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Chapter 5 - Infancy and Toddlerhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development 1. According to Erik Erikson, which of the following is the first critical developmental issue that is resolved in the first year of life? a. trust versus mistrust b. attachment versus misalignment c. autonomy versus shame and doubt d. oral fixation versus anal fixation Answer: a Rationale: Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory posits that the first stage of development, occurring in infancy, involves the resolution of trust versus mistrust. During this stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs consistently, forming the foundation for healthy psychosocial development. 2. Emotional signals, usually from a child’s parents, that influence the child's behavior are referred to as: a. social adaptation cues b. social referencing c. synchrony d. scaffolding Answer: b Rationale: Social referencing refers to the process by which children use emotional cues from their caregivers to interpret and respond to ambiguous or uncertain situations. It plays a crucial role in shaping the child's behavior and emotional regulation. 3. According to research presented in the text, younger fathers are more likely to behave like ____________ when they play with their children whereas older fathers are more likely to behave like ___________. a. traditional fathers; traditional mothers b. traditional mothers; traditional fathers c. traditional fathers; grandfathers d. older brothers; grandfathers Answer: a Rationale: Younger fathers often exhibit more traditionally masculine behaviors during play with their children, while older fathers tend to demonstrate behaviors more aligned with traditionally feminine roles, resembling maternal caregiving behaviors. 4. According to research presented in the text, which of the following ages is correctly paired with the developmental milestone associated with it? a. birth to 3 months: falling in love b. by 5 months: becoming calm, attentive, and interested in the world c. by 9 months: becoming a two-way communicator d. by 48 months: solving problems and forming an organized sense of self Answer: c Rationale: By around 9 months of age, infants typically become two-way communicators, engaging in back-and-forth interactions with caregivers through gestures, facial expressions, and vocalizations. This milestone marks the development of early forms of communication and social interaction. 5. According to the results of Mary Ainsworth’s studies, about what percent of children raised in the United States experience insecure attachment relationships with their caregivers? a. 5-10% b. 10-20% c. 30-40% d. 50-60% Answer: c Rationale: Mary Ainsworth's research suggests that approximately 30-40% of children in the United States experience insecure attachment relationships with their caregivers, indicating a significant portion of the population faces challenges in developing secure bonds during infancy. 6. According to the text, when a second child is born, parents can best help the older child adjust successfully by: a. not allowing the older child to interact much with the baby, “pretending” she doesn’t exist b. encouraging the older child to spend as much time as possible with the new baby, “pretending” to be his mother or father c. setting aside some time to be with only the older child, giving her all of their attention d. seldom allowing the older child time to be alone with the parents, so that she understands that the baby is a permanent member of the family Answer: c Rationale: When a new sibling is born, parents can best support the older child's adjustment by setting aside dedicated one-on-one time with the older child, providing reassurance and attention to help mitigate feelings of displacement and jealousy. 7. Which of the following patterns of parental discipline will be most likely to lead to a positive resolution of conflict between developing autonomy versus shame and doubt? a. discipline that involves many limits on the child’s behavior b. discipline that places few limits on the child’s behavior c. discipline that places an intermediate amount of limits on the child’s behavior d. There is no clear and consistent relationship between parental discipline practices and the development of autonomy. Answer: c Rationale: An intermediate level of discipline, with appropriate limits on the child's behavior, can facilitate the development of autonomy while providing necessary guidance and structure. Excessive limits may lead to feelings of shame and doubt, while too few limits can hinder the development of self-regulation and autonomy. 8. Dr. Barnes decides to offer a course that will examine the patterns of how humans interact with others, focusing on issues related to an individual’s characteristic beliefs and attitudes. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for this course? a. Temperament b. Attachment c. Personality d. Individual Differences Answer: c Rationale: Personality refers to an individual's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, including their beliefs and attitudes. A course focusing on these aspects of human interaction would appropriately be titled "Personality." 9. Baby Chuck is picked up by a stranger. He immediately looks at his mother’s face, and judges his reaction based on whether she expresses pleasure or concern. Chuck’s reliance on cues from his mother in forming his own reaction is best considered an example of: a. stranger anxiety b. separation anxiety c. prosocial behavior d. social referencing Answer: d Rationale: Chuck's behavior exemplifies social referencing, which involves seeking and interpreting emotional cues from others, particularly caregivers, to guide one's own behavior and emotional responses, especially in unfamiliar or ambiguous situations. 10. Robin’s parents are drug addicts and therefore are unresponsive to her needs. Although they provide enough food for her to eat, they pay little attention to her and she spends most of her time unattended and alone. When Robin goes to kindergarten, the teacher is concerned because she is so small and thin, and she has trouble eating the school lunch without vomiting. The most likely diagnosis for Robin’s condition is: a. anemia b. failure-to-thrive syndrome c. malnutrition d. stunting Answer: b Rationale: Failure-to-thrive syndrome is a condition characterized by inadequate growth and development, often resulting from emotional neglect or insufficient caregiving. Robin's symptoms, such as poor growth and difficulty with eating, are consistent with this diagnosis given her circumstances of neglect and lack of responsiveness from her parents. 1. According to Freud, the first year of life is centered mostly on how the child’s ______ needs are satisfied: a. oral b. latent c. anal d. communication Answer: a Rationale: Freud's psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the importance of the oral stage of development during the first year of life. This stage is characterized by the child's primary focus on oral gratification and the satisfaction of needs such as feeding, which Freud believed to be crucial for healthy psychological development. 2. According to research presented in the text, mothers are more likely to hold infants for ______, whereas fathers are more likely to hold infants for ______. a. play; caretaking b. caretaking; play c. social acceptance; self-gratification d. self-gratification; social acceptance Answer: b Rationale: Research suggests that mothers are more likely to hold infants for caretaking activities such as feeding and comforting, while fathers are more likely to engage in playful interactions when holding infants. This division of caregiving roles is influenced by both cultural norms and individual preferences. 3. The percentage of U.S. mothers with children under 3 years who work outside the home today is about: a. 33% b. 50% c. 60% d. 85% Answer: c Rationale: In contemporary society, approximately 60% of mothers with children under 3 years old work outside the home. This statistic reflects the increasing participation of women in the workforce and the prevalence of dual-income households. 4. According to research presented in the text, which of the following ages is NOT correctly paired with the developmental milestone associated with it? a. birth to 3 months: becoming calm, attentive, and interested in the world b. by 5 months: falling in love c. by 9 months: becoming a two-way communicator d. by 14 to 18 months: developing a world of ideas Answer: d Rationale: The developmental milestone associated with the age range of 14 to 18 months typically involves the emergence of symbolic thought and the ability to use words to represent objects and concepts. This stage is more closely aligned with the development of language and cognitive abilities rather than the development of a "world of ideas." 5. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment in which a strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver develops because of responsive caregiving is called: a. avoidant attachment b. secure attachment c. resistant attachment d. dependent attachment Answer: b Rationale: Mary Ainsworth's research on attachment identified secure attachment as a form of attachment characterized by a strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver, which develops as a result of consistent and responsive caregiving. In secure attachment, the child feels confident in exploring their environment with the caregiver as a secure base. 6. Which of the following children would likely have the easiest time developing a healthy sense of autonomy? a. Jim, who is experiencing a high level of stranger anxiety b. Bob, who is very securely attached to his mother c. Rex, who is not securely attached to his mother d. Tom, who has learned to be mistrustful of his caregivers Answer: b Rationale: Children who are securely attached, like Bob, tend to have an easier time developing a healthy sense of autonomy because they have a secure base from which to explore the world. Secure attachment fosters confidence and independence in children, making them more resilient in the face of challenges. 7. The key word in the text’s distinction between child abuse and child neglect is: a. physical b. emotional c. intentional d. psychological Answer: c Rationale: The key distinction between child abuse and child neglect lies in the intentionality of the actions or lack thereof. While both involve harm to the child, abuse typically involves intentional acts of harm or maltreatment, whereas neglect involves the failure to provide for the child's basic needs due to lack of attention or care. 8. Suppose you observe a father and his infant daughter in a laboratory and they are playing together. At some point, the father stops responding to his daughter and the experimenter records how the child reacts. The term for an experiment of this type is: a. a habituation experiment b. a still-face experiment c. a classical conditioning experiment d. a visual cliff experiment Answer: b Rationale: The described experiment is known as a still-face experiment. It involves the caregiver (in this case, the father) abruptly stopping their interaction with the infant and maintaining a neutral facial expression. This interruption in social interaction allows researchers to observe the infant's response to the change in caregiver behavior. 9. At the daycare center, Maria sees another child crying so she breaks her own cookie in half and offers a piece to the crying child. Maria’s behavior is best considered as a demonstration of the principle of: a. social referencing b. imprinting c. synchrony d. prosocial behavior Answer: d Rationale: Maria's action of sharing her cookie with the crying child demonstrates prosocial behavior, which involves voluntary actions intended to benefit others. By sharing her cookie, Maria is displaying empathy and kindness towards the distressed child, which are key components of prosocial behavior. 10. Lacy says she “hates” her little brother because he gets all the attention and causes all the trouble. Lacy’s response is consistent with the basic idea behind the development of: a. autonomy b. empathy c. the discrepancy hypothesis d. sibling rivalry Answer: d Rationale: Lacy's expression of negative feelings towards her brother, driven by feelings of competition and jealousy over attention and resources, aligns with the concept of sibling rivalry. Sibling rivalry is a common phenomenon characterized by conflict, jealousy, and competition between siblings for parental attention and resources. Multiple Choice questions: The Foundations of Personality and Social Development 1. The characteristic beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others is referred to as one’s: a. temperament b. trust c. personality d. orientation Answer: c Rationale: Personality encompasses a person's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, including their beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others. Temperament refers to innate characteristics such as mood and activity level, whereas trust and orientation are more specific aspects of personality and not as comprehensive as the overall concept of personality. 2. Dr. Barnes decides to offer a course that will examine the patterns of how humans interact with others, focusing on issues related to an individual’s characteristic beliefs and attitudes. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for this course? a. Temperament b. Attachment c. Personality d. Individual Differences Answer: c Rationale: Personality is defined in the text as “the characteristic beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others.” Thus, since this is the exact content of Dr. Barnes’s course, the title “Personality” would be the most accurate choice. 3. According to the text, the period defined as “Infancy and Toddlerhood” begins at birth and extends through age: a. 12 months b. 18 months c. 24 months d. 36 months Answer: c Rationale: "Infancy and Toddlerhood" typically refers to the developmental period from birth to around 24 months. While developmental milestones can vary for each child, the period generally encompasses the first two years of life, making 24 months the appropriate cutoff point. 4. During the first 2 years of life, children’s emotions become more: a. positive b. negative c. complex d. selfish Answer: c Rationale: As infants develop, their emotional states become more complex. Babies focus first on managing distress and comfort, then learn to exchange signals, sounds, and smiles with a responsive caregiver. Over the first year, basic emotions emerge, and in the second year socially oriented emotions emerge. 5. Another word for “emotional” is: a. affective b. personality-based c. temperamental d. unstable Answer: a Rationale: “Affective” means essentially the same thing as “emotional.” 6. Suppose you observe a father and his infant daughter in a laboratory and they are playing together. At some point, the father stops responding to his daughter and the experimenter records how the child reacts. The term for an experiment of this type is: a. a habituation experiment b. a still-face experiment c. a classical conditioning experiment d. a visual cliff experiment Answer: b Rationale: The book describes a still-face experiment, in which parents were first asked to sit and play with their infants and then, after 3 minutes, to stop communicating with their babies by putting on a blank, still face. Babies first responded with surprise but their behavior soon began to deteriorate. This research demonstrated the importance of the reciprocal two-way parent-child communication system. 7. Suppose you watch a mother and her infant son playing “peek-a-boo.” Now the mother stops playing and breaks off all communication with the little boy, looking away and not responding to his actions. If this infant responds in a typical way, what will he most likely do? a. sit calmly, maintaining eye contact, and wait for the mother to “re-engage” with him b. become “happier” and more energetic in an attempt to win back the mother’s attention c. fall asleep d. look away and become upset Answer: d Rationale: The book describes a still-face experiment, in which parents were first asked to sit and play with their infants and then, after 3 minutes, to stop communicating with their babies by putting on a blank, still face. Babies first responded with surprise but their behavior soon began to deteriorate. This example in this question is analogous to a still-face experiment. 