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Chapter 6 Multiple Choice Questions 1. Learning is defined as: A. a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. B. the organization and understanding of sensory information. C. an individual’s awareness of his or her own thoughts. D. the growth of humans through the lifespan, from conception to death. Answer: A 2. Which of the following is true of behaviorism as a theory of learning? A. Behaviorism focuses solely on unobservable behaviors. B. Behaviorism places primary importance on mental activities such as thinking, wishing, and hoping. C. Behaviorism maintains that the principles of learning are the same when talking about animals or humans. D. Behaviorism maintains that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behavior. Answer: C 3. Psychologists who examine learning from a behavioral perspective define learning as _____. A. the result of mental activities such as thinking and reasoning B. the relatively stable, observable changes in a person’s actions C. the encoding of information for the purpose of retention and retrieval D. a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into a problem Answer: B 4. _____ is the type of learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection between two events. A. Associative learning B. Observational learning C. Preparedness D. Instinctive drift Answer: A 5. _____ is the process of learning the associations between two events. A. Imitation B. Conditioning C. Preparedness D. Insight Answer: B 6. In which type of learning do organisms learn the association between two stimuli? A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Observational learning D. Implicit learning Answer: A 7. Millie feels sick every time she travels by air. She associates flying with physical illness and, as a result, hates air travel. She also finds it difficult to watch movies with airplanes or read books about airplanes because they make her feel unwell. In this scenario, Millie is demonstrating learning through: A. positive reinforcement. B. classical conditioning. C. observational learning. D. implicit learning. Answer: B 8. Ryan, a five-year-old boy, receives a pat on the back every time he says “please” or “thank you.” This encourages Ryan to use good manners as often as possible. In this scenario, Ryan demonstrates learning through: A. operant conditioning. B. classical conditioning. C. observational learning. D. implicit learning. Answer: A 9. Which of the following is true of learning through operant conditioning? A. In operant conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli. B. In operant conditioning, organisms learn behaviors implicitly, without being reinforced. C. In operant conditioning, organisms learn the association between behaviors and their consequences. D. In operating conditioning, organisms learn to act by imitating others. Answer: C 10. Observational learning occurs _____. A. when an organism makes a connection between two stimuli B. when an organism learns the association between a behavior and a consequence C. through the process of watching and imitating another's behavior D. through the cognitive processes of reasoning and judgment Answer: C 11. Which of the following is true of modeling or observational learning? A. In observational learning, the learner does not reproduce the actions of another person. B. In observational learning, there is no relatively permanent change in behavior. C. Observational learning is one way in which human infants acquire skills. D. Observational learning helps the learner form associations between events. Answer: C 12. The type of learning that occurs through observing and imitating another person’s behavior is called _____. A. conditioning B. preparedness C. habituation D. modeling Answer: D 13. _____ is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Observational learning D. Insight learning Answer: A 14. Jack regularly feeds his neighbor’s dog, Oscar. He announces his arrival by ringing his bicycle bell and feeds Oscar mouth-watering treats. As Jack has been doing this for two weeks, every time he hears Jack’s bicycle bell, Oscar begins salivating with the expectation of being fed. In this scenario, Oscar learns the response to the bicycle bell through _____. A. classical conditioning B. operant conditioning C. insight learning D. modeling Answer: A 15. Which of the following statements best describes classical conditioning? A. It is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. B. It is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. C. It is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution. D. It is a form of learning that occurs through observing and imitating another’s behavior. Answer: B 16. _____ was the Russian physiologist who demonstrated that neutral aspects of the environment can attain the capacity to evoke responses through pairing with other stimuli and that bodily processes can be influenced by environmental cues. A. Ivan Pavlov B. John B. Watson C. B. F. Skinner D. E. L. Thorndike Answer: A 17. Which of the following best exemplifies a reflex? A. A child drinks water after eating spicy food B. A woman puts her coat on before stepping out into the cold C. A child runs out to watch a fire engine drive by D. A man salivates while watching a chef fry sausages Answer: D 18. Tina’s eyes water every time she chops onions. Her response is an example of a: A. habit. B. reflex. C. conditioned response. D. voluntary behavior. Answer: B 19. An unconditioned response is a(n): A. unlearned reaction. B. modeled behavior. C. planned reaction. D. punishment received for a behavior. Answer: A 20. Matt is visibly excited to see his father when his father comes home from work every evening. Now, he is equally excited when he hears his father’s car in the driveway, because he associates this with his father coming home. In this scenario, Matt’s behavior can best be explained by _____. A. classical conditioning B. observational learning C. preparedness D. imitation Answer: A 21. John, a six-year-old boy, loves dogs. However, after being bitten by one, he starts to fear dogs. Which of the following is true in the context of classical conditioning? A. The dog is an innately meaningful stimulus before it bites John. B. The pain that John experiences after being bitten is a neutral stimulus. C. The pain that John experiences after being bitten is a conditioned response. D. The dog becomes a conditioned stimulus after it bites John. Answer: D 22. Which of the following is true of Ivan Pavlov's experiment on classical conditioning? A. The bell was a neutral stimulus before it was paired with the meat powder. B. The dog’s salivation in response to the bell was an unconditioned response. C. The bell was a conditioned stimulus before it was paired with the meat powder. D. The dog’s salivation in response to the meat powder was a conditioned response. Answer: A 23. In Pavlov’s studies on classical conditioning, the bell was a(n) _____ before it was paired with the food. A. neutral stimulus B. conditioned stimulus C. unconditioned stimulus D. reinforced stimulus Answer: A 24. In Pavlov’s experiments on classical conditioning, prior to associating the sound of the bell with the food, the dog’s salivation in response to the food was the _____. A. negative reinforcement B. positive reinforcement C. unconditioned response D. conditioned response Answer: C 25. In Pavlov’s experiments on classical conditioning, the dog began to associate the sound of the bell with the food and salivated when it heard the bell because the bell had become a(n) _____. A. conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. conditioned response D. unconditioned response Answer: A 26. In Pavlov’s experiments on classical conditioning, the dog salivated each time the food was presented. The dog’s response to the food was a(n) _____. A. unconditioned response B. negative reinforcer C. positive reinforcer D. conditioned response Answer: A 27. Jessica loves to travel by air. She enjoys being in an airplane and experiencing the excitement of flying. However, Jessica’s last three flights were highly turbulent and made her anxious and physically sick. Consequently, Jessica now fears flying. