CH-12 Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development – Understanding Human Development : Exam Guide

Chapter 12 - Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development 1. According to the text, all of the following reach their peak during young adulthood EXCEPT: a. vitality b. strength c. endurance d. visual acuity Answer: d Rationale: Visual acuity typically peaks during late childhood or early adolescence and gradually declines with age due to changes in the structure and function of the eyes, such as presbyopia and changes in lens flexibility. Vitality, strength, and endurance generally reach their peak during young adulthood, reflecting the overall physical prime of this life stage. 2. Sexual orientation is best thought of as being: a. “either-or,” that is, a person has either a same-sex or an opposite-sex orientation b. the result of biological causes c. the result of social and psychological causes d. a continuum, with individuals varying in the degree to which they have same-sex and opposite-sex preferences Answer: d Rationale: Sexual orientation is increasingly understood as a continuum, with individuals expressing varying degrees of attraction to same-sex and opposite-sex partners. This perspective acknowledges the complexity and diversity of human sexuality beyond rigid binary categories. 3. According to Piaget, at which of the following ages do individuals typically reach the stage of formal operations, and thereby substantially complete their cognitive development? a. at age 12 b. at age 25 c. at age 55 d. at age 75 Answer: a Rationale: Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that individuals typically reach the stage of formal operations around the age of 12, marking a significant milestone in their ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning. 4. How well a person adapts to environmental demands is most important to the concept captured by which of the following terms? a. chronological age b. social age c. psychological age d. biological age Answer: c Rationale: Psychological age refers to an individual's adaptive capacities, coping mechanisms, and overall maturity in responding to environmental demands. It focuses on psychological development rather than strictly chronological, social, or biological factors. 5. Beginning at about age 38, most women find that: a. their ovaries release fewer ova and with greater irregularity b. they begin to enter menopause c. they experience a “second menarche” d. their ovaries develop a new supply of ova Answer: a Rationale: Around the age of 38, women typically experience a decline in fertility as their ovaries release fewer ova and ovulation becomes more irregular. This marks the beginning stages of perimenopause, which precedes menopause. 6. According to Levinson’s original research, women were less likely to have mentors for their career because: a. they have difficulty in listening to how another person believes they should live their lives b. they believe that they must achieve career success unaided c. they choose careers where mentoring is not necessary d. there are few female mentors available Answer: d Rationale: Levinson's research suggested that women were less likely to have mentors for their careers due to a scarcity of female mentors available in traditionally male-dominated fields. This lack of representation and mentorship contributed to the challenges women faced in advancing their careers. 7. After graduating from high school, Tyrone and several of his classmates attended the local community college. Going to college immediately following high school is best considered to be an example of a(n): a. normative event b. idiosyncratic event c. biological-clock-driven event d. cross-cultural event Answer: a Rationale: Attending college immediately after high school is a normative event, as it aligns with the societal expectation of pursuing higher education for personal and professional development following the completion of secondary education. 8. As Shelly gets older, she is better able to work productively with people she doesn’t like or doesn’t respect. This ability is most central to which of the following concepts? a. formal operations b. emotional intelligence c. postformal thought d. dialectical thought Answer: b Rationale: Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions as well as effectively navigate interpersonal relationships. Shelly's improved ability to work with difficult individuals suggests an enhanced capacity for emotional intelligence as she matures. 9. At this stage in his life, Martin is busy with providing money for his family, with working on his relationship with his wife, and with helping his parents adjust to the processes of aging. According to Havighurst’s model, which stage of development is Martin most likely in? a. middle age b. early adulthood c. older adulthood d. adolescence Answer: a Rationale: Martin's responsibilities align with the tasks associated with middle adulthood according to Havighurst's developmental tasks model, which emphasizes the social roles and responsibilities individuals encounter at different stages of life. 10. Jack is 60 years old, has never married, and consequently feels like he “missed out” on the most important thing in life – to fall in love and be in love with another person. According to Erikson’s view of adult development, Jack is experiencing a sense of: a. existential loneliness b. isolation c. mistrust of emotions d. stagnation Answer: b Rationale: According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, the stage of intimacy vs. isolation occurs in young adulthood, wherein individuals seek to form close, intimate relationships. Jack's sense of having missed out on love suggests feelings of isolation, which is the negative outcome associated with this stage. 1. Which of the following is the leading cause of death in young adulthood? a. murder b. accidents c. cancer d. suicide Answer: b Rationale: Accidents, including motor vehicle accidents, unintentional poisonings, and falls, are the leading cause of death in young adulthood, typically defined as ages 15 to 24. This age group is often characterized by risk-taking behavior and inexperience, contributing to the high rate of accidents. 