8. According to research presented in the text, which of the following ages is correctly paired with the developmental milestone associated with it? a. birth to 3 months: falling in love b. by 5 months: becoming calm, attentive, and interested in the world c. by 9 months: becoming a two-way communicator d. by 48 months: solving problems and forming an organized sense of self Answer: c Rationale: The milestone reached by 9 months is becoming a two-way communicator. Falling in love is the milestone reached by 5 months, becoming calm and attentive is the milestone reached by 3 months, and problem solving is the milestone reached by 14 to 18 months. 9. According to research presented in the text, which of the following ages is NOT correctly paired with the developmental milestone associated with it? a. birth to 3 months: becoming calm, attentive, and interested in the world b. by 5 months: falling in love c. by 9 months: becoming a two-way communicator d. by 14 to 18 months: developing a world of ideas Answer: d Rationale: Developing a world of ideas is the milestone reached by 24 to 30 months. The rest of the milestones are matched with the correct age range. 10. According to research presented in the text, which of the following developmental milestones occurs between birth and 3 months? a. building bridges between ideas b. falling in love c. being attentive and interested in the world d. solving problems and forming a sense of self Answer: c Rationale: Being calm, attentive, and interested in the world is the milestone reached by 3 months. The other milestones occur at later age periods. 11. The term developmentalists use to describe the characteristic way that infants interact with the world around them is: a. personality b. temperament c. affective engagement d. attachment Answer: b Rationale: Temperament refers to the characteristic way individuals interact with the world, including their emotional reactivity, adaptability, and activity level. It is often considered innate and can influence various aspects of development, including social interactions and behavior. 12. All of the following are styles of temperament identified by Thomas and Chess EXCEPT: a. anxious b. easy c. difficult d. slow-to-warm-up Answer: a Rationale: Thomas and Chess identified three primary styles of temperament: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. Anxious is not typically considered one of the primary styles of temperament identified in their research. 13. Betty’s infant daughter cries often and is routinely in negative moods. She reacts to change with difficulty and slowness. According to research conducted by Thomas and Chess, this baby most likely has which of the following types of temperaments? a. anxious b. easy c. difficult d. slow-to-warm-up Answer: c Rationale: According to Thomas and Chess, the easy baby adapts easily to new situations and usually has positive moods. Slow-to-warm-up babies react negatively to new people and situations initially but successfully adjust over a period of time and difficult babies react to change with difficulty and slowness. 14. Robert’s infant daughter rarely expresses extremely negative moods. She adapts easily to change, new places, and new people. According to research conducted by Thomas and Chess, this baby most likely has which of the following types of temperaments? a. anxious b. easy c. difficult d. slow-to-warm-up Answer: b Rationale: According to Thomas and Chess, the easy baby adapts easily to new situations and usually has positive moods. Slow-to-warm-up babies react negatively to new people and situations initially but successfully adjust over a period of time and difficult babies react to change with difficulty and slowness. 15. Bianca’s infant daughter reacts negatively to new places and new people, but successfully adjusts after some time. According to research conducted by Thomas and Chess, this baby most likely has which of the following types of temperaments? a. anxious b. easy c. difficult d. slow-to-warm-up Answer: d Rationale: According to Thomas and Chess, the slow-to-warm-up baby reacts negatively to new people and situations initially but successfully adjusts over a period of time. Easy babies adapt easily and difficult babies react to change with difficulty and slowness. 16. Which of the following is NOT one of the broad dimensions of temperament, according to Mary Rothbart? a. extroversion b. effortful control c. slow-to-warm-up style d. negative affectivity Answer: c Rationale: The term “slow-to-warm-up” is a term in Thomas and Chess’s description of different styles of temperament, along with “easy” and “difficult” styles. Mary Rothbart does not discuss different types of temperamental styles, but rather focuses on the core dimensions of temperament, which include the degree to which individuals possess effortful control, negative affectivity, and extroversion. 17. Dr. Barker observes children and rates them on a scale according to how frustrated they get when they cannot get what they want, at how they react when they are overstimulated by too much activity in their environment, and how easily they are comforted by their parent when they are upset. The scale that Dr. Barker is using would best be considered a measure of which of Mary Rothbart’s basic dimensions of temperament? a. extroversion b. effortful control c. difficulty d. negative affectivity Answer: d Rationale: These descriptors pertain to Rothbart’s dimension of negative affectivity. Difficulty is not one of Rothbart’s basic dimensions of temperament, but rather is a term used by Thomas and Chess to describe one of three basic styles of temperament. The Development of Trust 18. According to Erik Erikson, which of the following is the first critical developmental issue that is resolved in the first year of life? a. trust versus mistrust b. attachment versus misalignment c. autonomy versus shame and doubt d. oral fixation versus anal fixation Answer: a Rationale: Erik Erikson proposed a series of psychosocial stages of development, and the first stage, occurring in infancy, is trust versus mistrust. This stage focuses on the development of a sense of trust in the world, primarily through consistent and responsive caregiving. 19. According to Sigmund Freud and others, which of the following activities seems to be especially important in establishing a sense of trust in early infancy? a. toilet training b. reciprocal smiling c. reciprocal communication d. feeding Answer: d Rationale: Researchers who study the development of trust often focus on how feeding fits into the overall pattern of nurturing. All theories of human development acknowledge the important early socialization associated with feeding. Foremost among these is Sigmund Freud’s view, which argued that the first year of life is characterized by a focus on oral stimulation that is associated most closely with the feeding rituals established by the mother. 20. According to Freud, the first year of life is centered mostly on how the child’s ______ needs are satisfied: a. oral b. latent c. anal d. communication Answer: a Rationale: Freud's psychoanalytic theory suggests that during the first year of life, the child's primary focus is on the satisfaction of oral needs, including feeding and oral stimulation. This stage is known as the oral stage of psychosexual development. 21. Dr. Jamison argues that the most critical part of parenting during the first year depends on how the infant is fed. She argues that if the feeding ritual is disturbing to the infant in any way, the infant will develop a personality that focuses on oral habits, such as nail-biting and cigarette smoking. Dr. Jamison’s views are closest to those espoused by: a. Erik Erikson b. Mary Ainsworth c. John Bowlby d. Sigmund Freud Answer: d Rationale: All theories of human development acknowledge the important early socialization associated with feeding. Sigmund Freud’s view, in particular, argues that the first year of life is characterized by a focus on oral stimulation that is associated most closely with the feeding rituals established by the mother. According to Freud, much of later personality development depends on how the child’s oral needs are gratified in this first year of life. 22. Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the relationship between feeding and comforting behaviors and the development of trusting relationships in infancy? a. Cultural differences in feeding and comforting are quite wide, but children in all cultures can develop trusting relationships with parents. b. There are almost no differences among cultures in how competent adults feed and comfort infants, although differences in child-care techniques do emerge during the infant’s second year of life. c. In cultures in which children are weaned late and they are treated as helpless infants for an extended period of time, children are more likely to develop trusting relationships with adults. d. In cultures in which children are weaned early and they are expected to be independent at early ages, children are more likely to develop trusting relationships with adults. Answer: a Rationale: As the book notes, cultures differ dramatically in their customs regarding feeding and comforting. However, in all cultures, attachment and trusting relationships between infants and caregivers occur. The book notes that this is the case even within the seemingly cruel teasing atmosphere of Italian family culture. 23. The text describes a study in Italy in which mothers and other family members were observed as they cared for infants. In particular, the authors noted that Italian children were often teased by family members. The point of describing this study was that: a. teasing causes lasting harm to the positive emotional development of children b. teasing should be considered a form of child abuse c. children seem to develop normal trusting relationships with adults, even when they are teased, so long as they are well cared for in other ways d. Italian mothers perform very few of the child-care duties assigned to mothers in the United States, and their children therefore grow up to be much more independent Answer: c Rationale: As the book notes, cultures differ dramatically in their customs regarding feeding and comforting. However, in all cultures, attachment and trusting relationships between infants and caregivers occur. The book notes that this is the case even within the seemingly cruel teasing atmosphere of Italian family culture. Healthy adjustment requires a balance in the development of trust (which allows infants to form secure relationships with others) and mistrust (which teaches them to protect themselves when conditions are threatening). 24. Which of the following is most likely to provide the most positive outcome for young children? a. when they experience almost no distrust in their early relationships with adults b. when they experience both trust and distrust in early relationships, but trust predominates c. when they experience both trust and distrust in early relationships, but distrust predominates d. when they experience an almost equal balance of trust and distrust in their early relationships with adults Answer: b Rationale: Healthy adjustment requires a balance in the development of trust (which allows infants to form secure relationships with others) and mistrust (which teaches them to protect themselves when conditions are threatening). Trust, however, must predominate in early relationships or the infant may have difficulty establishing successful relationships throughout life. Attachment 25. Dr. Arquette is concerned that an infant he is treating does not appear to have established any emotional bonds between herself and the adults who care for her. She shows no affection toward her mother, she stiffens up whenever her mother picks her up or sings to her, and she does not show any interest in looking at her mother’s face. Dr. Arquette’s concern relates to this little girl’s development of: a. personality b. emotionality c. temperament d. attachment Answer: d Rationale: Attachment is defined as the emotional bond between infants and their parents or other primary caregivers. 26. Suppose you read about a research study in which babies are taken by their mothers to a waiting room, where they are met by a stranger. After the baby has begun to play with some toys on the floor, the mother leaves the room, and the stranger observes how the baby responds. This situation describes the research technique called: a. the strange-situation test b. the still-face test c. the loneliness scenario d. the attachment dilemma Answer: a Rationale: This procedure basically describes Ainsworth’s strange-situation test, which is often used to assess the quality of infant attachment to the primary caregiver. 27. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment in which a strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver develops because of responsive caregiving is called: a. avoidant attachment b. secure attachment c. resistant attachment d. dependent attachment Answer: b Rationale: Using the strange-situation test, Ainsworth found two basic types of attachment. Between 60 and 70% of U.S. middle-class babies displayed the first type of attachment, which is called secure attachment, where a strong emotional bond between a child and a caregiver develops because of responsive caregiving. The remaining babies—about 30 to 40%—displayed insecure attachment, which results from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving. 28. According to the results of Mary Ainsworth’s studies, about what percent of children raised in the United States experience secure attachment relationships with their caregivers? a. 20-30% b. 40-50% c. 60-70% d. 80-90% Answer: c Rationale: Mary Ainsworth's research on attachment suggests that approximately 60-70% of children in the United States develop secure attachment relationships with their caregivers. This indicates that the majority of children experience a positive and secure bond with their primary caregivers. 29. According to the results of Mary Ainsworth’s studies, about what percent of children raised in the United States experience insecure attachment relationships with their caregivers? a. 5-10% b. 10-20% c. 30-40% d. 50-60% Answer: c Rationale: Using the strange-situation test, Ainsworth found two basic types of attachment. Between 60 and 70% of U.S. middle-class babies displayed the first type of attachment, which is called secure attachment, where a strong emotional bond between a child and a caregiver develops because of responsive caregiving. The remaining babies—about 30 to 40%—displayed insecure attachment, which results from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving. 30. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment which typically results from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving is called: a. difficult attachment b. insecure attachment c. anxious attachment d. dependent attachment Answer: b Rationale: Mary Ainsworth identified insecure attachment as a form of attachment that results from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving. Insecure attachment can manifest in various ways, such as avoidance or ambivalence towards the caregiver. 31. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment in which a child becomes angry when the mother leaves and avoids her when she returns is called: a. avoidant attachment b. secure attachment c. resistant attachment d. dependent attachment Answer: c Rationale: Mary Ainsworth categorized this pattern of attachment behavior as resistant attachment. In this form of attachment, the child may display distress upon separation from the caregiver but then exhibit anger or avoidance upon their return. 32. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment in which a child is ambivalent toward the mother is called: a. avoidant attachment b. secure attachment c. resistant attachment d. dependent attachment Answer: a Rationale: Mary Ainsworth termed this pattern of attachment behavior as avoidant attachment. In avoidant attachment, the child may not display distress upon separation from the caregiver and may avoid or ignore the caregiver upon their return. 