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, Jessica’s fear of flying is a(n) _____. A. unconditioned stimulus B. unconditioned response C. conditioned stimulus D. conditioned response Answer: D 28. Which of the following best exemplifies an innate unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response connection? A. A child sneezing after accidently inhaling pepper B. A child throwing a temper tantrum C. A girl raising her hand before asking a question in class D. A boy learning to ride a bicycle by watching his older brother riding his bicycle Answer: A 29. Boris uses classical conditioning to teach his goldfish to swim to the surface of its tank to eat whenever Boris turns on the aquarium light. He drops food into the tank and then turns on the light. After several such trials, the fish shows no more inclination to swim to the surface when the light is turned on than it did on the first trial. In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following should Boris do to improve his training technique? A. He should turn on the light before he drops the food into the tank. B. He should intermittently turn the light on and off during feeding time. C. He should drop something other than food into the tank to alert the fish. D. He should provide more food than usual during the trials. Answer: A 30. Dr. Meyer is known for his difficult pop quizzes. Immediately before he announces a pop quiz to his students, he walks to the classroom door and closes it. His students soon learn to anticipate a pop quiz whenever Dr. Meyer closes the classroom door. In the context of classical conditioning, closing the door has become a(n) _____. A. conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. unconditioned response D. conditioned response Answer: A 31. Alex and his family moved into an apartment on the 98th floor of a building. The first few times that Alex used the elevator, his ears popped and Alex found the sensation uncomfortable. As a result, whenever Alex enters a building with an elevator, he feels his ears pop before he gets to the elevator. In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following is the conditioned response? A. Alex’s ears popping in the elevator B. Alex entering his building elevator the first time C. Alex entering any building with an elevator D. Alex’s ears popping when he enters a building with an elevator Answer: D 32. Natalie loves driving and is excited about her upcoming driving test so that she can finally have her license. During the test, her instructor gets so impatient that Natalie loses her confidence. As a result, she fails the test. Since then, Natalie gets nervous every time she thinks of taking the driving test. In the context of classical conditioning, Natalie’s nervousness about taking the test exemplifies is a(n) _____. A. conditioned response B. positive reinforcer C. negative reinforcer D. unconditioned response Answer: A 33. Rodney suffers severe food poisoning after eating lunch at his school cafeteria. As a result of the experience, every time Rodney walks past the cafeteria and smells the food, he feels nauseated. In the context of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is the _____. A. cafeteria B. bad food C. nausea D. smell Answer: B 34. Which of the following is true of classical conditioning? A. It occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation of two stimuli together. B. It allows the learner to learn the association between a behavior and a consequence. C. It does not pair stimuli together. D. It occurs when the learner observes and imitates the actions of another person. Answer: A 35. The first part of classical conditioning is called _____. A. generalization B. acquisition C. discrimination D. habituation Answer: B 36. Which of the following is true of acquisition in classical conditioning? A. During acquisition, the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented followed by the conditioned stimulus. B. During acquisition, the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented very close together in time. C. During acquisition, the conditioned stimulus loses its significance once the association between the two stimuli has been formed. D. During acquisition, the unconditional stimulus loses the ability to elicit any kind of response from the subject. Answer: B 37. _____ in classical conditioning means that the conditioned stimulus must not only precede the unconditioned stimulus closely in time, but it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the unconditioned stimulus is on its way. A. Sign tracking B. Contingency C. Extinction D. Renewal Answer: B 38. In the context of classical conditioning, sign tracking is: A. the process intended to help a subject learn to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. B. the tendency of a subject to become more powerfully attached to the unconditioned stimulus. C. a phenomenon that helps to understand the vicious cycle of drug addiction and relapse. D. the tendency of a subject to refrain from approaching or interacting with the conditioned stimulus. Answer: C 39. Which of the following is true of generalization in classical conditioning? A. It is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. B. It is the tendency of a subject to become more powerfully attracted to the conditioned stimulus than to the unconditioned stimulus it signals. C. It is the process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again. D. It is the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. Answer: A 40. Jennifer was stung by a bee several days ago and was in pain for many days. As a result of the painful experience, she cries out whenever a flying insect gets too close to her. Jennifer’s reaction to flying insects best illustrates the concept of _____ in classical conditioning. A. preparedness B. renewal C. generalization D. discrimination Answer: C 41. Wendell always gets anxious before taking a math test because he is not good with numbers and formulae. When his science teacher announces a physics test that requires him to apply numerical formulae, Wendell begins to feel anxious, even though he enjoys physics. Which of the following is Wendell most likely demonstrating in this scenario? A. Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning B. Generalization in classical conditioning C. Discrimination in classical conditioning D. Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning Answer: B 42. _____ in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. A. Generalization B. Acquisition C. Discrimination D. Habituation Answer: A 43. _____ in classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. A. Generalization B. Discrimination C. Acquisition D. Habituation Answer: B 44. Yolanda dislikes going to the doctor for her illness because every time she does, she is prescribed medicines, which ruin her appetite and make her feel nauseated. She associates doctors with feelings of nausea. However, she is not afraid of visiting dentists. In this scenario, Yolanda’s behavior best exemplifies _____ in classical conditioning. A. spontaneous recovery B. generalization C. discrimination D. extinction Answer: C 45. Tyler’s grandmother, Rose, has been receiving e-mails from Tyler every day for many years. In anticipation of his e-mails, she checks her inbox more than once in a day. However, since Tyler has started college, the e-mails have stopped. As a result, Rose checks her e-mail only every few days. If this pattern continues, Rose will completely stop checking her e-mail. In classical conditioning, this is known as _____. A. acquisition B. spontaneous recovery C. renewal