2. At present, there is no cure for which of the following diseases? a. herpes b. syphilis c. gonorrhea d. chlamydia Answer: a Rationale: Herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) and currently has no cure. While treatments can manage symptoms and reduce the frequency of outbreaks, the virus remains in the body for life. 3. Which of the following is the term that describes thought that seeks to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations? a. normative thought b. dialectical thought c. preformal thought d. postformal thought Answer: b Rationale: Dialectical thought involves the ability to integrate opposing viewpoints or ideas, recognizing complexities and contradictions in one's thinking. It reflects a higher level of cognitive development beyond formal operational thinking. 4. Researchers use which of the following terms to express how we know when certain events in our life "should" occur? a. age clocks b. life change units c. normative transitions d. initiation rites Answer: a Rationale: Age clocks refer to societal or cultural expectations about the timing of certain life events, such as marriage, starting a career, or having children. These expectations vary across cultures and influence individuals' perceptions of developmental milestones. 5. Suppose you survey a population of U. S. married adults about their sexual activity. You should expect that couples in which of the following age groups will report having sex most frequently? a. couples in their 20s and 30s b. couples in their 40s and 50s c. couples in their 60s and 70s, after the children have left home d. None of the couples reported having sex more frequently, since sexual frequency is unrelated to age. Answer: a Rationale: Research suggests that couples in their 20s and 30s tend to report the highest frequency of sexual activity. Factors such as physical health, relationship satisfaction, and life stage may contribute to this pattern. 6. According to Havighurst, selecting a mate and rearing children are tasks of: a. late adulthood b. later maturity c. middle age d. early adulthood Answer: d Rationale: Havighurst's developmental tasks theory identifies selecting a mate and rearing children as primary tasks of early adulthood, typically occurring between the ages of 20 and 40. 7. According to the view of Daniel Levinson, the life structure develops out of which of the following processes? a. taking on and resolving the tasks of life b. growing older physically and mentally c. forming an intimate relationship with a person who loves you d. raising children and helping them become successful adults Answer: a Rationale: Daniel Levinson's theory of adult development emphasizes the importance of taking on and resolving the tasks of life, which include career development, establishing relationships, and achieving a sense of identity. 8. Although Mary is only 17 years old, she is married, has a child, holds a complex job, and provides the majority of her family’s income. To describe Mary as being “like a 30-year-old” would emphasize which of the following concepts? a. social age b. biological age c. chronological age d. postformal age Answer: a Rationale: Social age refers to individuals' positions and roles within society, which may not align with their chronological or biological age. Describing Mary as "like a 30-year-old" emphasizes her social roles and responsibilities rather than her actual age. 9. David has been a defense lawyer for 15 years. Now in his early 40s, he has volunteered his services to battered women in the community. According to Schaie, David's application of his cognitive skills reflects what stage of adult thinking? a. acquisition b. achieving c. reintegrating d. social responsibility Answer: d Rationale: Schaie's stages of cognitive development in adulthood include a stage called social responsibility, characterized by a focus on contributing to society and helping others. David's volunteer work aligns with this stage. 10. Jonathon tells his best friend: “I’m going to accept a job offer from a start-up technology company, but if that doesn’t work out, I’m sure my parents will bail me out and I can always join the family business.” Generalizing from Gould’s theory, if Jonathon is typical for people his age, he is most likely about: a. age 18 b. age 25 c. age 36 d. age 48 Answer: b Rationale: Gould's theory of adult development suggests that individuals in their mid-20s often experience a period of instability and exploration, characterized by uncertainty about career and life choices. Jonathon's statement reflects this transitional stage, indicating he is likely around age 25. Multiple Choice questions: Perspectives on Adult Development 1. In comparison with earlier stages of development, the stage of adulthood is _____ predictable and _____ variable. a. more; more b. less; less c. more; less d. less; more Answer: d Rationale: Adulthood is characterized by less predictability and more variability compared to earlier stages of development. While childhood and adolescence often follow more structured developmental pathways, adulthood encompasses a wide range of experiences, choices, and trajectories, leading to greater variability among individuals. 2. The periods of early childhood are defined for the most part by _____________, whereas the period of early adulthood is defined for the most part by ___________. a. social milestones such as learning to love parents; physical milestones such as menopause b. physical milestones such as learning to walk; social milestones such as getting married c. chronological age; biological age d. biological age; chronological age Answer: b Rationale: As noted in the text, the events marking the major transitions from one stage to the next within adulthood are less closely tied to chronological age or specific biological events, such as the rapid brain maturation that occurs in infancy or the maturation of sexual functions in adolescence. Rather, the major markers within adulthood are more closely linked to personal, social, and cultural forces or events—such as getting married, starting a job or career, or having a child. 