrect. She couldn’t imitate Mom and that was the problem. She remembered correctly what to do. 192. A young boy is watching TV. In one show he sees a bully steal a lunch from another child. The bully then enjoys eating the other child’s lunch. Because this boy feels that his mother makes him a rather skimpy lunch and he is always hungry at school, he starts stealing other kids’ lunches at school. According to Bandura’s theory of observational learning, his hunger at lunchtime most influenced which factor? a. attention b. memory c. imitation d. motivation Answer: d. motivation Correct. His hunger motivated him to become a bully. c. imitation Incorrect. Imitation was not the major factor. Hunger is a motivational factor. 193. Dad is watching a home improvement show about how to install a new sink. He really wants to do it and watches the show intently. He knows that his wife will reward him when he is done. However, when he tests the new sink, water spurts everywhere. Taking the new sink apart, he finds that he has left out the crucial washers in the faucet assembly even though this was emphasized in the TV show. What part of Bandura’s theory of the necessary components of observational learning is most likely the reason for this disaster? a. attention b. memory c. imitation d. motivation Answer: b. memory Correct. Dad’s memory failed him. d. motivation Incorrect. Dad’s memory failed him. 194. Which letters correspond to the four elements of modeling from Bandura’s theory? a. MIMA b. AMIM c. BANDURA d. MOMA Answer: b. AMIM Correct. AMIM: attention, memory, imitation, motivation a. MIMA Incorrect. AMIM: attention, memory, imitation, motivation 195. In Bandura’s study of observational learning, the abbreviation AMIM stands for _____________. a. attention, memory, imitation, motivation b. alertness, motivation, intent, monetary reward c. achievement, momentum, initiative, memory d. achievement, motivation, intellectual capacity, memory Answer: a. attention, memory, imitation, motivation Correct. AMIM: attention, memory, imitation, motivation c. achievement, momentum, initiative, memory Incorrect. AMIM: attention, memory, imitation, motivation 196. Karawynn Long attempted to toilet train her cat. The principle of learning that was in operation was _____________. a. observational learning b. classical conditioning c. AMIM d. shaping Answer: d. shaping Correct. Shaping involves breaking a desired behavior down into a series of small steps, as Long did with her cat. a. observational learning Incorrect. Observational learning would have occurred if the cat had learned by observing someone else use the toilet, but that was not the case. TRUE OR FALSE 1. A change in behavior that is relatively permanent and brought about by experience is commonly referred to by psychologists as acquisition behavior. Answer: False Rationale: The statement is false because acquisition refers specifically to the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and strengthened. It does not encompass all changes in behavior brought about by experience, as there are other stages of learning beyond acquisition, such as maintenance and extinction. 2. Classical conditioning was accidentally discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov while he was studying salivation. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning accidentally while conducting experiments on the digestive system of dogs. He observed that the dogs began to salivate not only in response to the presentation of food but also to stimuli associated with the food, such as the sound of the laboratory assistant's footsteps. 3. In Pavlov’s original experiment of classical conditioning, dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a metronome when the metronome was repeatedly paired with the presentation of food. The food is referred to as the unconditioned response. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. In Pavlov's original experiment, the food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which naturally elicits the unconditioned response (UCR) of salivation. The metronome, when paired with the food, becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting the conditioned response (CR) of salivation. 4. If one presented the conditioned stimulus (such as a metronome) after the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (the food) in Pavlov’s learning experiment, little or no classical conditioning would occur. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) must be presented before or simultaneously with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for effective learning to occur. If the CS follows the UCS, little or no association is formed between the stimuli, and classical conditioning does not occur. 5. A conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the paired presentation of the UCS. After time, the subject no longer makes the conditioned response. This fading of the CR is known as habituation. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. The described process actually refers to extinction, not habituation. Habituation occurs when a response diminishes as a result of repeated exposure to a non-threatening stimulus. In contrast, extinction occurs when the conditioned response (CR) decreases or disappears when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). 6. Albert was a little boy who was shown to be remarkably resistant to having his emotional responses conditioned by Watson. Watson presented Albert with a cute little furry rat and then rang a loud bell. Later, Albert should have become scared of the bell, but this never happened. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. In John B. Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment, Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat through pairing it with a loud noise. The experiment demonstrated that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans, and Albert did develop a fear of the rat and similar objects, such as furry animals. 