D. extinction Answer: D 46. Grayson’s dog salivates whenever he hears the refrigerator door open because he is accustomed to receiving food each time anyone opens it. Grayson tries an experiment with his dog. Over the next few days, Grayson does not give his dog any food when he opens the refrigerator door, even though he knows the dog expects it. As a result, the dog stops salivating when the refrigerator door is opened. Grayson’s dog’s behavior best illustrates _____ in classical conditioning. A. spontaneous recovery B. extinction C. contingency D. discrimination Answer: B 47. Marcia and John were married for eleven years before John passed away. Following his death, Marcia left her home and city because everything reminded her of John. Many years later, Marcia happened to meet a man, her new colleague, who smelled of the cologne that John always wore. Even after so many years, Marcia was drawn to this man because he reminded her of John. In this scenario, Marcia’s reawakened feelings are an example of _____ in classical conditioning. A. extinction B. spontaneous recovery C. reinforcement D. instinctive drift Answer: B 48. Ronald was the subject of an experiment for alcoholics. Every time Ronald had a drink, it was mixed with a nausea-inducing agent, which made him sick. After experiencing this pattern for several weeks, Ronald started to dislike alcohol immensely. He did not drink for seven months. However, one day as he was walking past a new bar, Ronald experienced an overwhelming desire to drink. In this scenario, Ronald’s sudden desire to drink best illustrates the concept of _____ in classical conditioning. A. extinction B. reinforcement C. acquisition D. renewal Answer: D 49. Extinction in classical conditioning is: A. the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. B. the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. C. the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. D. the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. Answer: B 50. Which of the following is true of spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning? A. It only occurs with further conditioning. B. It becomes stronger as long as the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. C. It results in the weakening of the conditioned response. D. It occurs after a time delay. Answer: D 51. In classical conditioning, the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning is known as: A. reinforcement. B. spontaneous recovery. C. generalization. D. acquisition. Answer: B 52. _____, in classical conditioning, is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. A. Acquisition B. Extinction C. Habituation D. Discrimination Answer: B 53. In John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner's demonstration of the role of classical conditioning in the development of fears, little Albert learned to fear a white rat. In this study, the white rat was the _____. A. unconditioned stimulus B. conditioned stimulus C. positive reinforcer D. negative reinforcer Answer: B 54. Aversive conditioning is: A. the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay. B. the process of rewarding successive approximations of desired behavior. C. the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. D. the form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus. Answer: D 55. Electric shocks and nausea-inducing substances are examples of noxious stimuli that are used in aversive conditioning. Which of the following is true with regard to experiments that pair alcohol with nausea-inducing agents to treat alcohol addiction? A. In the experiments, the nausea-inducing agent represents the conditioned stimulus. B. In the experiments, nausea in response to alcohol becomes the conditioned response. C. In the experiments, the nausea-inducing agent is taken several hours after drinking the alcoholic beverage. D. In the experiments, the alcoholic beverage represents the unconditioned stimulus. Answer: B 56. In aversive conditioning experiments to treat alcohol addiction, every time a person drinks an alcoholic beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture that induces nausea. In classical conditioning terminology, the nausea-inducing agent is the _____. A. conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. neutral stimulus D. reinforced stimulus Answer: B 57. Jim feeds his dog the Paws brand of dog food every day. When the dog sees Jim pouring the food into his bowl, he starts to salivate. When Jim switches to a new brand, the food does not suit the dog and makes him sick. The dog no longer salivates when he sees Jim pouring the food into his bowl. In this scenario, the dog’s change in behavior can be best explained by learning through _____. A. observational learning B. counterconditioning C. avoidance learning D. habituation Answer: B 58. As the subject of an experiment for treating cigarette addiction, John is being given a chemical agent that makes him feel nauseated every time he smokes a cigarette. This experiment is most likely a(n) _____ experiment. A. positive reinforcement B. habituation C. aversive conditioning D. avoidance learning Answer: C 59. Jacob, a police officer, wants to train his new dog, Rover. Jacob buys a "zap collar" that delivers a low intensity shock to the neck of the dog whenever it pulls on the leash. After wearing the collar for a few days, Rover recognizes that the shock is an undesirable result of pulling on the leash. Consequently, Rover stops pulling on the leash. In this scenario, which of the following methods has most likely been used to discipline Rover? A. Positive reinforcement B. Observational learning C. Avoidance learning D. Aversive conditioning Answer: D 60. Manny has been unable to sleep for the past one week. His wife gives him a vitamin pill and tells him that it will help him sleep at night. The next morning, Manny is thrilled because he has slept better than ever before. In this scenario, Manny’s response to the vitamin can be attributed to _____. A. the schedules of reinforcement B. aversive conditioning C. spontaneous recovery D. the placebo effect Answer: D 61. Which of the following statements about taste aversion learning is true? A. It requires many pairings of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned response of nausea. B. It is a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea. C. It occurs only when the “taste” is the direct cause of the nausea experienced. D. It is a special form of negative punishment in which a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed. Answer: B 62. Kenny ate too many hotdogs at a baseball game. Several hours later, he felt nauseated and spent most of the night being sick. In the context of taste aversion learning, it is likely that Kenny will _____ as a result of this experience. A. lose interest in baseball B. not attend another game and will only watch baseball on TV C. not be able to eat a hotdog at the next baseball game D. never eat hot dogs again Answer: C 63. The sale of a new brand of flavored water, Taste Fun, soared after it was used in many scenes in the latest blockbuster action movie. In the context of classical conditioning, it is likely that the sudden increase in sales is due to: A. embedded marketing. B. avoidance learning. C. negative reinforcement. D. brand equity. Answer: A 64. In a television advertisement, a young man is shown to be the center of attraction for young and attractive models because he drives the luxury car brand, Exotica. The advertisement targets young, single men. In the context of embedded marketing, which of the following statements is true? A. The Exotica brand in the advertisement is the unconditioned stimulus. B. The male viewers are unaffected by the appearance of the attractive models in the advertisement. C. The attractive models in the advertisement are the conditioned stimulus. D. The advertisement will work best if the Exotica car precedes the appearance of the