3. Events that occur at relatively specific times in the lifespan and which most people in an age cohort experience are referred to by which of the following terms? a. idiosyncratic events b. normative events c. biological-clock-driven events d. age clocks Answer: b Rationale: Normative events refer to the events and the transitions that surround them, that occur at relatively specific times in the lifespan, which most people in an age cohort experience, such as marriage and retirement. 4. After graduating from high school, Tyrone and several of his classmates attended the local community college. Going to college immediately following high school is best considered to be an example of a(n): a. normative event b. idiosyncratic event c. biological-clock-driven event d. cross-cultural event Answer: a Rationale: Normative events refer to the events and the transitions that surround them, that occur at relatively specific times in the lifespan, which most people in an age cohort experience, such as marriage and retirement. 5. Events that happen at any time without warning and create considerable stress in a person's life are called: a. contextual b. normative c. idiosyncratic d. dialectic Answer: c Rationale: Idiosyncratic events are those events in the lifespan that are unanticipated, such as the death of a spouse, that typically cause considerable stress and readjustment of a person’s life, both personally and socially. 6. Following graduation from college, Mark and Lisa got engaged and began looking for jobs in the same city. Their situation is typical for the majority of people in their age cohort, so it is called a(n): a. normative transition b. idiosyncratic transition c. anticipated transition d. cultural transition Answer: a Rationale: Normative transitions are those that occur at relatively specific times in the lifespan, which most people in an age cohort experience, such as marriage and retirement. 7. Bernice has recently experienced the sudden and unexpected death of her husband and has lost her job after working at the company for 10 years. Since both of these events were unanticipated, they would best be considered to be: a. cohort events b. normative events c. idiosyncratic events d. counter-cultural events Answer: c Rationale: Idiosyncratic events are those events in the lifespan that are unanticipated, such as the death of a spouse, that typically cause considerable stress and readjustment of a person’s life both personally and socially. 8. According to the text, which of the following types of events typically cause the most stress? a. events that can be anticipated well in advance b. normative events c. idiosyncratic events d. age-clock events Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, there are typically clear expectations for how normative events should be dealt with so they usually are associated with minimal stress. Because idiosyncratic events usually are not anticipated and often are not emotionally shared with others, they can create considerable stress. 9. According to the text, which of the following spans of years fits within the developmental stage called “middle adulthood” ? a. 80s and up b. 60s and 70s c. 40s and 50s d. 30s and 40s Answer: c Rationale: As the text notes, it conventionally divides the adult years in such a way that the 40s and 50s are considered the middle adulthood years. 10. Researchers use which of the following terms to express how we know when certain events in our life "should" occur? a. age clocks b. life change units c. normative transitions d. initiation rites Answer: a Rationale: Age clocks refer to a form of internal timing used as a measure of adult development. Age clocks provide us with a way of knowing that we are progressing too slowly or too quickly in terms of key social events that occur during adulthood. 11. Donna is upset because she has returned to college in her late 30s. She feels so “old” and out of step compared to the other students, who nearly all are in their late teens and early twenties. Donna’s feeling best reflect the issues surrounding the concept of: a. idiosyncratic events b. intimacy c. postformal thought d. age clocks Answer: d Rationale: Age clocks let us know when certain events in our life should occur, relative to standards typical in our culture. If important life events happen earlier or later than expected, individuals may experience distress and less peer support than when such developments are accomplished according to a more typical schedule. 12. Today, about ___ of the female population will live to be 80 years old or older; in 1900 that percentage was about ___. a. 50%; 30% b. 50%; 14% c. 80%; 50% d. 80%; 40% Answer: b Rationale: Today, approximately 50% of the female population will live to be 80 years old or older, whereas in 1900, only about 14% of females lived to that age. This significant increase in life expectancy for women reflects improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and other factors over the past century. 13. According to the text, age clocks today, when compared to age clocks 50 years ago, have become: a. much longer b. much faster c. more relevant d. more blurred Answer: d Rationale: Partly because more people are living longer, and partly because our society is becoming more flexible with respect to the roles and opportunities available to both women and men, the lines that traditionally have separated the stages of adulthood are becoming more blurred. 14. Juanita is celebrating her 30th birthday. The fact that she has lived 30 years best reflects the concept of: a. biological age b. social age c. chronological age d. psychological age Answer: c Rationale: The concept of chronological age refers to how many years and months have elapsed since birth. 15. Two of Dr. Brown’s patients are in identical health, both having heart disease, diabetes, and limited physical abilities. However, one of these patients is 86 years old and the other is 56 years old. This example best points out what is meant by the term: a. social age b. chronological age c. psychological age d. biological age Answer: d Rationale: Biological age refers to an individual’s position with regard to his or her expected lifespan. 