33. According to the views of Mary Ainsworth, the form of attachment in which a child displays contradictory behavior towards the mother is called: a. avoidant attachment b. secure attachment c. resistant attachment d. disorganized/disoriented attachment Answer: d Rationale: Disorganized/disoriented attachment, as described by Mary Ainsworth, involves contradictory behaviors towards the caregiver, such as approaching the caregiver while displaying fear or confusion. This type of attachment often occurs in situations where the caregiver is the source of both comfort and fear for the child, leading to a disorganized response. 34. In comparison to children who do not form secure attachments in infancy, you would expect that children who are securely attached would be more likely to: a. experience difficulty with social relationships with peers in kindergarten b. engage in routine play rather than imaginative play c. work less hard at learning new skills d. have more highly developed social skills for interacting with adults Answer: d Rationale: Research cited in the text found that children who have experienced secure attachment during infancy exhibit more highly developed social skills in interacting with adults and peers. 35. Insecure attachment appear to put a child at higher risk for all of the following EXCEPT: a. hyperactivity b. chronic stress reactions c. problems with their social behaviors d. diabetes Answer: d Rationale: Research studies cited in the text found that insecurely attached children are more likely to be hyperactive, have chronic stress reactions, and to have behavioral problems. 36. The formation of a bond between some newborn animals (especially birds) and their mothers is called: a. flocking b. connecting c. synchrony d. imprinting Answer: d Rationale: Imprinting refers to the rapid formation of a bond between newborn animals and their caregivers, typically observed in certain species like birds. This bond is often critical for the survival of the offspring, as it guides their behavior and attachment to the caregiver. 37. Newly hatched goslings will treat the first moving thing they see upon hatching as their mother. This is a striking example of: a. imprinting b. disorganized attachment c. synchrony d. social ecology Answer: a Rationale: Imprinting is the formation of a bond between some newborn animals (especially birds) and their mothers that appears to be present at birth and is therefore viewed as the result of biological programming rather than learning. In now-classic research, Konrad Lorenz noted that newly hatched goslings, which normally imprint on their mothers, would imprint on any moving object— the family dog or even Lorenz himself—if that object, rather than the mother goose, were present when the goslings hatched. 38. Harry Harlow studied the early development of infant monkeys who were placed in cages with two surrogate mothers, one made of metal that was a milk source and one that had no milk but was made of soft terrycloth. Harlow found that that these infant monkeys developed attachments with: a. the wire surrogate with the milk supply b. the terrycloth surrogate without the milk supply c. neither of these surrogate mothers d. both of these surrogate mothers Answer: b Rationale: The results of Harlow’s study were that the infant monkeys showed a distinct preference for the surrogate made of terrycloth. They spent more time clinging and vocalizing to it, and they ran to it when they were frightened. Apparently, attachment requires more from the mother than mere physical presence or the provision of food. 39. Harry Harlow's research on the development of attachment in monkeys with surrogate mothers demonstrated the importance of which of the following factors? a. contact comfort b. eye contact c. drive-reduction functions d. hunger and feeding Answer: a Rationale: The results of Harlow’s study were that infant monkeys showed a distinct preference for a surrogate made of terrycloth over a wire surrogate that provided a milk supply. They spent more time clinging and vocalizing to it, and they ran to it when they were frightened. Apparently, attachment requires more from the mother than mere physical presence or the provision of food -- it requires a quality mother-infant bond and the comfort that comes from physical contact. 40. In Harry Harlow’s early work with infant monkeys, he noticed that when they were raised with adequate food but without any attention from or contact with their mothers or other adult monkeys, they usually: a. developed maladapted behaviors and sometimes died b. lost all their fur c. spent all of their time playing with other infant monkeys d. failed to learn to walk upright Answer: a Rationale: Harry Harlow (1959) noted that when monkeys in his lab were raised without their mothers, they often developed maladapted behaviors. They were easily frightened, irritable, and reluctant to eat or play, despite the fact that they had a nutritious diet and were otherwise well cared for. Some monkeys even died. Obviously, these baby monkeys needed something more than regular feeding to thrive and develop. 41. According to John Bowlby, which of the following theories provides the best explanation for the development of attachment? a. evolutionary theory b. psychoanalytic theory c. drive-reduction theory d. behavioral theory, and especially reinforcement theory Answer: a Rationale: Bowlby takes an evolutionary perspective in arguing that biologically preprogrammed behaviors, which serve to enhance the prospect of infant survival and normal development, occur in both the infant and the caregiver. As development proceeds, early biologically programmed behaviors are displayed and reinforced. 42. Molly and her infant son often engage each other in a “love-stare” in which each looks and smiles at the other for extended periods of time. The word that best describes this back-and-forth relationship would be: a. social referencing b. synchrony c. imprinting d. empathy Answer: b Rationale: Synchrony is defined as the back-and-forth interactions between an infant and a caregiver. 43. Which of the following phrases best captures the essence of what is meant by the term synchrony? a. two-way b. kind c. generous d. evolutionary Answer: a Rationale: Synchrony is defined as the back-and-forth (that is, two-way) interactions between an infant and a caregiver. 44. Suppose you study two mothers who have new babies but who have different attitudes about how to care for a crying baby. Ruthie believes that every time her baby cries, she should be picked up and comforted. Glenda believes that picking up a crying baby will reinforce the crying and the child will become harder to care for. Research on this topic suggests that whose child is likely to cry less at age 1 year? a. Ruthie’s baby will probably cry less, due to a stronger development of trust and attachment. b. Glenda’s baby will probably cry less, due to a stronger development of reality and responsibility. c. Glenda’s baby will probably cry less, because she will learn that crying does not lead to reward. d. Ruthie’s and Glenda’s babies will probably cry about the same amount, regardless of how their mothers attend to their crying. Answer: a Rationale: Research has shown that, contrary to what reinforcement theory would predict, mothers who quickly and consistently respond to their infants’ crying over the first few months are more likely to have infants who cry less by the end of the first year. 45. According to Erik Erikson, securely attached infants are able to develop: a. initiative b. independence c. self-confidence d. trust Answer: d Rationale: Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development suggests that securely attached infants develop a sense of trust in their caregivers and the world around them. This trust forms the foundation for healthy social and emotional development. Separating from the Caregiver 46. Little Susie has been a very easy baby to love, since she smiles at everyone who holds her and engages them with eye contact. Recently, however, Susie has become anxious when anyone other than her mother or father holds her, and she wails whenever she is picked up by a stranger. Based on a knowledge of child development, your best guess is that Susie is about how old: a. 4 months old b. 7 months old c. 13 months old d. 22 months old Answer: b Rationale: Susie’s change in behavior most likely results from the development of stranger anxiety or separation anxiety, a normal developmental change that occurs in all normal children. Stranger anxiety begins to develop at about 7 months of age. 47. Stranger anxiety is tied most closely to: a. being dropped by a caregiver and developing a phobia about security b. the newly developed ability to distinguish between caregivers and strangers c. child abuse, especially when it results from the father’s or step-father’s behavior d. growing up in an unresponsive environment in which basic needs are sometimes not met Answer: b Rationale: Most developmental psychologists see stranger and separation anxiety as being closely tied to the infant’s cognitive development. As cognitive processes mature, infants develop schemas for what is familiar, and they notice anything that is new and strange. Once such schemas develop, infants can distinguish caregivers from strangers, and they often become keenly aware when the primary caregiver is absent. 48. The discrepancy hypothesis explains: a. attachment b. synchrony c. social referencing d. stranger and separation anxiety Answer: d Rationale: According to the discrepancy hypothesis, separation anxiety results when infants become capable of detecting departures from the known or the expected. 49. Baby Chuck is picked up by a stranger. He immediately looks at his mother’s face, and judges his reaction based on whether she expresses pleasure or concern. Chuck’s reliance on cues from his mother in forming his own reaction is best considered an example of: a. stranger anxiety b. separation anxiety c. prosocial behavior d. social referencing Answer: d Rationale: Social referencing refers to the subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant’s behavior. 50. Cultural values are transmitted from parents to children through many processes. Which of the following concepts is most closely tied to this cultural transmission across the generations? a. development of shame and doubt b. social referencing c. stranger anxiety d. separation anxiety Answer: b Rationale: Social referencing refers to the subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant’s behavior, and is thus a cultural phenomenon. The other choices refer to maturational processes. 51. Diana's mother greets a stranger with a smiling face and a cheery "Hello." Consequently, Diana is more positive toward the stranger. The term that best describes this situation is: a. synchrony b. social adaptation c. social referencing d. guided participation Answer: c Rationale: Social referencing refers to the subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant’s behavior, and is thus a cultural phenomenon. 52. Emotional signals, usually from a child’s parents, that influence the child's behavior are referred to as: a. social adaptation cues b. social referencing c. synchrony d. scaffolding Answer: b Rationale: Social referencing involves a child observing and interpreting emotional cues from their parents or caregivers to guide their own behavior and responses in a particular situation. It helps children learn about their environment and how to navigate social interactions. 53. A toddler bumps his head on a table and then looks at the mother’s reaction before getting upset. This example best demonstrates the principle of: a. social referencing b. autonomy c. overdependence d. prosocial behavior Answer: a Rationale: Social referencing refers to the subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant’s behavior, and is thus a cultural phenomenon. 54. Studies of the Kung San culture described in the text showed that parents in this culture pay a great deal of attention to their infants’ sharing of objects, but pay very little attention to their infants’ exploration of objects. This study is cited to demonstrate the point that: a. synchrony develops naturally in every culture b. collectivist cultures emphasize the development of sharing over self-oriented behaviors c. attachment is significantly influenced by how children are punished and rewarded d. the development of autonomy occurs earlier in collectivist cultures Answer: b Rationale: For the Kung San, sharing is highly valued (collectivist culture). When cultural anthropologists looked at mothers and their 10- to 12-month-old infants, they were surprised to find that, in contrast to many U.S. parents (individualistic culture), the Kung San parents seemed to pay no attention to the infant’s exploration of objects and paid close attention to the sharing of objects, reflecting their collectivist cultural values. 55. Erik Erikson believed that the second critical developmental challenge experienced by toddlers centers on the development of: a. autonomy vs. shame and doubt b. trust vs. mistrust c. inferiority vs. superiority d. integrity vs. despair Answer: a Rationale: Erik Erikson identified the psychosocial crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt as the second stage of development, occurring during toddlerhood. This stage involves the child's exploration of independence and self-reliance while balancing feelings of shame and doubt about their abilities. 56. A mother lets her toddler pick out which shirt he wants to wear to the playground, rather than insisting that he wear a particular shirt she chooses for him. This type of behavior encourages the development of: a. empathy b. autonomy c. narcissism d. shame and doubt Answer: b Rationale: Although they continue to rely on their caregivers for emotional support, toddlers in their second year begin to reach out on their own in their quest for autonomy— their need to be independent and separate from their caregivers. 57. When 2-year-old Shania says to her father, “Me do it!” she is expressing the sense of which of the following developmental processes? a. development of stranger anxiety b. development of trust c. development of mistrust d. development of autonomy Answer: d Rationale: Although they continue to rely on their caregivers for emotional support, toddlers in their second year begin to reach out on their own in their quest for autonomy— their need to be independent and separate from their caregivers. 58. According to Erik Erikson’s view of child development, which of the following children would most likely have recently resolved their initial developmental conflict between autonomy and shame and doubt: a. Alex, who is 12 months old b. Julia, who is 2 ½ years old c. Marc, who just had his 4th birthday d. Devon, who is age 6 Answer: b Rationale: Although they continue to rely on their caregivers for emotional support, toddlers in their second year begin to reach out on their own in their quest for autonomy— their need to be independent and separate from their caregivers. This pattern of separating from one’s caregivers is known as Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt, which is resolved in the second and third years of a child’s life. 59. Which of the following children would likely have the easiest time developing a healthy sense of autonomy? a. Jim, who is experiencing a high level of stranger anxiety b. Bob, who is very securely attached to his mother c. Rex, who is not securely attached to his mother d. Tom, who has learned to be mistrustful of his caregivers Answer: b Rationale: As noted in the textbook, children who have developed a trusting relationship with their caregivers during the first year of life, thereby developing a healthy autonomy from their caregivers, are better prepared to take the first steps toward independence than those who are insecurely attached. Toddlers who have failed to form secure attachments, however, are likely to have a more difficult time. 60. According to Freud, if toilet training is begun too early or is too strict, the child is at greater risk for developing: a. an Oedipal complex b. phobias c. an anal fixation d. an introverted personality Answer: c Rationale: Freud believed that toilet training that was begun too early or that was too strict could produce an anal fixation that would be carried forward in development, interfering with normal development later in life. Similarly, a too lax approach to toilet training could cause other problems to develop. 