7. Conditioned emotional responses are some of the easiest forms of classical conditioning to accomplish, as demonstrated by the fact that our lives are so full of them. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Conditioned emotional responses are prevalent in daily life and can be relatively easy to establish. Many of our emotional reactions to various stimuli are learned through classical conditioning, as demonstrated by phobias, preferences, and aversions. 8. One interesting thing about conditioned taste aversions is that birds differ from mammals in how they learn them. Birds seem more likely to learn the taste aversion to the appearance of the new food, rather than the smell. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Research suggests that birds are more likely to form conditioned taste aversions based on visual cues associated with novel or harmful food, whereas mammals tend to rely more on taste and smell cues. This difference in learning preferences reflects variations in sensory processing and ecological adaptations across species. 9. Current views of conditioning by psychologists, such as Rescorla, indicate that learning is completely automatic and has nothing to do with cognitive processes. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Contemporary perspectives on conditioning, including those of Robert Rescorla, recognize the role of cognitive processes in learning. Cognitive factors such as attention, expectation, and memory play significant roles in conditioning, shaping the strength and persistence of learned associations. 10. The Law of Effect emphasized that responses were more likely to be made if they were followed by some pleasing consequence. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. The Law of Effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. This principle laid the groundwork for operant conditioning and the use of reinforcement to shape behavior. 11. According to B. F. Skinner, negative reinforcement of a response makes you more likely to continue to make that response. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. For example, if a student studies hard to avoid receiving a low grade (aversive stimulus), and as a result, achieves a high grade (removal of the aversive stimulus), they are more likely to continue studying in the future. 12. Using continuous reinforcement is the best way to prevent a response from becoming extinguished. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. While this can lead to rapid learning, behaviors maintained through continuous reinforcement are more susceptible to extinction when reinforcement is discontinued. Intermittent reinforcement schedules, which reinforce behavior only some of the time, are actually more effective in preventing extinction because they create more resilient behaviors. 13. After graduating from college, you are hired to work in a factory as an industrial psychologist. The workers put together iPods. They can either be paid by the hour or by the number of iPods they put together in a day. You decide that you will do the latter (pay by the number of iPods put together). According to Skinner, you have put the workers on a fixed-ratio schedule. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses. Paying the workers based on the number of iPods they assemble in a day aligns with a fixed-ratio schedule because reinforcement (payment) is contingent upon completing a set number of responses (assembling iPods). 14. A child is wetting his or her bed. According to our textbook, punishing the child would be the best way to permanently stop this behavior. You would recommend that the child be given no food on the day after a bedwetting incident. This is because punishment is guaranteed to stop bad behaviors. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Punishment, especially when severe or applied inconsistently, can lead to negative side effects such as fear, resentment, and anxiety. Punishing a child for bedwetting may not address the underlying cause of the behavior and can even exacerbate the problem. Positive reinforcement for dry nights or addressing any underlying medical or psychological issues is typically a more effective approach. 15. The Brelands tried to condition pigs to drop wooden coins into a bank. This turned out not to be easy as the pigs tended to make instinctual responses as compared to the learned responses. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. The Brelands, who were students of B. F. Skinner, attempted to train pigs to drop wooden coins into a bank as part of an operant conditioning experiment. However, the pigs exhibited instinctual behaviors related to rooting and foraging, which interfered with the learned behavior of dropping coins into the bank. This highlights the influence of innate behaviors on operant conditioning. 16. Biofeedback training is an application that uses the principles of operant conditioning. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Biofeedback training involves providing individuals with real-time feedback about physiological processes such as heart rate, muscle tension, or brainwave activity. Through operant conditioning principles, individuals can learn to control these physiological responses by receiving reinforcement (e.g., visual or auditory cues) when they successfully achieve the desired changes in their bodily functions. 17. The “aha” moment that indicates insight learning was first hypothesized by Tolman. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. The "aha" moment associated with insight learning was first hypothesized by German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler, not Tolman. Köhler's research with chimpanzees on problem-solving and sudden comprehension led to the concept of insight learning, where solutions to problems are reached through sudden comprehension or understanding of the relationships between elements in the problem. 