16. Lonnie and his friend Jake are both 40 years old, but Lonnie is much more successfully settled in his life. Lonnie is married, is raising a family, and has a job he enjoys; Jake is still dating, has held several jobs that he doesn’t like, and he is just “unhappy” with his life. This example emphasizes the idea of: a. chronological age b. psychological age c. biological age d. living in an ageless society Answer: b Rationale: Psychological age refers to an individual’s current ability to cope with and adapt to social and environmental demands; it includes subjective dimensions like feelings, attitudes, and motives. 17. According to the text, a person's age as measured by the additional number of years she is expected to live is called her: a. chronological age b. social age c. psychological age d. biological age Answer: d Rationale: Biological age refers to a person's age as measured by the additional number of years they are expected to live based on various biological factors such as health, genetics, and lifestyle habits. It provides a more dynamic understanding of age compared to chronological age, which simply indicates the number of years a person has lived. 18. How well a person adapts to environmental demands is most important to the concept captured by which of the following terms? a. chronological age b. social age c. psychological age d. biological age Answer: c Rationale: Psychological age is defined as an individual’s current ability to cope with and adapt to social and environmental demands. 19. Ernest, a 50-year-old man, bar hops every night in search of one-night stands – a behavior more commonly associated with much younger men in their 20s. To say that Ernest acts like a man who is 25 emphasizes the concept of: a. chronological age b. biological age c. social age d. psychological age Answer: c Rationale: Social age refers to an individual’s current status as compared with cultural norms. Saying that Ernest acts like he is 25 emphasizes how he acts in relation to cultural norms. 20. Although Mary is only 17 years old, she is married, has a child, holds a complex job, and provides the majority of her family’s income. To describe Mary as being “like a 30-year-old” would emphasize which of the following concepts? a. social age b. biological age c. chronological age d. postformal age Answer: a Rationale: Social age refers to an individual’s current status as compared with cultural norms. Saying that Mary acts like she is 30 emphasizes how she acts in relation to cultural norms. 21. Dr. Abrams emphasizes to students in her Developmental Psychology class that they must consider multiple interacting forces when trying to understand human development. She is reflecting the central focus of which of the following? a. psychodynamic theory b. contextual paradigms c. normative evens d. idiosyncratic events Answer: b Rationale: Contextual paradigms refer to theories that emphasize the interaction of numerous environmental, social, psychological, and historical factors that influence development. 22. Contextual paradigms generally are most important to consider when investigating developmental changes during which of the following periods of the lifespan? a. prenatal development b. infancy and toddlerhood c. middle childhood d. middle adulthood Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the text, at no point do contextual considerations become more important than in adult development when pathways of life begin to diverge markedly. General Physical Development 23. According to the text, all of the following reach their peak during young adulthood EXCEPT: a. vitality b. strength c. endurance d. visual acuity Answer: d Rationale: Visual acuity typically peaks earlier in life, usually during late childhood or early adolescence, and then gradually declines with age. Vitality, strength, and endurance, on the other hand, tend to reach their peak during young adulthood, reflecting the physical prime of this life stage. 24. Which of the following athletes would be most likely to reach peak performance during adolescence, rather than adulthood? a. a swimmer b. a runner c. a tennis player d. a golfer Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, the age at which athletes reach their peak performance varies according to the sport. Swimmers and gymnasts generally peak during adolescence, short-distance runners and tennis players usually peak in their early 20s. Golfers tend to perform best in their late 20s and on into their 30s. 25. According to the text, decline in which of the following systems is greatest between the ages of 20 and 80? a. cardiovascular function b. muscle strength c. maximum breathing capacity d. kidney function Answer: c Rationale: Figure 12-1 shows that the decline in functioning between age 20 and age 80 is least for nerve condition speed, followed by kidney function, cardiovascular function, muscle strength, useful lung volume, and finally maximum breathing capacity. All of these functions are about equally high at age 20. 26. Which of the following people would be expected to have the greatest arm strength, leg strength, and hand strength? a. Fred, who is 39 years old b. Frank, who is 33 years old c. Mark, who is 26 years old d. Paul, who is 23 years old Answer: d Rationale: The textbook notes that between the ages of 23 and 27, the striated (voluntary) muscles, including the biceps and triceps, achieve their maximum physical strength. Peak leg strength comes between the ages of 20 and 30, peak hand strength comes at about age 20. 27. Suppose that Jim wants to become a professional golfer. He should plan to achieve his best game at about what age? a. age 16 b. age 18 c. age 24 d. age 30 Answer: d Rationale: According to the textbook, golfers tend to perform best in their late 20s and on into their 30s. 28. If you and your friends identified the “five best baseball players of all time” and computed the average age at which each of them had his best season, this average age would most likely be: a. age 19 b. age 22 c. age 25 d. age 30 Answer: d Rationale: Major league baseball players generally peak around ages 27-30, although the players with the greatest ability may peak several years after that. 29. Suppose that the world record winning time for the half-marathon was 1 hour 10 minutes in 1900. If the world’s fastest 60-year-olds ran a half-marathon race today, what would you expect the winning time would be? a. 2 hours 20 minutes b. 2 hour 0 minutes c. 1 hour 50 minutes d. 1 hour 10 minutes Answer: d Rationale: In 1896 the winning time for a marathon was 2 hours 59 minutes; in 2012, the winning time for master athletes running the same distance was 3 hours 10 minutes for those in the 60 to 69 age group. By analogy, one would expect the record winning time for a half-marathon in 1900 to be roughly the same as the winning time for the fastest 60-year-old today. 