61. Which of the following patterns of parental discipline will be most likely to lead to a positive resolution of conflict between developing autonomy versus shame and doubt? a. discipline that is involves many limits on the child’s behavior b. discipline that places few limits on the child’s behavior c. discipline that places an intermediate amount of limits on the child’s behavior d. There is no clear and consistent relationship between parental discipline practices and the development of autonomy. Answer: c Rationale: Children who have a strong attachment relationship and whose needs are met through loving interaction with an adult are neither spoiled by attention nor frightened or threatened by reasonable limits. They are stronger and more confident because they have a secure base from which to venture forth into independent activities. 62. Two-year-old Eleanor helped to put all the toys away after playing at a friend’s house. This behavior is a good example of the concept called: a. reciprocity b. deferred imitation c. synchrony d. prosocial behavior Answer: d Rationale: Prosocial behaviors are helping, sharing, or cooperative actions that are intended to benefit others. 63. At the daycare center, Maria sees another child crying so she breaks her own cookie in half and offers a piece to the crying child. Maria’s behavior is best considered as a demonstration of the principle of: a. social referencing b. imprinting c. synchrony d. prosocial behavior Answer: d Rationale: Prosocial behaviors are helping, sharing, or cooperative actions that are intended to benefit others. 64. Prosocial behaviors are behaviors that are intended to: a. benefit others b. gain attention from caregivers c. gain positive rewards from caregivers d. teach children the rules the define a particular culture Answer: a Rationale: Prosocial behaviors are defined as helping, sharing, or cooperative actions that are intended to benefit others. 65. The ability to understand how another person is feeling and what another person is thinking is the core concept involved in: a. synchrony b. empathy c. autonomy d. social referencing Answer: b Rationale: Empathy is defined by the textbook as the ability to understand another’s feelings and perspective. 66. When a toddler grabs a toy away from another child and says, “Mine!” this most clearly demonstrates the development of: a. separation anxiety b. mistrust c. shame and doubt d. self Answer: d Rationale: Reflective of their growing self-awareness, by the end of the second year, children’s language is filled with references to themselves. The words me and mine take on new significance, and the concept of ownership is clearly and strongly acted out. 67. Suppose you observe a baby sitting in front of a mirror. You now place a dot of rouge on the baby’s nose. You see the baby look at the mirror, and then he crawls around the mirror to find the baby on the other side. Your best guess is that this baby is about how old? a. about 6 months of age b. about 12 months of age c. about 18 months of age d. 24 months of age Answer: b Rationale: Previous research has shown that between 8 and 16 months of age, babies will sometimes crawl around the mirror to try to find the other baby. If a researcher puts a dot of red rouge on the baby’s nose, the baby notices it but points to the nose in the mirror and not to his or her own nose. 68. Suppose you observe a baby sitting in front of a mirror. You now place a dot of rouge on the baby’s nose. You see the baby look at the mirror, and then reach out to the touch the nose of the baby in the mirror. Your best guess is that this baby is about how old? a. about 6 months of age b. about 12 months of age c. about 18 months of age d. 24 months of age Answer: b Rationale: Previous research has shown that between 8 and 16 months of age, babies will sometimes crawl around the mirror to try to find the other baby. If a researcher puts a dot of red rouge on the baby’s nose, the baby notices it but points to the nose in the mirror and not to his or her own nose. 69. Suppose you observe a baby sitting in front of a mirror. You now place a dot of rouge on the baby’s nose. You see the baby look at the mirror, and then touch her own nose to feel why it is red. Your best guess is that this baby is about how old? a. about 6 months of age b. about 12 months of age c. about 18 months of age d. 36 months of age Answer: c Rationale: Previous research has shown that at about 18 months of age, babies recognize that the image in the mirror is their own image. If the researcher now puts a dot of red rouge on the toddler’s nose, there is a classic reaction. The toddler points to her own nose, turns her head away from the mirror, drops her eyes, smiles, and looks embarrassed. 70. Suppose you observe a baby sitting in front of a mirror. You now place a dot of rouge on the baby’s nose. You see the baby look at the mirror, but rather than focusing on the red nose, the baby appears to be looking at many aspects of her appearance. In fact, she begins to sing and do hand movements to her favorite song as if she is performing for her own enjoyment. Your best guess is that this baby is about how old? a. about 6 months of age b. about 12 months of age c. about 18 months of age d. 36 months of age Answer: d Rationale: By 2 years of age, self-knowledge expands to include awareness of activities as well as appearance. A 2-year-old who preens in front of a mirror is engaging in a self-admiring activity. 71. At about age 2, which words begin to take on especially important significance to toddlers? a. “me” and “mine” b. “you” and “yours” c. “yes” and “no” d. “open” and “shut” Answer: a Rationale: Around the age of 2, toddlers typically begin to develop a sense of self-awareness and ownership, leading to the increased significance of words like "me" and "mine" as they assert their independence and identity. 72. Patricia’s mother notices that Patricia recently has become very selfish with her toys, and uses the words “me” and “mine” far more frequently than in the past. Patricia is probably about how old? a. 12 months old b. 15 months old c. 18 months old d. 24 months old Answer: d Rationale: Reflective of their growing self-awareness, by the end of the second year, children’s language is filled with references to themselves. The words me and mine take on new significance, and the concept of ownership is clearly and strongly acted out. The Family System: A Broader Context 73. According to the text, which of the following is the most accurate statement about typical fathers in contemporary Western cultures? a. Fathers are playing increasingly smaller roles in child care, as more children are being cared for in daycare environments. b. Fathers can be as responsive to their infant’s cues as can mothers. c. Fathers are as loving as mothers, but infants have a harder time forming attachments to their fathers regardless of their father’s parenting style. d. Infants generally experience considerably more separation anxiety when they are cared for by their fathers. Answer: b Rationale: Research indicates that fathers in contemporary Western cultures are capable of being as responsive to their infants' cues as mothers are. While cultural norms and societal expectations may influence parenting roles, fathers are increasingly involved in caregiving and can develop strong bonds with their children. 74. According to research presented in the text, mothers are more likely to hold infants for ______, whereas fathers are more likely to hold infants for ______. a. play; caretaking b. caretaking; play c. social acceptance; self-gratification d. self-gratification; social acceptance Answer: b Rationale: Research suggests that mothers are more likely to hold infants for caretaking activities such as feeding and comforting, while fathers are more likely to engage in playful interactions when holding infants. 75. Generalizing from research presented in the text comparing fathers to mothers, when fathers in contemporary Western cultures hold infants, it is most often for what purpose: a. feeding b. playing c. changing diapers d. bathing Answer: b Rationale: Studies indicate that fathers in contemporary Western cultures are more likely to hold infants for playful interactions rather than caretaking activities such as feeding or changing diapers. This engagement in play serves to strengthen the bond between father and child and promote positive development. 76. In comparison to mothers’ play with children, fathers’ play is _______ conventional and __________ physical. a. more; more b. more; less c. less; more d. less; less Answer: c Rationale: Fathers tend to engage in less conventional play compared to mothers, often involving more physical activities such as roughhousing and active play. 77. According to the text, when a father is the sole caretaker, his parenting role become more: a. authoritarian b. permissive c. like that of a grandparent d. like that of a mother Answer: d Rationale: When a father assumes the role of the sole caretaker, his parenting role often resembles that of a mother due to the necessity of providing nurturing and caregiving traditionally associated with maternal roles. 78. According to research presented in the text, younger fathers are more likely to behave like ____________ when they play with their children, whereas older fathers are more likely to behave like ___________. a. traditional fathers; traditional mothers b. traditional mothers; traditional fathers c. traditional fathers; grandfathers d. older brothers; grandfathers Answer: a Rationale: Younger fathers tend to engage in more traditional fatherly roles during play, while older fathers tend to adopt behaviors more akin to traditional motherly roles, perhaps reflecting changing societal norms and generational shifts in parenting styles. 79. Frank had two children when he was in his early 20s. Now, in his early 50s, he remarries and has another child. In comparison to how he interacted with his first two children, research suggests he would respond to his new baby more like: a. an older brother b. a grandfather c. an uncle d. a traditional mother Answer: d Rationale: Recent research suggests that older fathers are more likely to behave like traditional mothers when playing with their children, whereas younger fathers are more likely to conform to the traditional father role. 80. Suppose that Jim has a 2-year-child when his wife dies, leaving Jim to raise the child as a single father. In comparison to his former relationship with his child, his future role will likely become more like that of: a. a grandfather b. a grandmother c. a traditional mother d. an older brother Answer: c Rationale: Research has found that when the father is the primary or sole caregiver of the infant or toddler he acts more like a traditional mother. 81. According to the text, as children grow older, father-child interactions typically become: a. less frequent b. more frequent c. less satisfying for the father, but more satisfying for the child d. more satisfying for the father, but less satisfying for the child Answer: b Rationale: As children grow older, father-child interactions typically become more frequent as children engage in more varied activities and require guidance and support in navigating the complexities of the world around them. 82. John wants to be closely involved in his children’s lives, knowing that his involvement is likely to have a positive impact in reducing __________ problems of his sons and in reducing _________ problems of his daughters. a. behavioral; behavioral b. psychological; psychological c. psychological; behavioral d. behavioral; psychological Answer: d Rationale: Research has found that father involvement seems to reduce the occurrence of behavioral problems in boys and of psychological problems in young women, while enhancing the cognitive development for children of both genders. 83. Strife and competition among children in the same family for parental attention is referred to as: a. autonomy b. antisocial behavior c. sibling rivalry d. the discrepancy hypothesis Answer: c Rationale: Sibling rivalry refers to the competition, jealousy, and conflict among children within the same family for parental attention, resources, and affection. It is a common aspect of sibling relationships and can manifest in various forms of rivalry and discord. 84. Lacy says she “hates” her little brother because he gets all the attention and causes all the trouble. Lacy’s response is consistent with the basic idea behind the development of: a. autonomy b. empathy c. the discrepancy hypothesis d. sibling rivalry Answer: d Rationale: The textbook defines sibling rivalry as strife and competition between siblings, such as for parental attention. 85. Marcus wears himself out trying to out-compete his older brother, who is a talented athlete. Marcus’s behavior is best understood as an example of: a. sibling rivalry b. imprinting c. synchrony d. the discrepancy hypothesis Answer: a Rationale: The textbook defines sibling rivalry as strife and competition between siblings, such as for parental attention. 86. According to the text, when a second child is born, parents can best help the older child adjust successfully by: a. not allowing the older child to interact much with the baby, “pretending” she doesn’t exist b. encouraging the older child to spend as much time as possible with the new baby, “pretending” to be his mother or father c. setting aside some time to be with only the older child, giving her all of their attention d. seldom allowing the older child time to be alone with the parents, so that she understands that the baby is a permanent member of the family Answer: c Rationale: In general, if parents set aside special time for the first child after the birth of a second child, it is more likely that the firstborn child will feel special rather than disregarded. 87. According to statistics cited in the text, today in the United States about what percent of children under the age of 18 live in single-parent homes? a. 33% b. 50% c. 67% d. 80% Answer: a Rationale: Approximately 33% of children under the age of 18 in the United States live in single-parent homes, reflecting the diversity of family structures in contemporary society. 88. The term “social ecology of child care” refers to which of the following? a. the overall environment in which child care occurs b. the government’s role in providing child care through federally funded programs c. the degree to which child care arrangements are directed toward the development of “social” skills rather than “cognitive” skills d. the goal of providing the best quality of child care for the lowest possible cost Answer: a Rationale: The term "social ecology of child care" refers to the broader context and environment in which child care takes place, encompassing social, economic, and cultural factors that influence caregiving practices and outcomes. 89. In 2009, the percentage of women with children under age 3 who were in the U. S. workforce was closest to that in which of the following previous years? a. 1955 b. 1975 c. 1985 d. 2000 Answer: d Rationale: Figure 5-1 notes that the percentage of women with children under age 3 who were in the workforce in 1975 was 34.5%, in 1985 was 49.5%, in 1995 was 58.7%, and in 2009 was 61.1%. Although the text does not specifically cite statistics from 1955, it does note that the percentage of women with young children who also are in the labor force has been increasing throughout the past several decades. 90. According to research about child care in Sweden presented in the text, about what percent of mothers with children under school age work part time or full time outside the home? a. 30% b. 55% c. 70% d. 85% Answer: d Rationale: In Sweden, approximately 85% of mothers with children under school age work part time or full time outside the home, reflecting high rates of maternal employment and the availability of supportive childcare policies. 91. According to research about child care in Sweden presented in the text, the majority of the need for child care for Swedish children is met by: a. paying mothers to stay at home until the child is ready to attend public schools b. extended families c. private for-profit businesses which are paid for through employment taxes d. a publicly funded child-care system Answer: d Rationale: In Sweden, the majority of the need for childcare is met through a publicly funded childcare system, which supports working parents by providing accessible and affordable childcare services. 