18. Seligman’s concept of learned helplessness has been extended into the field of psychopathology to explain the emergence of schizophrenia in late adolescence. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. While learned helplessness has been implicated in various psychological disorders, including depression and anxiety, it has not been directly linked to the emergence of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric disorder with multifactorial causes, including genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors, rather than solely learned helplessness. 19. Bandura’s seminal study of observational learning involved watching children and their interactions with Bobo dolls. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Albert Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated observational learning, where children observed aggressive behavior directed at a Bobo doll and subsequently imitated that behavior. The study highlighted the importance of social modeling and observational learning processes in shaping behavior. 20. Observational learning has been used to explain why children who watch violent television tend to behave more aggressively. Research has demonstrated that watching such television shows causes an increase in violent tendencies. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. While observational learning contributes to the acquisition of behaviors observed in media, the relationship between watching violent television and behaving aggressively is more complex and multifaceted. While some research suggests a correlation between exposure to violent media and aggressive behavior, causality is not definitively established, and other factors such as individual differences and environmental influences also play significant roles. 21. When Karawynn Long trained her cat Misha to use a toilet instead of a litter box, the last step in the training was teaching the cat to flush the toilet. Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. While teaching a cat to use a toilet instead of a litter box is an example of operant conditioning, the step of teaching the cat to flush the toilet would likely be impractical and challenging. The goal of toilet training for a cat typically focuses on getting the cat to use the toilet for elimination, not on performing additional actions such as flushing. SHORT ANSWER 1. Why is learning described as a “relatively permanent” change? Answer: Learning is described as a "relatively permanent" change because it implies that the change in behavior or understanding brought about by learning tends to persist over time. While not necessarily permanent in the sense of being irreversible, learning typically leads to enduring changes in behavior or knowledge that are not easily or quickly eliminated. 2. Give an example of an unconditioned stimulus. Answer: An example of an unconditioned stimulus is food in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs. In these experiments, the presentation of food naturally and automatically elicits the unconditioned response of salivation in the dogs without prior learning. 3. Give an example of an unconditioned response. Answer: An example of an unconditioned response is the reflexive behavior of salivation in response to the unconditioned stimulus of food. In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, the dogs salivated automatically and reflexively when food was presented, without any prior learning. 4. Give an example of a conditioned stimulus. Answer: An example of a conditioned stimulus is a bell in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments. Initially, the bell has no effect on the dogs' salivation. However, after being repeatedly paired with the presentation of food (the unconditioned stimulus), the bell comes to evoke salivation on its own. 5. Give an example of a conditioned response. Answer: An example of a conditioned response is salivation in response to the conditioned stimulus of a bell in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments. After the bell has been paired with the presentation of food multiple times, the dogs begin to salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even when food is not present. 6. Describe what occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented over and over again without the unconditioned stimulus. Answer: When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), a process known as extinction occurs in classical conditioning. During extinction, the conditioned response (CR) gradually weakens and eventually diminishes or disappears altogether. The organism learns that the CS no longer predicts the UCS, leading to a decrease in the CR. 7. What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning? Answer: Spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning refers to the sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Even after extinction has occurred, the CR may briefly reemerge when the CS is presented again, demonstrating that the association between the CS and UCS is not completely erased. 8. Give an example of a conditioned taste aversion. Answer: An example of a conditioned taste aversion is when a person becomes nauseous or ill after eating a particular food (UCS), such as sushi, that was consumed just before experiencing food poisoning. As a result of this negative experience, the taste of sushi (CS) becomes associated with feeling sick, leading to a conditioned taste aversion where the person avoids sushi in the future to prevent feeling ill again. 9. What important factor in learning is Rescorla best known for? Answer: Rescorla is best known for his research on contingency and the role of predictive value in classical conditioning. He emphasized that the strength of conditioning depends on the degree to which the conditioned stimulus (CS) reliably predicts the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Rescorla's work highlighted the importance of cognitive factors and the predictive relationship between stimuli in learning. 