30. Generalizing from race times reported in the text for marathon races, if the world record time for the women’s half-marathon was 1 hour 20 minutes in 1900, what would you expect the world record time for women to be today for this race? a. 1 hour 40 minutes b. 1 hour 20 minutes c. 1 hour 15 minutes d. 45 minutes Answer: c Rationale: Although women did not run in the Boston Marathon in the 1890s, the winning time for women in 1972 was 3 hours 10 minutes. In 2012, merely 40 years later, the top woman finished in 2 hours 32 minutes, lopping 38 minutes off the 1972 winning time. 31. What is the leading preventable cause of death? a. tobacco use b. suicides c. accidents d. HIV infection resulting in AIDS Answer: a Rationale: Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death globally, contributing to various health issues such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and cancer. Efforts to reduce tobacco use through public health initiatives have been ongoing to decrease associated mortality rates. 32. For adults today, what are the top 3 leading causes of preventable death: a. smoking, obesity, and alcohol consumption b. smoking, alcohol consumption, and diabetes c. diabetes, asthma, and drug addiction d. obesity, smoking, and diabetes Answer: a Rationale: The top three leading causes of preventable death for adults today are smoking, obesity, and alcohol consumption. These factors contribute significantly to various chronic diseases and health complications, highlighting the importance of lifestyle choices in preventing premature mortality. 33. At 31 years old, Marco died from the leading cause of death among males in his age group. What did he die from? a. homicide b. an accident c. heart disease d. HIV infection resulting in AIDS Answer: b Rationale: According to the textbook, the leading cause of death among adults ages 25 to 44 is accidents; the death rate due to accidents for males is about 3 times that of the rate for females. 34. As people move from young adult into older adulthood, the percentage who meet guidelines for participating in aerobic and muscle strengthening activities: a. increases b. decreases c. remains steady d. declines to middle adulthood and then increases into older adulthood. Answer: b Rationale: As people transition from young adulthood into older adulthood, the percentage who meet guidelines for participating in aerobic and muscle strengthening activities tends to decrease. This decline may be attributed to factors such as physical limitations, chronic health conditions, and changes in lifestyle and priorities with age. 35. Which of the following periods of the lifespan has the LOWEST death rate? a. middle childhood b. adolescence c. young adulthood d. middle adulthood Answer: c Rationale: Young adulthood typically has the lowest death rate compared to other periods of the lifespan. During this stage, individuals are generally in good health and less susceptible to age-related illnesses or mortality risks compared to older age groups. 36. According to data reported in the text, over the past several years in the United States the death rate associated with AIDS has: a. increased slightly b. remained the same c. decreased slightly d. decreased substantially Answer: d Rationale: Over the past several years in the United States, the death rate associated with AIDS has decreased substantially. This decline can be attributed to advancements in medical treatments, improved access to healthcare, and public health efforts aimed at prevention and education regarding HIV/AIDS. 37. According to data presented in the text, the peak of physiological functioning occurs at about age ____ for people who have active lifestyles and at about age _____ for people who have sedentary lifestyles. a. 30; 30 b. 40; 20 c. 50; 18 d. 50; 30 Answer: a Rationale: Figure 12-3 shows the percent of general physiological function for people age 10 to age 90. For both active and sedentary people, the peak of functioning occurs at about age 30. 38. Which of the following is the leading cause of death in young adulthood? a. murder b. accidents c. cancer d. suicide Answer: b Rationale: Accidents, including motor vehicle accidents, unintentional injuries, and other traumatic events, are the leading cause of death in young adulthood. This age group is often more prone to risk-taking behaviors and exposure to hazardous situations, increasing the likelihood of accidents leading to mortality. 39. According to statistics reported in the text, the use of illicit drugs and driving while drunk both reach their peak in which of the following age groups? a. 16-22 b. 18-25 c. 20-27 d. 24-30 Answer: b Rationale: Research indicates that risky behaviors such as illicit drug use and driving while intoxicated peak during the late teens and early twenties. Option b (18-25) represents this age range, aligning with the peak of such behaviors. 40. What law makes it illegal to discriminate against individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications? a. Equal Pay Act b. Social Security Act c. Americans with Disabilities Act d. Equal Employment Opportunity Act Answer: c Rationale: The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in various aspects of public life, including employment, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications. Option c corresponds to this law. 41. While already employed, Philip develops a disability. In the language of the law, if he is otherwise qualified for his job, his employer must provide him with: a. a "second chance"" b. a "job guarantee" c. "reasonable accommodations” d. a "medical waiver" Answer: c Rationale: The Americans with Disabilities Act requires companies to make reasonable accommodations for the needs of employees with disabilities so that they can do the work for which they are trained; if that is