attractive person. Answer: D 65. In the context of classical conditioning, _____ refers to the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations. A. habituation B. generalization C. discrimination D. extinction Answer: A 66. Which of the following is true of drug habituation in the context of classical conditioning? A. The body braces itself for the effects of the drug with a conditioned response that is identical to the unconditioned response. B. The body braces itself for the effects of the drug with a conditioned response that is the opposite of the unconditioned response. C. The conditioned stimulus serves as a warning that the drug is coming, and the conditioned response works to increase the effects of the unconditioned stimulus. D. The conditioned response is no longer paired with the unconditioned response, and this makes the drug experience more intense. Answer: B 67. George drinks three glasses of wine at home every evening, but rarely feels its effect. However, he feels the immediate effect of a single glass of wine on the rare occasions that he goes to a bar. Which of the following classical conditioning concepts best explains this discrepancy in George’s responses? A. Positive reinforcement B. Habituation C. Renewal D. Generalization Answer: B 68. Which of the following is true about classical conditioning? A. It is a form of observational learning. B. It is also known as instrumental conditioning. C. It is a form of respondent behavior. D. It effectively explains voluntary behavior. Answer: C 69. Classical conditioning explains how neutral stimuli become associated with _____. A. learned behavior B. instrumental behavior C. involuntary responses D. conditioned responses Answer: C 70. Classical conditioning is a form of _____. A. observational learning B. voluntary learning C. associative learning D. latent learning Answer: C 71. Classical conditioning _____. A. focuses on the association between two stimuli B. is not a form of respondent behavior C. is very effective in explaining voluntary behaviors D. was first described by the American psychologist B.F. Skinner Answer: A 72. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that _____. A. focuses on the association between behaviors and the stimuli that follow them B. explains how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses C. is not effective in explaining voluntary behaviors D. occurs through the imitation of another person’s actions Answer: A 73. Identify the accurate statement in the context of operant conditioning. A. Operant conditioning is unaffected by the contingency factor. B. Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning. C. Operant conditioning was first described by Ivan Pavlov. D. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that is based on the association between stimuli. Answer: B 74. Just as it does in classical conditioning, _____ plays a key role in operant conditioning. A. spontaneous recovery B. instinctive drift C. contingency D. preparedness Answer: C 75. The psychologist who used puzzle boxes in his experiments to establish the power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior was _____. A. B.F. Skinner B. Ivan Pavlov C. E.L. Thorndike D. John B. Watson Answer: C 76. The _____ in psychology states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. A. law of effect B. principle of preparedness C. theory of classical conditioning D. law of contiguity Answer: A 77. Jenny received a lot of praise in class when she was the only one who did her homework on time. As a result, Jenny has never had to be reminded to do her homework; she always submits it on time. In this scenario, Jenny’s behavior illustrates _____. A. Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning B. the concept of instinctive drift C. the phenomenon of the placebo effect D. Thorndike’s law of effect Answer: D 78. In the context of operant conditioning, _____ refers to rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior. A. shaping B. acquisition C. modeling D. habituation Answer: A 79. Melvin is an elementary-school teacher who rewards his students with extra playing time whenever they do well on a class assignment. In this scenario, which of the following techniques is Melvin using to motivate his students to work harder? A. Counterconditioning B. Observational learning C. Positive reinforcement D. Insight learning Answer: C 80. Caleb, the owner of a small garage, is particular about paying his employees more than they ask for. He believes that this action will prevent his employees from leaving the organization due to job dissatisfaction. In this scenario, Caleb is using _____ in operant conditioning to ensure a desired outcome. A. negative punishment B. negative reinforcement C. positive reinforcement D. positive punishment Answer: B 81. Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies negative reinforcement in operant conditioning? A. Tom wakes up just before the alarm clock goes off every morning so that he can avoid having to hear the alarm go off. B. Dennis buys himself a new game because he gets a “B” on a difficult exam. C. Miranda treats herself to a massage on her birthday. D. Sheila goes to sleep early on a night before a test because she knows that this will help her get better grades. Answer: A 82. Gary, a high-school student with no interest in academics, has started to study for four hours every week to avoid getting poor grades in school. This scenario is reflective of _____ in operant conditioning. A. positive reinforcement B. negative reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment Answer: B 83. _____ in operant conditioning occurs when the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus. A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Positive punishment D. Negative punishment Answer: A 84. Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning is a learning process in which: A. the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus. B. a behavior is followed by the removal of something undesirable. C. the frequency of a behavior decreases because it is paired repeatedly with an undesirable stimulus. D. a behavior is always followed by an unpleasant consequence. Answer: A 85. Which of the following is common to positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement? A. Instinctive drift B. Punishment C. Contingency D. Spontaneous recovery Answer: C 86. _____ in operant conditioning occurs when the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable. A. Negative reinforcement B. Positive reinforcement C. Negative punishment D. Positive punishment Answer: A 87. Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning is defined as: A. an increase in the frequency of a behavior because it is followed by a desirable stimulus. B. a decrease in a behavior when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus. C. a decrease in a behavior when it is followed by the removal of a stimulus. D. an increase in the frequency of a behavior because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable. Answer: D 88. Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning _____. A. is always followed by an unpleasant consequence B. increases the frequency of a behavior C. decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur D. is followed by the removal of something undesirable Answer: B 89. Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning _____. A. is followed by a desirable stimulus B. has nothing to do with “good” and “bad” behavior C. is always followed by something unpleasant D. decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur Answer: B 90. Jennifer accidentally plays a radio channel that she has never heard before. She loves the music it plays and as a result, she plays only that channel whenever she wants to listen to music. In this scenario, Jennifer’s behavior has most likely been learned through _____ in operant conditioning. A. negative reinforcement B. positive reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment Answer: B 91. Liam is studying in his room for an exam but is disturbed by the loud music from his neighbor’s house. He closes the window so that he can no longer hear the loud music. In this scenario, Liam’s behavior demonstrates _____ in operant conditioning. A. negative reinforcement B. positive reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment Answer: A 92. While on her way to work recently, Martha was pulled over for the first time, for exceeding the speed limit. She was required to pay a heavy fine. Since then, she has maintained a consistent speed of 30 miles per hour while driving, whether or not there are speed limits in place. In this scenario, Martha is demonstrating _____ learning. A. latent B. avoidance C. observational D. insight Answer: B 93. In _____, the organism learns through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes. A. observational learning B. insight learning C. learned helplessness D. learned optimism Answer: C 94. Rose is in an abusive relationship with Dan, who is physically violent with her and has injured her seriously more than once. Despite this, Rose has never been able to stop him or leave him. Rose was also abused by her step-father as a child. Rose’s inability to put up a fight with Dan is most likely the result of _____ in operant conditioning. A. learned helplessness B. preparedness C. instinctive drift D. aversive conditioning Answer: A 95. Shirley repeatedly ends up receiving bad grades in Algebra no matter how hard she studies. Eventually, Shirley stops studying for Algebra tests and accepts that nothing she does will help her get good grades. In this scenario, Shirley’s behavior exemplifies _____ in operant conditioning. A. habituation B. instinctive drift C. learned helplessness D. preparedness Answer: C 96. Experience with unavoidable negative stimuli can lead to a particular deficit in avoidance learning called _____. A. observational learning B. instinctive drift C. learned helplessness D. preparedness Answer: C 97. In the context of operant conditioning, a reinforcer that is innately satisfying and does not require any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable is referred to as a _____ reinforcer. A. primary B. secondary C. tertiary D. negative Answer: A 98. Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer in operant conditioning? A. Getting good grades in Math after studying hard B. Being treated to a good meal C. Getting awarded for a heroic act D. Receiving pocket money every month Answer: B 99. Which of the following is a primary reinforcer in operant conditioning? A. Food B. Appreciation C. Money D. Criticism Answer: A 100. Four-month-old Simon quickly learns that he will be fed milk every time he cries. From a behaviorist perspective, the milk that Simon receives when he cries is a _____. A. primary reinforcer B. secondary reinforcer C. positive punisher D. negative punisher Answer: A 101. In the context of operant conditioning, a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism’s experience is a _____ reinforcer. A. primary B. secondary C. tertiary D. negative Answer: B 102. David, a sales representative, earns an extra $1000 every time he is able to sell $10,000 worth of merchandise in a week. In the context of operant conditioning, this bonus acts as a(n) _____ for David. A. neutral stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. secondary reinforcer D. primary reinforcer Answer: C 103. In operant conditioning, _____ means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. A. generalization B. renewal C. discrimination D. preparedness Answer: A 104. In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when: A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. C. an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation. D. an organism reverts to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. Answer: C 105. Joseph, a three-year-old boy, is afraid of the doctor who gave him a shot and made him cry. Consequently, whenever Joseph sees a person in a white laboratory coat, he starts crying. In this scenario, Joseph’s behavior best exemplifies _____. A. spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning B. extinction in classical conditioning C. generalization in operant conditioning D. discrimination in operant conditioning Answer: C 106. In operant conditioning, _____ means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. A. generalization B. renewal C. discrimination D. preparedness Answer: C 107. In operant conditioning, discrimination occurs when: A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. C. an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation. D. an organism reverts to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. Answer: B 108. Henry, a five-year-old boy, knows that when he goes out with his mother and throws a tantrum, he will not get a treat. However, when he goes out with his father and throws a tantrum, he will get a treat. Henry’s learning in this scenario exemplifies _____. A. generalization in operant conditioning B. renewal in classical conditioning C. discrimination in operant conditioning D. extinction in classical conditioning Answer: C 109. In operant conditioning, _____ occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. A. extinction B. acquisition C. discrimination D. preparedness Answer: A 110. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when: A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. C. an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation. D. a desired behavior receives reinforcements in successive approximations. Answer: A 111. Carol is training her dog to sit on command. Each time he sits in response to her command, she gives him a treat. In the context of operant conditioning, Carol is using a _____ to train her dog. A. secondary reinforcer B. partial reinforcement schedule C. negative reinforcer D. continuous reinforcement schedule Answer: D 112. Which of the following is true of continuous reinforcement in operant conditioning? A. Continuous reinforcement is particularly resistant to extinction. B. Continuous reinforcement does not bring about changes in behavior. C. In continuous reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. D. In continuous reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time. Answer: C 113. In the context of operant conditioning, a _____ schedule is one in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. A. partial reinforcement B. continuous reinforcement C. vicarious reinforcement D. vicarious punishment Answer: B 114. Continuous reinforcement in operant conditioning _____. A. is particularly resistant to extinction B. characterizes most life experiences C. is the type of reinforcement in which organisms learn rapidly D. is the type of reinforcement in which a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time Answer: C 115. Which of the following is true of partial reinforcement? A. In partial reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. B. Partial reinforcement does not characterize most life experiences. C. Partial reinforcement is particularly resistant to extinction. D. In partial reinforcement, extinction takes place quickly when reinforcement stops. Answer: C 116. The _____ schedule in operant conditioning reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. fixed-interval D. variable-interval Answer: A 117. Which of the following is true of a fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning? A. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. B. It reinforces a behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. C. It produces high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than the other schedules. D. It is determined by the time elapsed since the last behavior was rewarded. Answer: A 118. Which of the following is true of a variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning? A. It reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. B. It rewards behaviors an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis. C. It reinforces a behavior after an inconsistent and unpredictable amount of time has elapsed. D. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. Answer: C 119. A _____ schedule in operant conditioning rewards behaviors an average number of times on an unpredictable basis. A. variable-ratio B. fixed-ratio C. variable-interval D. fixed-interval Answer: A 120. Which of the following is true of a variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning? A. It produces high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction. B. It makes behavior slow and consistent. C. It rewards behavior each time it occurs. D. It is determined by the time elapsed since the last behavior was rewarded. Answer: A 121. A _____ schedule in operant conditioning reinforces the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. variable-interval D. fixed-interval Answer: D 122. Which of the following is true of a fixed-interval schedule in the context of operant conditioning? A. It reinforces the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed. B. It produces a high, steady rate of behavior that is more resistant to extinction than the other three schedules. C. It reinforces a behavior after a variable amount of time has elapsed. D. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. Answer: A 123. Fred’s mother allows him to watch television on Sundays only if he studies for four hours a day, every day of the week. Which of the following schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning is Fred’s mother using to discipline him? A. A fixed-ratio schedule B. A fixed-interval schedule C. A variable-ratio schedule D. A variable-interval schedule Answer: A 124. Hitchhikers are unable to predict when they will get a ride and when they will not. They are most likely functioning on a _____ schedule of reinforcement in operant conditioning. A. variable-interval B. fixed-interval C. fixed-ratio D. variable-ratio Answer: D 125. A worker at a handicraft store is paid $25 for every 20 wind chimes she makes. Which of the following schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning is her payment based on? A. A variable-ratio schedule B. A fixed-interval schedule C. A fixed-ratio schedule D. A variable-interval schedule Answer: C 126. Josh has romantic feelings for the girl who works at the comic book store down the street. He likes to go into the store and talk to her. However, he does not know which days of the week she works, so he visits the store every Sunday, when he is sure she will be there. In this scenario, Josh is operating on a _____ schedule in operant conditioning. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. fixed-interval D. variable-interval Answer: A 127. Mrs. Graham is the principal of a high school. She enforces the practice of pop quizzes in the school because she knows that students will be more likely to study if they cannot predict when they will be tested. In this scenario, Mrs. Graham relies on a _____ schedule in operant conditioning to enforce a desired behavior in her students. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. fixed-interval D. variable-interval Answer: D 128. In operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur is known as a _____. A. reward B. punishment C. primary reinforcer D. negative reinforcer Answer: B 129. In operant conditioning, a punishment is a consequence that _____. A. decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur B. increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur C. ensures the removal of something unpleasant D. ensures the occurrence of something pleasant Answer: A 130. Janet scolds her daughter, Kelley, each time Kelley pinches her little brother. After two weeks, Janet notices that Kelley has stopped pinching her little brother. In this scenario, scolding Kelley is an example of _____ in operant conditioning. A. positive reinforcement B. negative reinforcement C. negative punishment D. positive punishment Answer: D 131. Which of the following best illustrates positive punishment in operant conditioning? A. Forbidding a child from watching television because he broke a glass B. Forbidding a teenager from leaving the house because he got drunk C. Scolding a child for being rude to his or her teachers D. Giving a child a 20-minute time-out for throwing a tantrum Answer: C 132. Larry is in the habit of bullying his little brother by hitting and pushing him. Larry’s parents try to stop this behavior by taking away Larry’s video games whenever he hits his little brother. Over the next few weeks, Larry stops bullying his little brother. In this scenario, Larry’s parents have used _____ in operant conditioning. A. positive reinforcement B. negative punishment C. negative reinforcement D. positive punishment Answer: B 133. Five minutes are deducted from Frankie’s recess hour every time he misbehaves in class. In the context of operant conditioning, his teacher is using _____ to discipline Frankie. A. positive reinforcement B. negative reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment Answer: D 134. _____ in operant conditioning refers to the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. A. Positive reinforcement B. Positive punishment C. Negative reinforcement D. Negative punishment Answer: D 135. Jenna receives a bonus for performing well. Instead of buying herself something nice, she invests her money with the intention of buying a house after a few years. In the context of reinforcement and punishment schedules, Jenna demonstrates _____ in this scenario. A. delayed reinforcement B. immediate reinforcement C. delayed punishment D. immediate punishment Answer: A 136. _____ refers to the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. A. Preparedness B. Behavioral medicine C. Behavior modification D. Biofeedback Answer: C 137. Applied behavior analysis is: A. the use of psychoanalytic principles to explain behavior. B. the use of evolutionary ideas to explain specific human behaviors. C. the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. D. the use of altruistic tendencies to predict human behavior. Answer: C 138. Which of the following is true of observational learning? A. It focuses on automatic, involuntary behaviors. B. It often takes less time than operant conditioning. C. It was first conceptualized by Ivan Pavlov. D. It cannot occur unless a behavior is reinforced. Answer: B 139. Which of the following is true of retention in observational learning? A. It is the process in which a learner must encode the information to reproduce a model’s actions. B. It is the process in which a learner must withdraw attention from the model’s actions. C. It is the process in which a learner’s behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence. D. It is the process in which a learner imitates the model’s actions. Answer: A 140. Andrea, an avid golfer, imitates a professional golfer’s swing after watching him play golf on television. Andrea’s act of imitation represents the _____ element of observational learning. A. reinforcement B. retention C. motor reproduction D. shaping Answer: C 141. Which of the following describes the reinforcement element in observational learning? A. Judging whether to repeat a behavior depending on the consequences of the behavior B. Encoding the information and keeping it in memory so that it can be retrieved later C. Imitating a model’s actions D. Attending to what the model is saying or doing Answer: A 142. Jill decides to study harder in class after seeing her teacher praise her classmate, Ricky, for doing well on a test. In the context of observational learning, this scenario best exemplifies learning through _____. A. negative reinforcement B. vicarious punishment C. positive reinforcement