10. What is the law of effect and who was responsible for its conceptualization? Answer: The law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated. Thorndike's law of effect laid the foundation for operant conditioning, emphasizing the role of consequences in shaping behavior and influencing the likelihood of future responses. 11. Why is money such a powerful secondary reinforcer? Why isn’t it a primary reinforcer? Answer: Money is a powerful secondary reinforcer because it has acquired its reinforcing properties through its association with primary reinforcers (such as food, shelter, or other basic needs) and the ability to obtain them. Money has value because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers, making it desirable to individuals. However, money is not a primary reinforcer itself because it does not inherently satisfy biological or physiological needs like food or water. Instead, its reinforcing properties are learned through its association with primary reinforcers. 12. What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? Answer: Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior occurring again in the future. In contrast, punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of an undesired behavior occurring again in the future. While both negative reinforcement and punishment involve aversive stimuli, they differ in their intended effects on behavior: negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it. 13. How can you tell the difference between an interval and a ratio schedule of partial reinforcement? Answer: The difference between interval and ratio schedules of partial reinforcement lies in the timing of reinforcement delivery relative to the occurrence of the behavior. In an interval schedule, reinforcement is based on the passage of time, while in a ratio schedule, reinforcement is based on the number of responses emitted by the individual. In an interval schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a certain amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement, regardless of how many responses occurred during that time. Examples include fixed-interval schedules (reinforcement delivered after a fixed amount of time) and variable-interval schedules (reinforcement delivered after a variable amount of time). In a ratio schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a certain number of responses have been emitted by the individual, regardless of the passage of time. Examples include fixed-ratio schedules (reinforcement delivered after a fixed number of responses) and variable-ratio schedules (reinforcement delivered after a variable number of responses). 14. Distinguish between the concepts of punishment of application and punishment by removal. Answer: Punishment of application, also known as positive punishment, involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus following an undesired behavior with the intention of decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. In contrast, punishment by removal, also known as negative punishment, involves the removal or withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus following an undesired behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior recurring in the future. Both types of punishment aim to decrease the frequency of the undesired behavior, but they differ in whether an aversive stimulus is presented or removed. 15. List three potential problem outcomes of misusing punishment with children. Answer: Three potential problem outcomes of misusing punishment with children include: 1. Increased aggression: Children may become more aggressive or hostile if punishment is harsh or inconsistent, leading to a negative parent-child relationship and modeling of aggressive behavior. 2. Fear and anxiety: Punishment can create fear and anxiety in children, leading to emotional distress and avoidance of the punishing individual or situations associated with punishment. 3. Decreased self-esteem: Children subjected to frequent punishment may develop low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness, as they may internalize the belief that they are inherently bad or unworthy of love and acceptance. 16. What is instinctive drift and how did the Brelands discover it? Answer: Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of learned behaviors to revert to instinctual, species-specific patterns over time, especially in the presence of strong biological drives or instincts. The Brelands discovered instinctive drift during their operant conditioning experiments with animals, particularly pigs. They observed that despite successful training of complex behaviors, such as teaching pigs to drop wooden coins into a bank, the pigs would often revert to innate, instinctual behaviors related to rooting and foraging, interfering with the learned behaviors. 17. Give an example of latent learning that you might see in your own life. Answer: An example of latent learning in my own life might involve learning to navigate a new city. Suppose I move to a new city for a job and initially do not actively explore or learn the layout of the city. However, as time passes and I need to find my way to various places like grocery stores, restaurants, and work, I gradually acquire spatial knowledge and navigation skills without explicit instruction or reinforcement. This learning remains latent until I actually need to use it, at which point I demonstrate my knowledge of the city's layout. 18. What are the four factors that Bandura finds necessary for observational learning? Answer: Bandura identifies four essential factors necessary for observational learning: 1. Attention: Individuals must pay attention to the model's behavior and its consequences to learn from observation effectively. 