not possible, they must be trained for comparably skilled work. 42. Mark is a high school biology teacher who suffered an accident and now cannot use his legs and is in a wheelchair. When he recovered and came back to work, his school moved his biology classroom from the second to the first floor, and they installed a lower lab bench so he could teach effectively in this renovated classroom. The school’s response would be considered a good example of: a. assimilation b. postformal response c. reasonable accommodation d. dialectical response Answer: c Rationale: The Americans with Disabilities Act requires companies to make reasonable accommodations for the needs of employees with disabilities so that they can do the work for which they are trained; if that is not possible, they must be trained for comparably skilled work. Sex and Sexuality 43. The average woman is born with approximately how many ova? a. 10,000 b. 400,000 c. 1,000,000 d. 18,000,000 Answer: b Rationale: The average woman is born with around 400,000 ova, commonly known as eggs. This number declines over time through processes such as ovulation and degeneration, but it is fixed at birth. Option b accurately reflects this average number. 44. Beginning at about age 38, most women find that: a. their ovaries release fewer ova and with greater irregularity b. they begin to enter menopause c. they experience a “second menarche” d. their ovaries develop a new supply of ova Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, ovulation is relatively stable between the ages of 25 and 38. After age 38, and up until menopause, however, there is a rapid decline in the number and regularity of ova released. 45. According to the text, peak fertility occurs for women at about age ____ and for men at about age ____. a. 25; 15 b. 15; 25 c. 25; 25 d. 15; 15 Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, peak fertility occurs for both groups during late adolescence and early adulthood. 46. Difficulty with conception as the result of having a sexually transmitted disease is a significant risk for all of the following EXCEPT: a. chlamydia b. syphilis c. gonorrhea d. herpes Answer: d Rationale: While herpes can cause discomfort and outbreaks, it typically does not lead to infertility or difficulty with conception. Chlamydia, syphilis, and gonorrhea, on the other hand, can lead to complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, which may result in infertility. Option d is the correct answer as it is the exception. 47. In comparison with the percent of young men who used condoms during sexual intercourse in 1982, the percentage who did so in 2008: a. decreased by 50% b. remained about the same c. increased slightly d. more than tripled Answer: d Rationale: Over the years, there has been a significant increase in condom use among young men. The percentage of condom use during sexual intercourse has more than tripled between 1982 and 2008, indicating a positive trend towards safer sexual practices. Option d correctly reflects this increase. 48. At present, there is no cure for which of the following diseases? a. herpes b. syphilis c. gonorrhea d. chlamydia Answer: a Rationale: Herpes, caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), currently has no cure. While treatments can manage symptoms and reduce the frequency of outbreaks, the virus remains in the body for life. Option a accurately identifies herpes as the disease without a cure. 49. Which disorder is most likely to cause urinary tract infection in men? a. syphilis b. gonorrhea c. chlamydia d. AIDS Answer: c Rationale: Among the options provided, chlamydia is the most likely to cause urinary tract infections in men. Chlamydia can lead to urethritis, which is inflammation of the urethra, causing symptoms similar to a urinary tract infection. Option c is the correct answer. 50. Barbara is writing a research paper on sexually transmitted diseases. If she identifies the STD that is LEAST likely to be contracted by a young adult in the U. S. today, this disease would be which of the following? a. AIDS b. chlamydia c. herpes d. gonorrhea Answer: a Rationale: Even for high-risk groups within the U.S., the likelihood of contracting HIV is about 0.1%. The rate for other sexually transmitted diseases is much higher: in the range of 5 to 15%. 51. Tom, who is 20 years old, asks his brother, who is 50 years old, what percentage of his friends used condoms when they had sexual intercourse when they were Tom’s age. Tom also asks his own friends about their frequency of condom use. If Tom’s friends and Tom’s brother’s friends are typical for people of their generations, you should expect that Tom’s friends are about ____ likely to use condoms during intercourse. a. half as b. equally c. 1.5 times as d. 3 times as Answer: d Rationale: The proportion of young men who used condoms during sexual intercourse more than tripled from 1982 to 2008. 52. In comparison to people growing up in the 1990s, young adults today are more likely to: a. have unprotected sex, without the use of condoms b. engage frequently in sexual intercourse, and at younger ages c. avoid having testing done for STDs, including AIDS testing d. be more cautious about their sexual activity Answer: d Rationale: Research suggests that young adults today are more likely to be cautious about their sexual activity compared to those growing up in the 1990s. Factors such as increased awareness of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the availability of information on safe sex practices contribute to this trend. Option d accurately reflects this increased caution. 53. According to data from a study at the University of Chicago, what percentage of people reporting having more than five sexual partners in the past year claim either to be decreasing their sexual activity, going for HIV testing on a regular basis, or using condoms always? a. 12% b. 33% c. 76% d. 94% Answer: c Rationale: The University of Chicago study found that 76% of people reporting having more than five sexual partners in the past year claimed to be taking precautions such as decreasing their sexual activity, undergoing regular HIV testing, or consistently using condoms. Option c accurately represents this percentage. 