D. vicarious reinforcement Answer: D 143. A process that makes an observer less likely to repeat a behavior on seeing the model reprimanded is called _____ in observational learning. A. negative punishment B. vicarious reinforcement C. vicarious punishment D. negative reinforcement Answer: C 144. Which of the following scenarios best illustrates Tolman’s views on purposive behavior? A. Peter gets good grades in Spanish because he speaks Spanish at home. B. Jessica fails high school algebra because she does not understand the relationships between characters. C. Mike works hard all through the week because he expects to get paid on Friday. D. Jo reads a book because it has been recommended by others. Answer: C 145. While observing rats in a maze, Patrick realizes that the rats are able to find their way to the end of the maze even though they are not rewarded at any point during the experiment. This type of learning can best be defined as _____. A. latent learning B. observational learning C. associative learning D. trial-and-error learning Answer: A 146. Which of the following is a cognitive form of learning? A. Insight learning B. Positive reinforcement C. Classical conditioning D. Preparedness Answer: A 147. Liza’s teacher has given her class a math problem to solve. She says that there is a trick to it but if they really think about it, the answer is quite simple. The class is silent for a few moments before Liza suddenly raises her hand and provides the correct solution to the problem. In this scenario, Liza’s sudden understanding of the problem exemplifies _____. A. instrumental learning B. observational learning C. insight learning D. trial-and-error learning Answer: C 148. Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies instinctive drift in the context of biological constraints in learning? A. A rat learns to run a maze for a cheese reward instead of a peanut butter reward. B. A raccoon learns to tie a knot using a rope. C. A pig pushes an object on the ground instead of learning to carry it in its mouth. D. A pigeon learns to guide a ball to its goal. Answer: C 149. Which of the following scenarios exemplifies a fixed mindset in the context of psychological constraints in learning? A. Alan does not think he has academic abilities, so he abandons the idea of going to college. B. Sven does not have good coordination skills, but he continues to learn how to play tennis. C. Jennifer has always been bad at math, but still believes she can do well in math in college. D. Madison has failed her chemistry test, so she has decided to work harder from now on. Answer: A 150. On Monday, Rat A receives 25 mild electric shocks per hour and Rat B receives 5 mild shocks per hour. On Tuesday, both rats receive 10 shocks per hour. In the context of stress and improvement, which of the following is the most likely result of this experiment? A. Rat A will be more likely to show the wear and tear of stress. B. Rat A will be more likely to experience lowered stress. C. Both rats will experience the same amount of stress because they are receiving the same number of shocks on Tuesday. D. Rat B will be more likely to experience a sudden reduction in stress. Answer: B Short Answer Questions 151. Little Phil received a shot from Nurse Wanda the last time he was at the doctor’s clinic. When he visits the same clinic, he begins to cry when Nurse Wanda enters the waiting room and calls his name. Provide a rationale for Phil’s behavior based on the principles of classical conditioning. Answer: Nurse Wanda gave Phil his last shot (an unconditioned stimulus) which automatically caused him pain and distress (an unconditioned response). As a result, Phil associates that pain with the nurse (a conditioned stimulus) and begins to cry when he sees her (a conditioned response). 152. Discuss the role of contiguity and contingency in classical conditioning. Explain with reference to Pavlov’s experiment. Answer: Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation of two stimuli together. For this pairing to work, however, two important factors must be present: contiguity and contingency. Contiguity simply means that the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented very close together in time—even a mere fraction of a second. In Pavlov’s work, if the bell had rung 20 minutes before the presentation of the food, the dog probably would not have associated the bell with the food. However, pairing the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus close together in time is not all that is needed for conditioning to occur. Contingency means that the conditioned stimulus must not only precede the unconditioned stimulus closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the unconditioned stimulus is on its way. 153. Describe in detail the classical conditioning components involved in smoking. Discuss how spontaneous recovery can cause the reoccurrence of a smoking habit. Answer: In the case of smoking, the unconditioned stimulus refers to the physiological aspects of nicotine ingestion, and the unconditioned response refers to the subsequent effects of nicotine on the smoker's body. The conditioned stimulus represents any stimuli associated with smoking, such as being around friends who smoke. The conditioned response—in this case, a craving for cigarettes—is the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. In this case, if a person has quit smoking, being around the same friends he or she used to smoke with can act as a conditioned stimulus, making him or her crave cigarette smoking again. 154. Give a brief account of Thorndike’s law of effect. Answer: Thorndike’s law of effect states that behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened. The law of effect is profoundly important because it presents the basic idea that the consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior’s recurrence. Quite simply, a behavior can be followed by something good or something bad, and the probability of a behavior’s being repeated depends on these outcomes. 155. In operant conditioning, how does positive reinforcement differ from negative reinforcement? Answer: In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable. 156. Describe avoidance learning. Provide an example to illustrate. Answer: Student answers will vary. Avoidance learning is a special kind of response to negative reinforcement. Avoidance learning occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided. Avoidance learning is very powerful in the sense that the behavior is maintained even in the absence of any aversive stimulus. For example, a child who turns on a switch and receives an electric shock may never turn on the switch again because she wants to avoid receiving the shock again. 157. Briefly describe the four main schedules of partial reinforcement in operant conditioning. Answer: There are four main schedules of partial reinforcement: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. A variable-ratio schedule is a timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis. Variable-ratio schedules produce high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than the other three schedules. A fixed-interval schedule reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. A variable-interval schedule is a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. 