2. Retention: Observers must remember or retain the information about the observed behavior to reproduce it later. 3. Motor reproduction: Observers must have the physical and cognitive ability to reproduce the observed behavior. 4. Motivation: Observers are more likely to imitate behavior if they expect that doing so will result in reinforcement or rewards, or if the behavior is perceived as desirable or similar to their own goals or values. ESSAY 1. Define learning. Given this definition, what types of behaviors would not be considered learning? How does the concept of instinctive drift relate to these examples? What types of behaviors would be included? Answer: Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience. Behaviors that do not involve a change or modification due to experience would not be considered learning. Examples of such behaviors include innate or instinctual behaviors that are genetically programmed and do not require prior experience, such as reflexes or fixed action patterns. Instinctive drift occurs when learned behaviors gradually revert to instinctual behaviors, particularly in the presence of strong biological drives or instincts. Behaviors included in learning would encompass those that are acquired or modified through experience, such as acquiring new skills, forming associations between stimuli, or adapting to new environmental conditions. 2. Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies in terms of the UCS, UCR, CS, CR and his results. Briefly discuss two examples of classical conditioning in your own life, naming the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR. Answer: In Pavlov's classical conditioning studies: UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Food presented to the dogs, leading to salivation. UCR (Unconditioned Response): Salivation elicited by the presentation of food. CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Bell ringing before presenting food. CR (Conditioned Response): Salivation elicited by the bell alone. Pavlov's results demonstrated that the dogs began to associate the bell (CS) with the presentation of food (UCS), leading to the development of a conditioned response (CR) of salivation to the bell alone. In my own life: Example 1: UCS: Smell of food (such as pizza), UCR: Feeling hungry; CS: Sound of microwave timer, CR: Feeling hungry. Example 2: UCS: Sound of garage door opening, UCR: Anticipation of family member's arrival; CS: Sound of specific car engine, CR: Anticipation of family member's arrival. 3. One day as your professor is driving to work, another driver runs through a red light and hits his car. The professor is shaken up but survives the incident. However, the next time he starts to enter the intersection, he becomes nervous and fearful. Soon, he starts going to work via another route to avoid the intersection even though this route adds twenty minutes to his commute in each direction. According to the principles of classical conditioning, why does the professor become scared of the previously harmless intersection? What can he do about this, as going via the other route is very time consuming? Be specific. Break down the situation into its parts, and show how the principles of learning apply. Answer: UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Car accident causing fear and trauma. UCR (Unconditioned Response): Fear and anxiety experienced after the car accident. CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Entering the intersection where the car accident occurred. CR (Conditioned Response): Feeling nervous and fearful upon approaching the intersection. The professor's fear becomes associated with the previously harmless intersection (CS) due to its pairing with the traumatic experience of the car accident (UCS), resulting in a conditioned response (CR) of feeling nervous and fearful. To address this, the professor could utilize techniques such as systematic desensitization or exposure therapy to gradually reduce fear responses associated with the intersection. 4. In what ways might higher-order conditioning explain why some words trigger emotional responses in us? (a) Give an example of a positive response that could be formed through higher-order conditioning. (b) Give an example of a negative response that could be formed through higher-order conditioning. (c) In what ways might higher-order conditioning contribute to racism and prejudice? Answer: a) Positive response: A neutral stimulus (CS1) such as a brand logo is paired with a positive stimulus (UCS) like happiness-inducing images in advertisements. Over time, the brand logo (CS1) becomes associated with happiness, eliciting a positive emotional response (CR). b) Negative response: A neutral stimulus (CS1) like the sound of a particular language is paired with a negative stimulus (UCS) such as derogatory remarks. The language (CS1) becomes associated with negativity, leading to a negative emotional response (CR) when hearing it. c) Higher-order conditioning may contribute to racism and prejudice by associating neutral stimuli (CS1) such as race-related cues with negative or positive stimuli (UCS) like biased media portrayals or personal experiences. Over time, these neutral stimuli (CS1) become associated with emotional responses (CR) of bias, discrimination, or prejudice towards individuals of certain races or ethnicities. 