54. If you were on a quiz show and were asked to estimate the percentage of U. S. adults who have had sexual intercourse before marriage, the most accurate response you could give would be: a. 50% b. 62% c. 75% d. 95% Answer: d Rationale: According to research presented in the text, 95% of the U.S. population today has had sex before marriage. 55. Generalizing from research presented in the text, which of the following statements about sexual behavior by U.S. adults is FALSE? a. About one-third of couples have sexual relations at least twice a week. b. About one-third of couples have sexual relations a few times a year or not at all. c. Hispanic Americans are far more likely to have frequent sexual relations than are Black or White Americans. d. A large majority of couples are monogamous. Answer: c Rationale: The false statement is option c, as research does not support the claim that Hispanic Americans are far more likely to have frequent sexual relations than Black or White Americans. In reality, sexual behavior varies widely among individuals of all ethnicities, and no single group is universally more sexually active than others. 56. According to research described in the text, about what percent of married people in the U. S. today have sex at least twice a week? a. 1% b. 20% c. 33% d. 65% Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. According to research, approximately 33% of married people in the United States report having sex at least twice a week. This statistic reflects a portion of the married population rather than the entire population. 57. Lorraine complains to her therapist that she and her husband have sex only a few times a year. Lorraine believes that this pattern of sexual activity is very unusual for married couples. If the therapist is knowledgeable about patterns of sexual intercourse, he should respond to Lorraine that in the United States today, about ____ percent of married couples report this pattern of sexual activity. a. 50% b. 33% c. 8% d. less than 1% Answer: b Rationale: According to the University of Chicago survey reported in the text, there are three basic patterns of sexual relations: About one-third have sex at least twice a week, one-third several times a month, and one-third a few times a year or not at all. 58. Suppose you administer a survey about sexual activity to married couples who are either African American, Hispanic, or white. What results should you expect, if these couples’ responses reflect population trends in the U.S. today? a. African American couples will report having sex much more frequently than the other two groups. b. Hispanic couples will report having sex much more frequently than the other two groups. c. White couples will report having sex much more frequently than the other two groups. d. All couples will report having sex with about the same frequency. Answer: d Rationale: According the University of Chicago survey reported in the text, there are only very minor variations across ethnic groups with regard to frequency of sex. 59. Suppose you survey a population of U. S. married adults about their sexual activity. You should expect that couples in which of the following age groups will report having sex most frequently? a. couples in their 20s and 30s b. couples in their 40s and 50s c. couples in their 60s and 70s, after the children have left home d. None of the couples reported having sex more frequently, since sexual frequency is unrelated to age. Answer: a Rationale: According to the University of Chicago survey reported in the text, the highest frequencies of sexual activity regardless of marital status were reported by people in their 20s and 30s. 60. Compared to the 1970s, reports of sexual satisfaction among U. S. adults today is _____ and _____ closely tied to whether or not sexual activity results in orgasm. a. much higher; is b. much higher; is not c. about the same; is d. about the same; is not Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Reports of sexual satisfaction among U.S. adults today are much higher compared to the 1970s, and sexual satisfaction is not as closely tied to whether or not sexual activity results in orgasm. This reflects a shift in societal attitudes toward sexual satisfaction beyond just orgasmic experience. 61. According to a recent survey (2010) reported in the text, which of the following statements is incorrect? a. use of condoms has increased b. masturbation is a common sexual practice in older adulthood but is seldom practiced in adolescence or early adulthood c. about half of 18- to 49-year-old adults engage in oral sex d. about 7 to 8% of adults identify themselves as gay or lesbian Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Masturbation is not solely a common sexual practice in older adulthood; it is also commonly practiced in adolescence and early adulthood. The other statements align with the findings of the survey. 62. According to a recent survey (2010) reported in the text, about % of men and % of women reported having an orgasm at the most recent sexual encounter. a. 95%; 50% b. 50%; 25% c. 85%; 64% d. 95%; 95% Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. According to the survey data, approximately 85% of men and 64% of women reported having an orgasm at their most recent sexual encounter. This reflects the reported prevalence of orgasms among men and women in the survey. 63. According to the text, a phrase that means essentially the same thing as “sexual orientation” is: a. homosexuality b. heterosexuality c. bisexuality d. sexual preference Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. "Sexual orientation" and "sexual preference" are used interchangeably to refer to the same concept—the direction of an individual's sexual attraction or romantic interest. 64. A person who is sexually attracted to both males and females is called which of the following? a. homosexual person b. heterosexual person c. bisexual person d. hermaphrodite person Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. A person who is sexually attracted to both males and females is referred to as a bisexual person. This term accurately describes an individual's sexual orientation. 