92. In the United States today, about what percent of mothers of infants and toddlers work outside of the home: a. 35-40% b. 45-50% c. 60% d. 75% Answer: c Rationale: Approximately 60% of mothers of infants and toddlers in the United States work outside of the home, highlighting the significant number of mothers who balance caregiving responsibilities with employment. 93. The percentage of U.S. mothers with children under 3 years who work outside the home today is about: a. 33% b. 50% c. 60% d. 85% Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. 60%. This reflects the trend of increasing numbers of mothers joining the workforce while having young children, highlighting the need for accessible childcare options. 94. In comparison with child care in Sweden, child care in the United States is: a. of much higher quality b. much cheaper c. less likely to be supported by government funding d. much more likely to be provided in the child’s home Answer: c Rationale: In Sweden there is a publicly funded child-care system in which every child is guaranteed a place in preschool at age 18 months; all centers are licensed and regulated. There is also a system of open preschools where mothers or day mothers may take children to play with other children and receive advice and support. By comparison, parents in the United States receive little public support. Infants and Toddlers With Special Needs 95. Infants who are born with no sight have a particularly hard time with which of the following developmental tasks? a. developing trust b. establishing a synchronous relationship with caregivers c. developing autonomy d. developing empathy Answer: b Rationale: A problem that can develop with an infant with visual impairments is that the caregiver may feel the infant is unresponsive. For example, blind infants usually do not develop a selective, responsive smile as early as sighted children, they do not smile as often or as ecstatically, and they have fewer facial expressions. Despite this, it is essential that the parents and the unseeing child establish a synchronous communication system that compensates for the child’s disability. 96. According to the text, parents of children who cannot see are encouraged to: a. sing and talk to their child as much as possible b. try to establish a “quiet” environment for the child so there is less chance of overstimulation c. not look at their child, in order to encourage synchrony d. place their child in a special school for children with visual impairments at as early an age as possible Answer: a Rationale: Option a is correct. Singing and talking to the child help in stimulating their other senses and aids in their overall development, despite their visual impairment. 97. According to the text, one of the things that parents of a child who cannot hear should watch for and encourage is: a. signs of early vocalizations, such as cooing and babbling b. walking at an early age c. a tendency to lie on the back, rather than the stomach, so the child can see more of the surroundings d. early use of hand signals as a means of communication Answer: d Rationale: Training parents and caregivers to watch for and interpret hand signals of children who cannot hear greatly enhances parent–child interaction, attachment formation, and subsequent socialization, as do other home-based interventions with parents and caregivers. 98. If a child’s hearing impairment is not detected until about age 1, the first indication is often noticed when the child: a. begins to use hand gestures b. begins to rock back and forth while sitting up c. frequently seems startled when people approach d. displays a strong interest in toys that vibrate Answer: c Rationale: As the textbook notes, the first indications of hearing impairment in 1-year-olds oftentimes appears to be their disobedience, or “startle” reactions when people approach, the child simply does not hear them coming. 99. If a severe hearing impairment is not diagnosed until a child is about 2 years of age, what is most likely to be the first sign of this disability? a. seeming disobedience b. unresponsiveness to touch c. slurred speech d. speaking too loudly Answer: a Rationale: The first signs of hearing impairment in 2-year-olds often include temper tantrums and frequent disobedience owing to failure to hear what the parents want. This may be accompanied by the toddler’s overall failure to develop normal expectations about the world. 100. The unintentional failure of a caregiver to respond to or care for a child is one definition of: a. child abuse b. child neglect c. impaired parenting d. parental abnormality Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Child neglect refers to the failure of a caregiver to provide for a child's basic needs, whether intentional or unintentional, and it does not necessarily involve physical harm, which is characteristic of child abuse. 101. The key word in the text’s distinction between child abuse and child neglect is: a. physical b. emotional c. intentional d. psychological Answer: c Rationale: Child abuse involves physical, emotional, and psychological harm, but these can also be the result of child neglect. Thus, the thing that distinguishes child abuse from child neglect is that it is intentional, rather than the result of unintentional mistreatment of a child. 102. The primary reason that child abuse or neglect is especially damaging when it occurs during the first year of life is that it so often interferes with which of the following developmental events? a. development of autonomy b. development of shame c. development of empathy d. development of attachment Answer: d Rationale: Child neglect, which is often unintentional, involves the failure of a caregiver to respond to or care for a child. As the book notes, early infant–caregiver attachment is critical to later development and child abuse and neglect interfere with attachment. 103. Two-year-old Tommy is referred to a pediatrician because he is small and scrawny and he has trouble digesting food. If Tommy’s condition is not the result of malnutrition but rather is linked to child neglect, the most likely diagnosis is: a. kwashiorkor b. stunting c. anemia d. failure-to-thrive syndrome Answer: d Rationale: In failure-to-thrive syndrome, infants are small for their age and emaciated, they appear sick, and they are unable to digest food properly. Failure-to-thrive can occur as a result of malnutrition, which can be associated with other health concerns. In many cases, however, it appears to be linked to a lack of affection and attention, including poor-quality or nonexistent attachment. 104. Robin’s parents are drug addicts and therefore are unresponsive to her needs. Although they provide enough food for her to eat, they pay little attention to her and she spends most of her time unattended and alone. When Robin goes to kindergarten, the teacher is concerned because she is so small and thin, and she has trouble eating the school lunch without vomiting. The most likely diagnosis for Robin’s condition is: a. anemia b. failure-to-thrive syndrome c. malnutrition d. stunting Answer: b Rationale: In failure-to-thrive syndrome, infants are small for their age and emaciated, they appear sick, and they are unable to digest food properly. Failure-to-thrive can occur as a result of malnutrition, which can be associated with other health concerns. In many cases, however, it appears to be linked to a lack of affection and attention, including poor-quality or nonexistent attachment. 105. Which of the following symptoms is NOT typically associated with children diagnosed with failure-to-thrive syndrome? a. hyperactivity b. low body weight for age c. poor eye contact with others d. digestive problems Answer: a Rationale: In failure-to-thrive syndrome, infants are small for their age and emaciated, they appear sick, and they are unable to digest food properly. Such infants typically avoid eye contact by staring in a wide-eyed gaze, turning away, or covering their face or eyes. Changing Perspectives: Fatherhood in the Changing American Family – What Matters? 106. According to the text, which of the following social conditions has had the most dramatic effect on fathers’ roles? a. the downturn of the U.S. economy b. the passage of the Civil Rights Act c. the passage of the Family and Medical Leave Act d. the increase in women’s participation in the labor force Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. The increase in women's participation in the labor force has reshaped traditional gender roles, leading to changes in fathers' involvement in childcare and household responsibilities. 107. In comparison to the amount of time mothers in typical U.S. two-parent households today spend with their children during the work week, the typical father spends about ___ as much time. a. 33% b. 50% c. 67% d. nearly 100% Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. Fathers typically spend about 67% as much time as mothers in two-parent households during the work week, reflecting differences in traditional gender roles and division of labor. 108. In comparison to the amount of time mothers in typical U.S. two-parent households today spend with their children during the weekend, the typical father spends about ___ as much time. a. 27% b. 47% c. 67% d. 87% Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. Fathers typically spend about 87% as much time as mothers in two-parent households during the weekend, indicating an increase in fathers' involvement in family activities during leisure time. 109. Which of the following is NOT one of the “big three” elements of effective fatherhood: a. income b. accessibility c. engagement d. responsibility Answer: a Rationale: Income is not considered one of the "big three" elements of effective fatherhood. The "big three" typically include accessibility (being present and available for the child), engagement (actively participating in the child's life and activities), and responsibility (taking on caregiving duties and providing emotional support). While income can be important for supporting the family financially, it is not inherently linked to effective fatherhood as the other elements are. Current Issues: Infant and Toddler Child Care 110. In the United States today, about what percent of children currently receive child care from someone other than their parents? a. about 37% b. about 50% c. about 64% d. about 76% Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. Approximately 76% of children in the United States receive childcare from sources other than their parents, highlighting the prevalence of non-parental care arrangements. 111. Suppose your friend has a baby and expects to return to work. If she asks how much she should plan on spending for childcare, you should note that the typical expense in the United States is about: a. $200 per month b. $400 per month c. $750 per month d. $1,200 per month Answer: c Rationale: The text notes that in 2010 the typical expenditure for child care in the United States was $138 per week, but that number is $171 per week for families with a child under age 5. Given that there are about 2 ½ weeks in a month, this equates to a little more than $750 per month. 112. According to the results of the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, which of the following is NOT a result typically associated with children who spend time in high-quality child care during early childhood? a. they are more ready to begin school at age 4 ½ b. they are less aggressive with other children when they enter school c. they have better language skills at age 3 d. they have more positive interactions with other children at age 3 Answer: b Rationale: Option b is correct. The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development typically associates high-quality childcare with positive outcomes such as readiness for school, better language skills, and positive interactions with peers, but it does not necessarily correlate with decreased aggression. 113. Suppose your friend is going to place her infant in a high-quality child-care center. She asks you what, if any, negative results might be associated with this arrangement. Based on the results of the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, you suggest that the negative result most likely to occur is that her child may: a. be delayed in learning to read b. be delayed in learning to do arithmetic c. less ready to enter kindergarten when the time comes d. be more aggressive and disobedient when entering kindergarten Answer: d Rationale: According to the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, children who spend significant time in child care generally demonstrated more “externalizing problems,” such as disobedience and aggressiveness to other children, when they entered school. On the other hand, higher-quality child care predicted greater school readiness at age 41⁄2 as reflected in standardized tests of number skills and language skills. 114. If you were concerned that your child would display behavioral problems in later childhood or early adolescence, you might want to select a child care arrangement that did not include: a. an institutional care setting b. care provided by grandparents c. care provided by the child’s father d. care provided by a babysitter in the child’s own home Answer: a Rationale: Among fifth and sixth graders followed in the NICHD study, those who were cared for by relatives or in home-based settings appear to experience no greater aggressiveness or social problems than do children cared for by their mothers. True-False questions: The Foundations of Personality and Social Development 115. The typical behavior of a child participating in the still-face experiment is to become distressed. Answer: True Rationale: In the still-face experiment, caregivers briefly withhold their facial expressions and interactions with the infant, leading the infant to become distressed due to the sudden lack of responsiveness from the caregiver. This experiment demonstrates the importance of social interaction and responsiveness in infant development. 116. The still-face experiment is typically used to investigate the development of child abuse. Answer: False Rationale: The still-face experiment is usually used to investigate early parent-child emotional development, which leads to the development of attachment. 117. A child with a slow-to-warm-up temperament has both positive and negative moods, which are usually mild. Answer: True Rationale: A slow-to-warm-up temperament is characterized by initially hesitant or cautious behavior in new situations, but over time, the child may gradually become more comfortable and less reactive. This temperament typically involves mild variations in mood rather than extreme swings between positive and negative emotions. 118. All infants are born with basically the same temperament style. Answer: False Rationale: According to research conducted by Thomas and Chess, most children could be placed into one of three different groups, according to their basic style of temperament: easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up. 119. Mary Rothbart identified 3 broad dimensions of temperament: hyperactivity, security, and assertiveness. Answer: False Rationale: Rothbart did identify 3 dimensions of temperament, but she labeled these as effortful control, negative affectivity, and extroversion. 120. Parents should try to create an environment that works with, rather than against, the basic temperament style of the infant. Answer: True Rationale: It is important for parents to understand and accommodate their infant's temperament to promote healthy development and foster a positive parent-child relationship. By recognizing and respecting the infant's temperament, parents can create an environment that supports the child's unique needs and characteristics. The Development of Trust 121. According to most theorists, the most important developmental challenge in the first year of life is toilet training. Answer: False Rationale: Most theorists view feeding to be the most important developmental challenge in the first year of life. 122. According to Erik Erikson, children in the first year of life deal with resolving the issue involved in autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Answer: False Rationale: According to Erikson, the developmental challenge in the first year is to resolve the issue of establishing trust versus mistrust. 