5. Explain the concept of conditioned taste aversions and how it might be applied to people undergoing chemotherapy or radiation treatments for cancer. Answer: Conditioned taste aversions occur when an individual associates the taste of a particular food (CS) with nausea or illness (UCS) following ingestion. As a result, the individual develops a conditioned aversion or dislike (CR) for that specific food, leading to avoidance of it in the future. In cancer treatment, patients often experience nausea and vomiting as side effects of chemotherapy or radiation therapy. If a patient consumes a specific food shortly before or after treatment and subsequently experiences nausea, they may develop a conditioned taste aversion to that food. This aversion can be problematic as it may lead to decreased food intake, malnutrition, and compromised treatment outcomes. To address this, healthcare providers can work with patients to identify and avoid foods that trigger aversive reactions, while also providing alternative options to ensure adequate nutrition during treatment. Additionally, behavioral interventions such as desensitization or exposure therapy may help patients gradually overcome conditioned taste aversions and reintroduce previously avoided foods into their diet. 6. Think about our prison systems. Many folks think the role of the prison system is to punish people who break the law, and that we should have more prisons to punish more people. But let’s look at what happens to the average burglar. If (s)he is caught, (s)he will probably not go to trial for a year or two and then is likely to get probation or a light sentence. If (s)he does go to prison, (s)he is unlikely to learn any useful skills and will meet other criminals who will probably not be good role models. Additionally, (s)he may not end up serving his/her entire sentence due to overcrowding conditions in prisons. Given what you know about operant learning principles, reinforcement, and punishment, critique the way our current prison system works and suggest some better ideas. Be sure to be specific about the principles that you have learned from our textbook. Answer: The current prison system often focuses on punitive measures rather than rehabilitation, which may not effectively address the root causes of criminal behavior or promote lasting behavioral change. Operant learning principles emphasize the importance of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior. However, the punitive environment of many prisons may not effectively utilize these principles to encourage positive behavior. Suggestions for improvement include: Rehabilitative Programs: Implementing programs within prisons that focus on education, vocational training, and counseling can provide inmates with the skills and support needed to reintegrate into society successfully. Positive Reinforcement: Encouraging and rewarding positive behaviors, such as participation in educational programs or maintaining good conduct, can motivate inmates to engage in prosocial activities. Individualized Treatment: Recognizing that each inmate may have unique needs and circumstances, tailor rehabilitation efforts to address underlying issues contributing to criminal behavior, such as substance abuse or mental health disorders. Community Support: Establishing partnerships with community organizations and agencies to provide support and resources for inmates transitioning back into society can promote successful reentry and reduce recidivism rates. By applying operant learning principles and focusing on rehabilitation rather than solely punishment, the prison system can work towards reducing recidivism rates and promoting long-term behavioral change among offenders. 7. After graduating from college, you are hired to work in a factory overseas as an industrial psychologist. The workers put together IPODs. The boss wants to know the best pay schedule to get the maximum number of pieces made by his workers. The boss wants you to describe various schedules of payment to him and tell which might be best for the plant. Using the principles of operant conditioning, describe the various pay schedules and what would be the best one for his goal of getting the most production. Answer: Various schedules of payment based on operant conditioning principles include: Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule: Workers are paid a set amount for each completed unit of work. For example, $1 for every completed iPod assembled. Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule: Workers are paid after a varying number of completed units, with the average ratio remaining consistent over time. For instance, on average, workers are paid for every 10 iPods assembled. Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule: Workers receive payment after a fixed period of time, regardless of the amount of work completed. For instance, workers are paid every hour, regardless of how many iPods they assemble. Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule: Workers receive payment after varying amounts of time, with the average interval remaining consistent. For example, workers are paid after an average of 30 minutes, but the actual time intervals may vary. The most effective schedule for maximizing production is the variable-ratio (VR) schedule. VR schedules typically result in high and steady rates of responding because they provide reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. This unpredictability motivates workers to maintain consistent productivity levels in anticipation of the next reinforcement. 8. Give an example of each of the four schedules of partial reinforcement, and comment on which schedule would be most likely to result in lasting behavioral change. Answer: Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule: A coffee shop rewards customers with a free coffee after purchasing 10 drinks. This schedule leads to a high rate of responding near the time of reinforcement. Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule: A slot machine pays out winnings after an unpredictable number of plays, with an average of every 20 spins. This schedule results in a high and steady rate of responding due to the uncertainty of reinforcement. Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule: A weekly paycheck is received by an employee every Friday, regardless of the amount of work completed throughout the week. This schedule often leads to a low rate of responding with a rapid increase just before the reinforcement is delivered. Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule: A teacher gives pop quizzes at irregular intervals throughout the semester, averaging about once every two weeks. This schedule results in a moderate and steady rate of responding due to the unpredictability of reinforcement. Variable-ratio (VR) schedules are most likely to result in lasting behavioral change. The unpredictability of reinforcement in VR schedules tends to maintain behaviors over time, as individuals continue to engage in the desired behavior in anticipation of potential reinforcement. 9. Explain what learned helplessness is and describe how it develops. Also discuss the effects it has on people and animals once it is established. Answer: Learned helplessness is a psychological phenomenon where individuals or animals develop a sense of powerlessness or lack of control over their environment due to experiencing repeated aversive events that they perceive as uncontrollable. This perception of helplessness typically develops through a process of classical or operant conditioning, where the individual learns that their actions or efforts do not influence the outcome of a situation. For example, in an experiment, animals might be subjected to unavoidable electric shocks. Initially, they may attempt to escape or avoid the shocks. However, if they repeatedly fail to escape, they eventually become passive and resign themselves to the shocks, even when escape becomes possible. This learned helplessness persists even in situations where escape or avoidance is feasible. The effects of learned helplessness can be profound. Individuals who develop learned helplessness may exhibit symptoms of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and a diminished sense of motivation or initiative. They may also struggle with problem-solving and coping with challenges, as they believe their actions will not lead to positive outcomes. In animals, learned helplessness can result in reduced exploration, decreased social interaction, and impaired learning ability. Once established, learned helplessness can be challenging to overcome. However, interventions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can help individuals challenge negative beliefs and develop coping strategies to regain a sense of control over their lives. 10. After bringing home a new cat, you quickly realize that you don’t enjoy changing the litter box every few days. In order to avoid this odious task, you decide to attempt to train your pet to use a toilet. Thoroughly discuss the steps that you would use to train the animal, making sure to note which type of learning is being employed. Answer: 1. Initial Familiarization: Introduce the cat to the bathroom environment where the toilet is located. Allow the cat to explore the area freely to become comfortable with the surroundings. Learning Type: Habituation the cat becomes accustomed to the bathroom environment. 2. Gradual Introduction of Training Seat: Place a litter box with flushable litter next to the toilet. Gradually elevate the litter box until it reaches the same height as the toilet seat, allowing the cat to transition gradually from using the litter box to using the toilet. Learning Type: Shaping reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior (using the toilet). 3. Transfer to Toilet: Replace the litter box with a training seat designed for cats, which fits securely onto the toilet bowl. Add a small amount of flushable litter to the training seat. Learning Type: Operant Conditioning the cat learns to associate using the toilet with positive reinforcement (e.g., treats) provided after each successful use. 4. Gradual Reduction of Litter: Gradually reduce the amount of litter in the training seat over time until the cat becomes comfortable using the toilet without any litter. Learning Type: Extinction the cat learns to use the toilet without the presence of litter, as the reinforcement (e.g., treats) remains consistent. 5. Consistency and Positive Reinforcement: Provide consistent encouragement and positive reinforcement (e.g., treats, praise) each time the cat successfully uses the toilet. Clean up any accidents without punishment to avoid negative associations. Learning Type: Positive Reinforcement the cat learns that using the toilet results in desirable consequences (rewards). It's important to note that toilet training a cat requires patience, consistency, and a gradual approach. Additionally, not all cats may successfully adapt to using the toilet, and it's essential to provide alternative litter box options if needed. Chapter 5 - Quick Quiz 1 1. Changes controlled by a genetic blueprint, such as an increase in height or the size of the brain, are examples of ___________________. a) maturation b) learning c) habituation d) growth cycles Answer: a Explanation: Alterations due to a genetic blueprint would be examples of maturation. 2. Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of dogs, and they began to salivate. The food acted as a (an) ____________. a) unconditioned response b) unconditioned stimulus c) conditioned response d) conditioned stimulus Answer: b Explanation: The food acted as an unconditioned stimulus that automatically evoked the conditioned response. Food automatically causes one to salivate. 3. What was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the case of Little Albert? a) a rat b) a loud noise c) a high chair d) a small enclosed space Answer: b Explanation: The UCS was a loud noise because it automatically evoked a fear response. 