158. How does positive punishment differ from negative punishment in operant conditioning? Answer: In positive punishment, a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus, whereas in negative punishment a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed. 159. Give a brief account of the four main processes involved in observational learning. Answer: The four main processes that are involved in observational learning are attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement. • The first process that must occur is attention. To reproduce a model’s actions, one must attend to what the model is saying or doing. • Retention is the second process required for observational learning to occur. To reproduce a model’s actions, one must encode the information and keep it in memory so that he or she can retrieve it. • Motor reproduction is the third element of observational learning. It is the process of imitating the model’s actions. • Reinforcement is the final component of observational learning. Seeing a model attain a reward for an activity increases the chances that an observer will repeat the behavior—a process called vicarious reinforcement. On the other hand, seeing the model punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior—a process called vicarious punishment. 160. Provide one example of vicarious reinforcement and one example of vicarious punishment. Answer: Student answers will vary. Examples of vicarious reinforcement should include situations where one learns to engage in a behavior by watching positive consequences being applied to someone else. For example, Jimmy sees his brother receiving praise from his parents for doing well on a test. As a result, he decides to study hard to receive the same reaction. In contrast, examples of vicarious punishment should include situations where one learns not to engage in certain behaviors e because of the negative consequences of those behaviors applied to someone else. For example, Cynthia does not ask her boss for leave because she sees her colleague asking the boss for leave and getting reprimanded. 161. Differentiate between latent learning and insight learning. Answer: Latent learning or implicit learning is unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. Whereas, insight learning is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution. 162. Briefly describe the biological constraints involved in learning. Answer: Instinctive drift and preparedness are the biological constraints that are involved in learning. Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning, while preparedness refers to the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. 163. In the context of psychological constraints in learning, define the term mindset and distinguish between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset. Which would you prefer to have and why? Answer: Student answers will vary. The term mindset refers to the way people’s beliefs about their abilities dictates what goals they set for themselves, what they think they can learn, and ultimately what they do learn. Individuals have one of two mindsets: a fixed mindset, in which they believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change; or a growth mindset, in which they believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort. These two mindsets have implications for the meaning of failure. From a fixed mindset, failure means lack of ability. From a growth mindset, however, failure tells the person what he or she still needs to learn. Your mindset influences whether you will be optimistic or pessimistic, what your goals will be, how hard you will strive to reach those goals, and how successful you are in college and after. 164. List some of the effective strategies for developing a growth mindset. Answer: Following are some effective strategies for developing a growth mindset: • Understand that your intelligence and thinking skills are not fixed but can change. Even if you are extremely bright, with effort you can increase your intelligence. • Become passionate about learning and stretch your mind in challenging situations. It is easy to withdraw into a fixed mindset when the going gets tough. However, as you bump up against obstacles, keep growing, work harder, stay the course, and improve your strategies; you will become a more successful person. • Think about the growth mindsets of people you admire. Possibly you have a hero, someone who has achieved something extraordinary. You may have thought his or her accomplishments came easily because the person is so talented. If you find out more about this person, though, you likely will discover that hard work and effort over a long period of time were responsible for his or her achievements. • Begin now. If you have a fixed mindset, commit to changing now. Think about when, where, and how you will begin using your new growth mindset. 165. David, a clinical psychologist, conducts an experiment on two rats, Chub and Chip, by subjecting them to mild electric shocks. On the first day, David gives Chub 30 electric shocks an hour and gives Chip 10 shocks an hour. On the second day, he gives both Chub and Chip 15 shocks an hour. Which rat is likely to experience more stress on the second day and why? Answer: Even though Chub has experienced more shocks in general, Chip is more likely to show the wear and tear of stress. In Chub’s world, even with 30 shocks an hour, things are better. The perception of improvement, even in a situation that is objectively worse than another, is related to lowered stress. True/False Questions 166. In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus must serve as a reliable indicator that the unconditioned stimulus is on its way. Answer: True 167. In the context of drug habituation, drug users who try to prevent habituation by varying the physical location of where they take the drug are at a greater risk of dying from drug overdose. Answer: True 168. Operant conditioning is also known as instrumental conditioning. Answer: True 169. Reinforcement in operant conditioning is the process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior decreases the probability that the behavior will occur again. Answer: False 170. Both negative reinforcers and positive reinforcers in operant conditioning have the same impact on behavior. Answer: True 171. Learned helplessness occurs when an organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided. Answer: False 172. Experience with unavoidable negative stimuli can lead to a particular deficit in avoidance learning called preparedness. Answer: False 173. When Jenna completes a project, her parents give her a gift certificate, which she can use at her favorite store. In the context of operant conditioning, the gift certificate is an example of a primary reinforcer. Answer: False 174. Karen receives a box of chocolates from her grandmother for getting good grades in math. In the context of operant conditioning, the chocolates are an example of a secondary reinforcer. Answer: False 175. In the context of operant conditioning, extinction increases the frequency of a behavior. Answer: False 176. In operant conditioning, continuous reinforcement is when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Answer: True 177. In positive punishment, a behavior increases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus. Answer: False 178. Negative punishment and negative reinforcement have the same impact on behavior. Answer: False 179. Retention is the first process required for observational learning to occur. Answer: False 180. Latent learning is unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. Answer: True 181. Research suggests that insight learning is only observed in humans. Answer: False 182. Preparedness refers to the way people’s beliefs about their abilities dictate what goals they set for themselves, what they think they can learn, and ultimately what they do learn. Answer: False 183. In the context of psychological constraints in learning, individuals with a growth mindset believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change. Answer: False 184. In the context of psychological constraints in learning, a good way to develop a growth mindset is to become passionate about learning. Answer: True 185. One very powerful aspect of potentially stressful experiences is their predictability. Answer: True Test Bank for The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View Laura A. King 9780078035401, 9781260500523, 9780073532066, 9781259255533