123. Although cultures vary considerably in feeding and comforting customs, despite these differences children are able to develop trusting relationships with their caregivers. Answer: True Rationale: Despite cultural variations in caregiving practices such as feeding and comforting, children have the capacity to form secure attachments with their caregivers. The development of trust in the caregiver is influenced by consistent responsiveness and sensitivity to the child's needs, regardless of cultural differences in caregiving practices. 124. The term attachment generally refers to an emotional bond that develops between infants and their caregivers, beginning early in life. Answer: True Rationale: Attachment refers to the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically beginning in infancy. This bond is characterized by the infant's seeking of proximity to the caregiver for comfort, protection, and support, and it plays a crucial role in the child's socioemotional development. 125. In the strange-situation paradigm, the infant is placed in a strange situation, which is defined as a room or setting which the infant has never seen before. Answer: False Rationale: The strange-situation paradigm involves the infant and mother entering a room in which a stranger is present. When the mother leaves the room, the behavior of the infant is observed. 126. Suppose an infant in the strange situation is observed to respond to the mother’s departure by displaying little concern and emotion, and to respond to her return with ambivalence, both clinging to the mother and appearing to reject her affection. This infant most likely would be labeled as having a resistant attachment. Answer: False Rationale: The behavior described most likely would be labeled as an example of avoidant attachment. 127. Infants who are able to form secure attachments with caregivers during the first year are less likely to experience behavioral problems in later life. Answer: True Rationale: Research suggests that infants who form secure attachments with their caregivers during the first year of life are more likely to develop positive socioemotional outcomes and exhibit fewer behavioral problems later in life. Secure attachment provides a foundation for healthy relationships and emotional regulation. 128. In Harry Harlow’s research with monkeys raised with surrogate mothers, the infant monkeys were given a choice of being raised in either a cage with a metal surrogate mother that had a source of milk or being raised in a cage with a soft terrycloth surrogate that had no milk supply. Answer: False Rationale: Harlow’s research involved raising infant monkeys in which two surrogates were placed, one with milk made of metal and one without milk made of soft terrycloth. The results was that the infant monkeys spent more time with the soft, nonnutritive surrogate and became more attached to it, even though it provided no food. 129. To say that attachment is synchronous means that it develops at the proper time in the developmental sequence of events. Answer: False Rationale: The term synchrony refers to the back-and-forth exchange of responses between and infant and caregiver. The essence of the term refers to the reciprocity and two-way exchange of behavior. 130. According to Erik Erikson, secure attachments provide infants with the opportunity to develop relationships centered on trust. Answer: True Rationale: Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory emphasizes the importance of trust in infancy, which is fostered through secure attachments with caregivers. Secure attachment provides infants with a sense of trust and safety in their relationships, which lays the groundwork for healthy socioemotional development. 131. In the United States today, most infants develop attachments with a wide variety of caregivers, whereas in other nations around the world, attachments are much more likely to develop with only a single adult. Answer: False Rationale: Attachment relationships are more likely to develop between an infant and a single primary caregiver (usually the mother) in the United States and other Western nations. In other countries, infant-caregiver attachments are more likely to extend beyond the mother to other family members and neighbors. Separating from the Caregiver 132. The development of stranger anxiety emerges at about 7 months of age, most likely because the infant’s cognitive development has proceeded to the point where now the infant can tell the difference between a familiar adult and a stranger. Answer: True Rationale: Stranger anxiety typically emerges around 7 to 9 months of age, coinciding with advancements in cognitive development that enable infants to differentiate between familiar caregivers and unfamiliar individuals. This milestone reflects the infant's growing awareness of social cues and the ability to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar faces. 133. The discrepancy hypothesis has been proposed as a way of explaining why infants sometimes develop a secure attachment and sometimes develop an insecure attachment. Answer: False Rationale: The discrepancy hypothesis explains why stranger anxiety emerges. This view suggests that stranger anxiety results when infants learn to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar adults. 134. If a child falls and scrapes his knee, and immediately looks to his father to see whether or not he should be upset, this is a good example of social referencing. Answer: True Rationale: Social referencing involves seeking and interpreting emotional cues from caregivers or other trusted individuals to guide one's own behavior and emotional reactions, especially in ambiguous or uncertain situations. In this scenario, the child's behavior of looking to his father for guidance on how to react to the injury demonstrates social referencing. 135. According to Erik Erikson, the development of autonomy during the infant’s first year sets the stage for the development of trusting relationships in the second year of life. Answer: False Rationale: Erikson believed that the development of trust occurs during the first year, setting the stage for the development of autonomy during the second year of life. 136. If a child fails at becoming autonomous, this results in feeling of mistrust of others. Answer: False Rationale: According to Erikson, if the child fails to develop autonomy, the result is development of feelings of shame and doubt. Mistrust results if the child fails to develop trusting relationships with caregiver, and it is the key developmental challenge for infants during the first year of life. 137. To describe a person as “empathetic” implies that he or she is capable of understanding another person’s feelings and perspectives. Answer: True Rationale: Empathy refers to the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person. Describing someone as "empathetic" suggests that they possess this capacity for understanding and experiencing the emotions and perspectives of others, which is an important aspect of social and emotional competence. 138. Infants begin to recognize themselves in a mirror at about age 18 months Answer: True Rationale: Around the age of 18 months, infants typically begin to demonstrate signs of self-recognition by showing interest in their own reflection in a mirror. This milestone is often observed through behaviors such as touching or pointing to their own reflection or making self-directed movements while looking in the mirror. It indicates the development of self-awareness and understanding of one's own identity. The Family System: A Broader Context 139. In comparison to fifty years ago, fathers in the United States today play a much larger role in caring for their infant children. Answer: True Rationale: Over the past fifty years, there has been a significant shift in societal norms and expectations regarding gender roles and parenting responsibilities. Fathers today are more actively involved in the care and upbringing of their children compared to previous generations. This increased involvement reflects changing attitudes towards fatherhood and a recognition of the importance of paternal caregiving in child development. 140. In the United States today, about half of all infant care is done by fathers and half is done by mothers. Answer: False Rationale: Most fathers today do not take primary responsibility for infant care and they spend less time with infants than do mothers. 141. The major difference in parenting styles between younger father and older fathers is that younger fathers spend more time playing with their infants and older father spend more time feeding their infants. Answer: False Rationale: The research cited in the text about older and younger fathers makes the point that younger fathers typically are more likely to conform to the traditional “father” role when engaging their infants in play, whereas older fathers are more likely to behave like traditional mothers. 142. The best way to reduce sibling rivalry when a new baby is born is to always involve all children in the family in all family activities. Answer: False Rationale: Although it often helps to involve older children in some of the care of the new baby, it also is important to spend time with only the older child so that he or she does not feel that the parent’s attention must always be shared as the result of having a new sibling. 143. In comparison with parents living in Sweden, parents in the United States receive considerably more government support to help with child care. Answer: False Rationale: Swedish parents receive considerably more government support than do parents in the U. S., both in terms of having government-run child-care facilities available and in helping the family afford high-quality child care. Infants and Toddlers With Special Needs 144. Unless there are other impairments, blind children typically develop a responsive smile as early in life as do sighted children. Answer: False Rationale: Blind children do not develop a responsive smile as early as sighted children, and they also do not smile as often or as ecstatically. 145. It is quite common for deafness to remain undiagnosed into the second year of life. Answer: True Rationale: Deafness in infants can sometimes go undetected in the early months of life, particularly if the hearing loss is mild or if there are no obvious signs or symptoms. As a result, it is not uncommon for deafness to remain undiagnosed until the second year of life when developmental milestones related to language and communication become more apparent. Early detection and intervention are crucial for addressing hearing loss and supporting language development. 146. Grandparents with higher education levels interact more positively with grandchildren with disabilities compared to grandparents with lower education levels. Answer: True Rationale: Research suggests that grandparents with higher education levels may be better equipped to understand and support grandchildren with disabilities. They may have greater access to resources, knowledge about disabilities, and problem-solving skills, which can positively impact their interactions with grandchildren. Additionally, higher education levels may be associated with more open-minded attitudes towards disability and greater empathy towards the needs of individuals with disabilities. 147. Both child abuse and child neglect are always intentional. Answer: False Rationale: Although child abuse is intention, child neglect may not be, since some parents are ignorant about how their child needs to be cared for and some are simply unable to provide adequate care, perhaps because of their own addiction disorders or mental illness. 148. If a parent hits a child, this would be an example of child neglect. Answer: False Rationale: Hitting is an intentional act of harm, and therefore would better be considered to be an example of child abuse rather than child neglect. 149. The primary symptom associated with failure-to-thrive syndrome is extreme hyperactivity. Answer: False Rationale: Failure-to-thrive syndrome is characterized by small size, emaciation, the appearance of sickness, problems with digestion, listlessness, and emotional withdrawal. Hyperactivity is not typically seen in such cases. Short Answer questions: The Foundations of Personality and Social Development 150. Describe the procedure used in the classic still-face experiment. Answer: The classic still-face experiment involves three phases: the normal interaction phase, the still-face phase, and the reunion phase. During the normal interaction phase, the caregiver engages in typical interactions with the infant, such as smiling, talking, and playing. In the still-face phase, the caregiver suddenly becomes unresponsive and maintains a neutral facial expression, avoiding any interaction with the infant for a brief period. Finally, during the reunion phase, the caregiver resumes normal interactions with the infant. This experiment is designed to observe the infant's response to the sudden lack of responsiveness from the caregiver, particularly focusing on emotional reactions and regulatory behaviors. 151. List and define each of Mary Rothbart’s three broad dimensions of temperament. Answer: Mary Rothbart's three broad dimensions of temperament are: 1. Surgency/Extraversion: This dimension refers to the extent to which an individual seeks out and enjoys stimulation from the environment. Individuals high in surgency/extraversion tend to be active, outgoing, and approach-oriented. 2. Negative Affectivity: Negative affectivity encompasses the tendency to experience negative emotions such as fear, sadness, and frustration. Individuals high in negative affectivity may be more prone to experiencing anxiety, moodiness, and irritability. 3. Effortful Control/Regulation: Effortful control/regulation involves the ability to regulate and control one's attention, emotions, and behavior. Individuals high in effortful control are often able to inhibit impulses, maintain attention, and modulate emotional responses effectively. 152. Give an example of both a “good” and a “bad” fit between an infant’s temperament style and a caregiver’s expectations. Answer: • Good fit example: An infant with a calm and adaptable temperament may have a caregiver who appreciates predictability and consistency. The caregiver's structured routine and calm demeanor align well with the infant's temperament, leading to a harmonious caregiving environment where the infant feels secure and supported. • Bad fit example: Conversely, an infant with a highly active and intense temperament may struggle in a caregiving environment that lacks flexibility and understanding of the infant's needs. If the caregiver expects the infant to conform to strict schedules and routines without considering the infant's temperament, it can lead to conflict and distress for both the infant and the caregiver. The Development of Trust 153. Why are feeding practices thought to be important to the development of trust? Answer: Feeding practices are thought to be important to the development of trust because feeding is one of the earliest and most fundamental interactions between a caregiver and an infant. When caregivers consistently and responsively attend to an infant's feeding needs, it establishes a sense of predictability, security, and reliability for the infant. This consistent responsiveness fosters the infant's trust that their needs will be met, laying the foundation for a secure attachment relationship. 154. How would a securely attached infant’s behavior differ from that of an insecurely attached infant when both are placed in the strange situation? Answer: In the strange situation, a securely attached infant would typically display distress upon separation from the caregiver, seek comfort and proximity upon reunion, and eventually return to exploration and play in the presence of the caregiver. In contrast, an insecurely attached infant may exhibit varying patterns of behavior, such as avoidant, resistant, or disorganized/disoriented responses to the caregiver's departure and return. These infants may show either minimal distress or excessive distress upon separation and may not seek comfort or may display ambivalent or contradictory behaviors upon reunion. 