4. Thorndike was known for his work with ______. a) a Skinner box b) a puzzle box c) modeling d) monkeys Answer: b Explanation: Thorndike was known for his work with a puzzle box. 5. Under what circumstances will a reinforcer make the target response more likely to occur again? a) if it is a primary reinforcer b) if it is a positive reinforcer c) if it is a negative reinforcer d) regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer, a reinforcer makes a response more likely to occur. Answer: d Explanation: Any reinforcer makes the target response more likely to occur again regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer. 6. What has occurred when there is a decrease in the likelihood or rate of a target response? a) punishment b) positive reinforcement c) negative reinforcement d) positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement Answer: a Explanation: Punishment is defined as a stimulus that causes a decrease in the likelihood of a behavior. 7. When Keller and Marian Breland, two psychologists who became animal trainers, decided that it would be cute to have a pig drop a big wooden coin into a box, they found that _______________. a) food was not an effective reinforcer for the pig and so learning didn’t occur b) when given edible roots as reinforcers, the pig learned the task in less than ten trials c) the pig displayed instinctive drift by dropping the coin and pushing it around with its nose. d) the pig showed intrinsic interest in the task and so reinforcement was unnecessary Answer: c Explanation: Despite Skinner’s views, the pig had some built-in behaviors that came to the fore—the principle of instinctive drift. 8. Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in a behavior change is called ______. a) insight b) innate learning c) vicarious learning d) latent learning Answer: d Explanation: Since the learning was not observable, it was deemed to be latent. 9. The “aha!” experience is known as ________________. a) latent learning b) insight learning c) thoughtful learning d) serial enumeration Answer: b Explanation: The “aha!” experience is known as insight learning. 10. Cheryl is trying to teach her son to do the laundry by watching her. According to observational learning theory, to be effective what must occur? a) Her son must always model the behavior immediately. b) Her son must be motivated to learn how to do the laundry. c) Her son must be able to complete other tasks while watching her. d) Cheryl must show her son how to do the laundry while she is making dinner. Answer: b Explanation: Bandura determined that motivation was necessary in order for observational learning to occur. Chapter 5 - Quick Quiz 2 1. Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than to the original, natural stimulus is called ________________. a) classical conditioning b) operant conditioning c) memory linkage d) adaptation Answer: a Explanation: A classically conditioned response occurs when the subject learns to make a reflexive response to a new stimulus. 2. The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus is called _____________. a) stimulus generalization b) stimulus adaptation c) response generalization d) transfer of habit strength Answer: a Explanation: Responding to a similar stimulus is called stimulus generalization. 3. Rescorla’s modern conceptualization of classical conditioning is based on the idea that ______________. a) the CS substitutes for the UCS b) there is a biological readiness for conditioning to occur between the CS and UCS c) the CS has to provide information about the coming of the UCS d) reinforcement must occur by providing a pleasant event Answer: c Explanation: The subject has to have some cognitive appreciation of the contingency. 4. A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on ______. a) classical conditioning b) operant conditioning c) vicarious learning d) cognitive learning Answer: b Explanation: A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on operant conditioning. Skinner developed the box in his work on operant conditioning. 5. Al must build 25 radios before he receives $20. What schedule of reinforcement is being used? a) a variable-ratio schedule b) a fixed-ratio schedule c) a fixed-interval schedule d) a continuous schedule Answer: b Explanation: A fixed-ratio schedule demands a set number of responses, in this case 25. 6. An example of a discriminative stimulus might be a ________________. a) stop sign b) the stimulus that acts as a UCS in classical conditioning c) the white rat in Watson’s Little Albert study of producing phobias d) none of these Answer: a Explanation: A stop sign is a discriminative stimulus because one has to determine the different response that a stop sign should elicit when compared to all the other signs. 7. Neurofeedback, a newer type of biofeedback, involves trying to change ____________. a) brain wave activity b) blood pressure c) heart rate d) body temperature Answer: a Explanation: Neurofeedback attempts to change brain wave activity. 8. College students faced with unsolvable problems eventually give up and make only half hearted attempts to solve new problems, even when the new problems can be solved easily. This behavior is probably due to ______. a) learned helplessness b) contingency blocking c) latent learning d) response generalization Answer: a Explanation: Students’ lack of success in the past “taught” them to not even bother trying, a phenomenon Seligman called learned helplessness. 9. Observational learning theory’s foremost proponent is ______. a) Watson b) Thorndike c) Skinner d) Bandura Answer: d Explanation: Observational learning theory’s foremost proponent is Bandura, and it has contributed greatly to our knowledge of media effects on society. 10. Learning that takes place without actual performance (a kind of latent learning) is called _____________. a) the learning/performance distinction b) the innate performance preference c) the delayed learning paradigm d) the observational delay effect Answer: a Explanation: Learning that takes place without actual performance (a kind of latent learning) is called the learning/performance distinction. Test Bank for Psychology: Dsm 5 Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White 9780205986378