155. Define and give an example of what is meant by the term “synchronous attachment.” Answer: Synchronous attachment refers to the harmonious and coordinated interactions between a caregiver and an infant, characterized by mutual responsiveness, attunement, and emotional connection. In synchronous attachment, the caregiver and infant engage in reciprocal exchanges of cues, gestures, and vocalizations that are appropriately timed and matched to each other's signals. For example, a mother may smile and coo at her infant, who responds with gurgling sounds and reaching out to touch her face. This mutual engagement creates a sense of connection and closeness between the caregiver and infant, contributing to the development of a secure attachment bond. 156. Define and give an example of imprinting. Answer: Imprinting is a form of rapid learning that occurs during a critical period early in an organism's life, wherein it forms an attachment to the first object it encounters. An example of imprinting is ducklings following the first moving object they see after hatching, which could be their mother, a human, or even an inanimate object like a moving toy. 157. How do attachment patterns in the United States differ from those that develop between infants and their caregivers in other parts of the world? Answer: Attachment patterns in the United States often emphasize independence and autonomy, with caregivers encouraged to respond promptly to infant cues. In contrast, in some other parts of the world, such as in collectivist cultures, attachment patterns may prioritize interdependence and communal caregiving, with multiple caregivers responding to infant needs. 158. Suppose a friend with a new baby asked you whether or not she should pick up her baby whenever he cried or should let him “cry it out” so that he would learn that crying would not be reinforced. What advice would you give her, and why would you give this advice? Answer: I would advise my friend to respond promptly to her baby's cries, especially during infancy. This is because infants rely on their caregivers for comfort and security, and responding to their cries helps build a secure attachment. Ignoring or delaying responses to a baby's cries can lead to feelings of insecurity and mistrust in the infant, potentially impacting their emotional development and attachment relationship with their caregiver. Additionally, allowing a baby to "cry it out" may not necessarily teach them that crying is not reinforced, as infants are not capable of understanding reinforcement in the same way as older children or adults. It's important to meet a baby's needs for comfort and reassurance, promoting a healthy attachment bond between caregiver and child. Separating from the Caregiver 159. Give an example of what is meant by separation, or stranger, anxiety. Answer: Separation or stranger anxiety refers to a child's distress or discomfort when separated from familiar caregivers or when encountering unfamiliar people. For example, a toddler might cry or cling to their parent when being left with a babysitter for the first time, or they may show fear or hesitation when approached by a stranger. 160. How does the discrepancy hypothesis explain why separation anxiety develops? Answer: The discrepancy hypothesis suggests that separation anxiety arises when a child perceives a significant difference between the level of support or protection provided by the caregiver and their own ability to cope with the environment. This perceived gap in security leads to anxiety about being separated from the caregiver. 161. Suppose a child is at a party and another child squirts water on him with a squirt gun. How might the first child use social referencing to figure out how to respond? Answer: The first child might use social referencing by looking to the reactions of familiar adults or peers for guidance on how to react to the situation. If they observe others laughing or taking the incident lightly, they may interpret it as playful and respond accordingly. Conversely, if they see others reacting with alarm or distress, they may become upset or seek support from those around them. 162. According to Erik Erikson, how would an abusive parent likely influence a 2-year-old’s development of autonomy? Give an example to support your answer. Answer: An abusive parent can significantly impede a 2-year-old's development of autonomy, according to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory. Erikson posits that during the "autonomy versus shame and doubt" stage, children develop a sense of independence and self-control. However, abuse can lead to feelings of shame, doubt, and a lack of confidence in their abilities. For instance, if a parent constantly criticizes and belittles a child for attempting to do things on their own, such as dressing themselves, the child may internalize a sense of inadequacy and reluctance to explore their capabilities autonomously. 163. Describe how the development of empathy contributes to a child’s ability to engage in prosocial behavior and give an example to demonstrate your point. Answer: The development of empathy plays a crucial role in a child's ability to engage in prosocial behavior. As children become more empathetic, they can understand and share the feelings of others, which motivates them to act in ways that benefit others. For instance, if a child sees a classmate who is upset because they dropped their lunch, empathizing with their distress may lead the child to offer to share their own lunch or help clean up the mess. This demonstration of empathy fosters kindness, compassion, and ultimately, prosocial behavior. 164. Explain how the development of stranger anxiety demonstrates the emergence of the self. Answer: Stranger anxiety, which typically emerges around 6 to 9 months of age, reflects the development of the self in infants. During this stage, infants become increasingly aware of their own existence and begin to differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar individuals. Stranger anxiety demonstrates the emergence of the self as infants show a preference for familiar faces and become distressed or wary when approached by strangers. This suggests a growing recognition of their own boundaries and a sense of self-preservation, marking an early stage in the formation of self-identity. The Family System: A Broader Context 165. How do mothers’ roles typically differ from fathers’ roles with respect to caring for and playing with young children? Answer: Mothers often take on more of the primary caregiving responsibilities, such as feeding, bathing, and comforting young children. They tend to engage in nurturing activities and emotional bonding with their children. On the other hand, fathers often play a more active and playful role, engaging in rough-and-tumble play and encouraging independence and exploration in their children. 166. How do younger fathers typically differ from older fathers in the way they interact with their children? Answer: Younger fathers often tend to be more actively involved in hands-on caregiving tasks and play with their children. They may also be more inclined to adopt modern parenting approaches and embrace equality in parenting responsibilities. Conversely, older fathers may exhibit a more traditional parenting style, emphasizing authority and providing guidance based on their life experiences. 167. Give a clear example of sibling rivalry and suggest two things that parents can do to encourage their children to get along with each other. Answer: Sibling rivalry can manifest in various ways, such as when siblings compete for parental attention or resources. For example, if one sibling feels jealous because the other sibling received a new toy, it may lead to conflict or resentment. To encourage harmony between siblings, parents can: 1. Foster positive communication: Encourage open dialogue between siblings to express their feelings and resolve conflicts peacefully. Teach them effective communication skills and encourage them to listen to each other's perspectives. 2. Promote cooperation and teamwork: Provide opportunities for siblings to collaborate on tasks or activities, emphasizing the importance of working together towards common goals. Praise and reward cooperative behaviors to reinforce positive interactions between siblings. 168. Under what types of circumstances would you expect young children to become securely attached to their grandparents? Answer: Young children are more likely to become securely attached to their grandparents when they have consistent and positive interactions with them, spending significant time together in nurturing and supportive environments. Additionally, if the grandparents are actively involved in the child's life, providing emotional support, care, and guidance, a secure attachment is more likely to develop. 169. Suppose your friend asks for your help in finding a child-care center in which to enroll her newborn daughter. List the 5 most important things that you believe she should look for that would indicate that a center provided a high quality of care. Answer: 1. Qualified and caring staff: Ensure that the caregivers and teachers are experienced, trained, and demonstrate genuine care and affection towards the children. 2. Safe and stimulating environment: Look for a center that prioritizes safety measures and provides a stimulating environment with age-appropriate toys, activities, and learning opportunities. 3. Low child-to-caregiver ratio: Opt for a center that maintains a low child-to-caregiver ratio to ensure each child receives adequate attention and supervision. 4. Healthy routines and nutrition: Check if the center follows healthy routines for meals, naps, and playtime, and offers nutritious meals and snacks. 5. Open communication and parental involvement: Choose a center that encourages open communication between caregivers and parents, welcomes parental involvement, and provides regular updates on the child's progress. Infants and Toddlers With Special Needs 170. Describe 3 things that parents of a child who cannot see from birth can do to help the child develop a secure attachment to them. Answer: 1. Utilize other senses for bonding: Parents can engage in activities that involve touch, sound, and smell to establish a strong bond with their child who cannot see. This includes gentle touching, talking, singing, and using soothing scents during caregiving routines. 2. Maintain consistent and responsive care: Consistency and responsiveness are crucial for building trust and security in the parent-child relationship. Parents should promptly respond to their child's needs, provide comfort and reassurance, and establish predictable routines. 3. Create a supportive environment for exploration: Encourage the child to explore their surroundings and engage in sensory experiences by providing a safe and supportive environment. Offer opportunities for tactile exploration, auditory stimulation, and verbal descriptions of the surroundings to promote curiosity and confidence in the child's interactions with the world. 171. Describe 3 things that parents of a child who cannot hear from birth do to help the child develop a secure attachment to them. Answer: 1. Establish consistent routines: Parents of a deaf child can create a structured and predictable environment to help establish trust and security. Consistent routines for feeding, sleeping, and playtime provide the child with a sense of stability and reliability, fostering a secure attachment. 2. Use tactile communication: Since verbal communication may be limited or absent, parents can utilize tactile communication methods such as touch, hugs, and gentle physical interactions to bond with their child. Touch serves as a primary means of connection and can convey love, comfort, and reassurance. 3. Learn and use sign language: Parents can learn sign language to facilitate communication with their deaf child. By actively engaging in sign language communication, parents demonstrate their commitment to understanding and meeting the child's needs, which helps strengthen the parent-child bond and promote a sense of security and attachment. 172. Why is the diagnosis of blindness usually made earlier in the developmental process than is the diagnosis of deafness? Answer: The diagnosis of blindness is typically made earlier in the developmental process than the diagnosis of deafness due to several factors: 1. Observable behaviors: Blindness often manifests through observable behaviors such as lack of visual tracking, absence of response to visual stimuli, or unusual eye movements, which can be detected early in infancy during routine developmental assessments. 2. Early visual milestones: Developmental milestones related to vision, such as fixing and following objects or making eye contact, are typically expected to emerge within the first few months of life. The absence of these milestones may prompt early evaluation and diagnosis of visual impairment. 3. Screening protocols: Many healthcare systems have established screening protocols for detecting visual abnormalities in newborns or during early childhood well-visits, enabling early identification of potential vision problems. In contrast, screening protocols for hearing loss may be less standardized or implemented later in infancy or childhood, leading to a delay in diagnosis compared to visual impairments. 173. Define the terms child abuse and child neglect and describe the two ways in which they differ from each other. Answer: • Child abuse refers to intentional harm or mistreatment of a child by a parent, caregiver, or other person in a position of authority. This harm can be physical, emotional, or sexual in nature and may include acts of violence, neglect, or exploitation that result in physical or psychological injury to the child. • Child neglect involves the failure of a parent or caregiver to provide for the child's basic needs, including food, shelter, clothing, medical care, education, and supervision, resulting in harm or risk of harm to the child's health, safety, or well-being. Differences: 1. Intent: Child abuse typically involves intentional acts of harm or mistreatment directed towards the child, whereas child neglect may result from a caregiver's failure or inability to meet the child's needs rather than deliberate malicious intent. 2. Types of harm: Child abuse often results in direct physical or psychological harm to the child through acts of violence, exploitation, or emotional abuse, while child neglect primarily entails harm or risk of harm due to deprivation of essential needs and inadequate caregiving. 174. Describe why a physician might suspect parents of child abuse or child neglect when the child presents symptoms consistent with failure-to-thrive syndrome. Answer: Failure-to-thrive syndrome, characterized by inadequate weight gain and growth faltering in infants and young children, can raise concerns about the child's nutritional intake and overall care. A physician might suspect parents of child abuse or neglect in cases of failure-to-thrive when there is evidence of insufficient provision of food, inadequate feeding practices, or neglectful supervision of the child's nutritional needs. Signs such as poor hygiene, developmental delays, lack of appropriate medical care, or inconsistent explanations for the child's condition may also contribute to suspicions of maltreatment. Additionally, if the child's failure-to-thrive is not attributable to underlying medical conditions or genetic factors, it may suggest environmental factors, including caregiver neglect or intentional deprivation, warranting further investigation into the child's home environment and caregiving practices. Essay questions: The Foundations of Personality and Social Development 175. How does the concept of temperament differ from that of personality? Answer: The concept of temperament refers to innate, biologically based behavioral and emotional tendencies that are present from birth and influence how individuals interact with the world. Temperament traits are relatively stable over time and across situations, forming the foundation for later personality development. Personality, on the other hand, encompasses a broader range of characteristics, including temperament traits, but also incorporates learned behaviors, attitudes, values, and social roles that develop over time through experiences and interactions with the environment. While temperament provides a predisposition for certain patterns of behavior, personality reflects the complex interplay between temperament, environmental influences, and individual experiences. 176. Describe the behavior you would expect from an easy child, a difficult child, and a slow-to-warm-up child the first time they were fed a strained food rather than milk. Answer: • An easy child: An easy child is likely to approach the new experience of being fed strained food with curiosity and adaptability. They may show openness to trying new tastes and textures, display minimal fussiness or resistance, and may even show enthusiasm or enjoyment during feeding. • A difficult child: A difficult child may exhibit strong negative reactions to the unfamiliar taste and texture of strained food. They may display fussiness, refusal to eat, or even tantrums or distress in response to the change from familiar milk to the unfamiliar food. • A slow-to-warm-up child: A slow-to-warm-up child may initially show wariness or hesitation towards the new experience of being fed strained food. They may approach the situation cautiously, taking time to observe and acclimate to the new taste and texture before showing willingness to try it. They may require gentle encouragement and repeated exposure before fully engaging with the new food. 177. How does Mary Rothbart’s approach to the study of temperament differ from the approach taken by Thomas and Chess? What is the central focus of each of these approaches? Answer: • Mary Rothbart's approach to the study of temperament focuses on identifying and measuring specific dimensions or components of temperament, such as surgency/extraversion, negative affectivity, and effortful control. Her approach emphasizes the role of individual differences in biological reactivity and self-regulation in shaping temperament. Rothbart's framework provides a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of temperament by delineating distinct aspects of temperament and their developmental significance. • In contrast, the approach taken by Thomas and Chess focuses on classifying children into broad temperament categories, such as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up, based on observations of behavioral patterns in infancy and early childhood. Their approach highlights the qualitative differences in temperament profiles and their implications for child development. Thomas and Chess's framework offers a practical way to conceptualize and understand individual differences in temperament, particularly in relation to child-rearing practices and adjustment outcomes. The Development of Trust 178. Describe how the development of trust is encouraged when infants and caregivers establish a secure attachment relationship. Answer: The development of trust is encouraged in a secure attachment relationship through consistent and responsive caregiving. When caregivers promptly attend to the infant's needs, such as feeding, comforting, and soothing, the infant learns that they can rely on their caregiver to provide comfort and security. This consistency builds trust, as the infant feels confident that their needs will be met, promoting a sense of safety and security in the relationship. 179. Should parents attempt to prevent their infants from experiencing any amount of mistrust in their environment? Why or why not? Answer: While it's essential for parents to provide a supportive and nurturing environment for their infants, it's not realistic or possible to prevent infants from experiencing any amount of mistrust in their environment. Mistrust can arise from various sources, including unfamiliar situations, new caregivers, or minor disruptions in routines. Instead of attempting to shield infants entirely from experiences of mistrust, parents should focus on building a secure attachment relationship characterized by responsiveness, consistency, and emotional support. This secure attachment can help infants navigate moments of mistrust with resilience and confidence, ultimately promoting healthy socioemotional development. 180. Describe in detail the strange-situation paradigm used by Mary Ainsworth. How did Ainsworth use this paradigm to explore the concept of attachment? Answer: The strange-situation paradigm developed by Mary Ainsworth is a laboratory procedure designed to assess the quality of attachment between infants and their caregivers. In this procedure, a caregiver and infant enter a room equipped with toys and furniture. The caregiver and infant are initially alone in the room. Then, a stranger enters the room, interacts briefly with the caregiver, and gradually engages with the infant. The caregiver then leaves the room, leaving the infant alone with the stranger. After a brief period, the caregiver returns, and the stranger leaves. Finally, the caregiver leaves the infant alone in the room before returning again. Ainsworth used this paradigm to explore the concept of attachment by observing how infants respond to the caregiver's presence, absence, and reunion in a series of controlled situations. Based on these observations, Ainsworth identified three main attachment styles: secure attachment, insecure-avoidant attachment, and insecure-resistant attachment. Securely attached infants show distress when the caregiver leaves but are easily comforted upon their return. Insecure-avoidant infants show little distress upon separation and avoid contact upon reunion, while insecure-resistant infants show distress upon separation but resist comfort upon reunion. Through the strange-situation paradigm, Ainsworth provided valuable insights into the nature and dynamics of attachment relationships in early childhood. 181. Describe three ways in which you would expect a securely attached child to develop differently from an insecurely attached child. Answer: 1. Securely attached children are more likely to develop stronger social and emotional skills, such as empathy and understanding of others' emotions, compared to insecurely attached children who may struggle with forming and maintaining relationships. 2. Securely attached children tend to have higher self-esteem and confidence as they have experienced consistent support and responsiveness from caregivers, while insecurely attached children may exhibit lower self-esteem and self-worth due to inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving. 3. Securely attached children are more likely to explore their environment and engage in independent activities confidently, knowing that their caregivers are accessible and responsive when needed. In contrast, insecurely attached children may display clingy behavior or avoidant tendencies, limiting their exploration and independence. 182. What does imprinting suggest about the evolutionary significance of the development of attachment in humans? Answer: Imprinting, as observed in animals such as ducks and geese, suggests that the early formation of attachment bonds is evolutionarily significant for survival. In humans, the development of attachment serves a similar purpose, facilitating the formation of strong bonds between infants and caregivers to ensure protection, provision of needs, and social learning. This evolutionary perspective highlights the importance of attachment in promoting survival and adaptive behavior across species. 183. Describe the critical features of Harry Harlow’s experiment in which he studied how infant monkeys responded to different types of surrogate mothers. What do the results of this experiment suggest about the nature of human mother-infant attachment relationships? Answer: Harry Harlow's experiment involved separating infant monkeys from their biological mothers and offering them a choice between two surrogate mothers: one made of wire with a feeding bottle and the other covered in soft cloth with no food. The critical finding was that the infant monkeys consistently preferred the cloth surrogate, even when the wire surrogate provided nourishment. This suggests that contact comfort and the quality of the relationship, rather than mere provision of basic needs, are crucial for attachment formation. The results of this experiment underscore the importance of warmth, comfort, and emotional connection in human mother-infant attachment relationships, challenging previous beliefs that attachment was solely based on feeding (the "cupboard theory"). 184. Considering the results of Harry Harlow’s experiment with infant monkeys, why do many theorists still maintain their view that feeding is an especially important influence on the development of early attachment. Answer: Despite Harry Harlow's experiment highlighting the significance of contact comfort over feeding in attachment formation, many theorists still emphasize the importance of feeding in early attachment. This emphasis stems from the evolutionary perspective that links feeding with survival and the fulfillment of basic needs. While contact comfort is essential for emotional bonding, feeding provides infants with essential nutrients crucial for their survival. Therefore, although contact comfort plays a significant role, the provision of nourishment during infancy remains a critical factor in early attachment formation for many theorists. 185. What does it mean to say that attachment is “synchronous”? Answer: Saying that attachment is "synchronous" means that it involves a reciprocal and mutually responsive relationship between the infant and the primary caregiver. In a synchronous attachment, both the infant and the caregiver engage in behaviors that are attuned to each other's cues, needs, and emotional states. This synchronized interaction forms the basis of a secure attachment, wherein the caregiver consistently responds to the infant's signals, providing comfort, support, and reassurance. Separating from the Caregiver 186. How does the negotiation of a balance between trust and mistrust set the stage for the development of autonomy? What are the ideal developmental outcomes of these two stages of early development? Answer: The negotiation of a balance between trust and mistrust, according to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, lays the foundation for the development of autonomy. During the first stage of psychosocial development, infants must develop a sense of trust in their caregivers to feel secure and safe in exploring their environment. This trust allows them to gradually gain confidence in their abilities and develop autonomy. However, if infants experience consistent mistrust due to unresponsive caregiving, they may develop a sense of doubt and insecurity, hindering their autonomy. The ideal developmental outcome of the trust stage is the establishment of a basic sense of trust in oneself and others, leading to a confident and secure approach to the world. In contrast, the ideal outcome of the autonomy stage is the development of a sense of independence, self-control, and the ability to make choices and act on them effectively, while still maintaining healthy relationships and connections with others. 187. What role does parental feedback, in the form of effective discipline, play in a child’s development of autonomy? Describe why punishment that is too harsh or frequent can interfere with positive development and why punishment that is too lax or absent can also interfere. Answer: Parental feedback, in the form of effective discipline, plays a crucial role in a child's development of autonomy by providing guidance and boundaries while allowing them to explore and make choices within those limits. Punishment that is too harsh or frequent can undermine a child's confidence and self-esteem, leading to feelings of shame and inadequacy rather than fostering autonomy. Conversely, punishment that is too lax or absent fails to teach the child appropriate boundaries and consequences, hindering their ability to develop self-regulation and autonomy. 188. Describe how a baby typically would respond to her image in a mirror at the ages of 6 months, 12 months, 18 months, and 36 months. How would this baby’s responses represent the development of her own self-concept? Answer: At 6 months, a baby may show interest in the mirror but may not recognize themselves. By 12 months, they may begin to show signs of self-awareness, such as reaching towards their reflection or making gestures. At 18 months, they may demonstrate more complex behaviors like touching their own nose or pointing to body parts in the mirror. By 36 months, the child typically recognizes themselves in the mirror and may engage in pretend play or self-exploration. These responses represent the gradual development of the baby's own self-concept, progressing from a basic awareness of their reflection to a deeper understanding of themselves as separate individuals. The Family System: A Broader Context 189. How is the role that fathers play in their children’s lives changing in the United States, as we move into the 21st century? What social forces are propelling these changes? Answer: The role that fathers play in their children's lives in the United States is evolving as we move into the 21st century. Social forces such as shifting gender norms, increased awareness of the importance of paternal involvement in child development, and changes in family structures are propelling these changes. Fathers are increasingly taking on more active caregiving roles, participating in childcare tasks, and engaging in emotional bonding activities with their children. There is a growing recognition of the unique contributions fathers make to their children's upbringing, leading to greater emphasis on shared parenting responsibilities and fostering stronger father-child relationships. 190. Suggest two social changes that have occurred, or are occurring, in the United States that are presently affecting the social ecology of child care. Suggest what impact you believe these changes will have on the families of tomorrow. Answer: 1. Increasing workforce participation of mothers: With more mothers entering the workforce, there is a growing demand for childcare services. This has led to the expansion of daycare centers, after-school programs, and other childcare options. The impact on families of tomorrow could include greater reliance on external childcare providers and potential challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities. 2. Evolving family structures: Changes in family structures, such as an increase in single-parent households, dual-income families, and multigenerational households, are reshaping the landscape of child care. Families may increasingly rely on extended family members, such as grandparents, or non-traditional childcare arrangements. This could impact the support networks available to families and influence childcare decision-making processes. Infants and Toddlers With Special Needs 191. During the first 6 months of an infant’s life, which do you believe would be the more challenging disability for parents to cope with: blindness or deafness? Explain your answer, noting the challenges associated with providing care for children with each of these disabilities. Answer: Both blindness and deafness present unique challenges for parents, but during the first 6 months of an infant's life, deafness may pose more immediate challenges. This is because infants primarily rely on auditory cues for communication and bonding during this period. Deaf infants may struggle to develop language skills and may require specialized interventions such as sign language or cochlear implants early on. However, blindness also presents significant challenges as parents need to adapt their caregiving methods to provide sensory stimulation and ensure safety in the child's environment. Ultimately, the level of challenge may vary depending on factors such as the severity of the disability and available support services. 192. How might the study of attachment provide a partial explanation for the finding that people who were abused as children are more likely to become abusive parents themselves? Answer: The study of attachment theory suggests that early experiences with caregivers influence the quality of attachment formed between a child and their primary caregiver. Children who experience abuse or neglect may develop insecure attachment styles characterized by mistrust, fear, and difficulty forming close relationships. As adults, these individuals may struggle to provide nurturing and responsive caregiving to their own children, perpetuating the cycle of abuse. Additionally, abusive parents may have limited knowledge or experience of healthy parenting practices, further contributing to the intergenerational transmission of abuse. Attachment theory provides insights into how early relationships impact later parenting behaviors, offering a partial explanation for the increased likelihood of abusive parenting among individuals who were abused as children. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079