65. According to the text, the most accurate answer to the question, “What causes a person to develop a same-sex orientation?” is: a. exposure to male hormones during the prenatal period b. overly harsh punishment during childhood c. a set of genes that produce this behavior d. we don’t know Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. Research has not identified a definitive cause for the development of a same-sex orientation. While various theories have been proposed, including biological, environmental, and genetic factors, there is no consensus within the scientific community. 66. Sexual orientation is best thought of as being: a. “either-or,” that is, a person has either a same-sex or an opposite-sex orientation b. the result of biological causes c. the result of social and psychological causes d. a continuum, with individuals varying in the degree to which they have same-sex and opposite-sex preferences Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. Sexual orientation is best understood as a continuum rather than an "either-or" categorization. Individuals can vary in the degree to which they experience same-sex and opposite-sex attractions, leading to a spectrum of sexual orientations. 67. Which of the following explanations about the development of same-sex orientation is LEAST likely to be supported with research? a. There may be gene sequences on the X chromosome that are involved in determining sexual orientation, at least in males. b. The brain structure of people with a same-sex orientation may be slightly different than those with opposite-sex orientations. c. Individuals make a choice about which orientation they prefer, often in late childhood or early adolescence.
 d. Male hormones that circulate during the prenatal period may influence brain development toward, or away from, a structure that is consistent with same-sex or opposite-sex orientation. Answer: c Rationale: The text states that "the consensus view is that homosexuality is much more complex than simply making a choice about which sexual orientation one prefers." The other explanations listed as answer choices are all suggested as possible explanations for same-sex orientation. 68. In comparison to people with heterosexual orientations, those with same-sex orientations are more likely to: a. be a high school dropout b. live in a large city c. live in a rural area d. be an only child Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Individuals with same-sex orientations are more likely to live in urban or metropolitan areas compared to those with heterosexual orientations. This is often attributed to the presence of LGBTQ+ communities and resources in urban centers. 69. Which of the following is the most accurate statement about how psychologists have thought about homosexuality as being a mental disorder? a. Psychologists have never considered homosexuality to be a mental disorder. b. Psychologists today consider homosexuality to be a mental disorder, and there is a classification for homosexuality in the current edition of the DSM. c. In the early part of the 20th century, psychologists considered homosexuality to be a mental disorder, but today they no longer do. d. Psychologists are split today, with about half considering homosexuality to be a mental disorder and about half considering homosexuality to not be a disorder but rather a lifestyle preference. Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. In the early part of the 20th century, homosexuality was considered a mental disorder by some psychologists. However, contemporary psychology no longer views homosexuality as a mental disorder, recognizing it as a natural variation of human sexuality. This shift reflects advancements in understanding and acceptance of diverse sexual orientations. 70. The prejudice, fear, and aversion held by individuals and directed against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals is called what? a. homophobia b. agoraphobia c. xenophobia d. heterophobia Answer: a Rationale: Homophobia refers specifically to the prejudice, fear, and aversion directed against individuals who are homosexual or bisexual. It is the most appropriate term for describing such discrimination and prejudice. 71. Homophobia is best described as: a. sexual prejudice b. a clinical phobia c. sexual orientation d. homosexuality Answer: a Rationale: Homophobia is a form of sexual prejudice, as it involves negative attitudes and discriminatory behavior towards individuals based on their sexual orientation. It is not classified as a clinical phobia but rather as a social phenomenon. 72. According to research presented in the text, what percentage of second-year medical students were found to endorse the belief that homosexuality is a mental disorder? a. 4% b. 9% c. 19% d. 27% Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. 9%. This reflects the prevalence of outdated and discriminatory beliefs about homosexuality within certain segments of society, even among individuals pursuing medical education. Cognitive Development in Adulthood 73. If Dr. Swank studies how IQ scores change across the lifespan, she would probably find that most individuals score the highest on tests of intelligence when they are at which of the following ages? a. age 18 b. age 27 c. age 39 d. age 60 Answer: b Rationale: IQ scores are observed to peak between the ages of 20 and 34, especially when the tests involve speed and memory in addition to more complex, context-based problem solving. 74. According to Piaget, how would the problem-solving abilities of a 15-year-old differ from those of a 30-year-old: a. Their problem-solving abilities would not differ substantially, although the 30-year-old might know more things. b. The 15-year-old would be better at conservation tasks. c. The 30-year-old would be better at conservation tasks. d. The 30-year old would be much more likely to use hypothetical reasoning when solving scientific problems. Answer: a Rationale: According to Piaget, although adults continue to accumulate additional facts and experiences, the logic and problem-solving skills they apply are largely the same as they used when they developed formal operational skills in adolescence. 75. According to Piaget, at which of the following ages do individuals typically reach the stage of formal operations, and thereby substantially complete their cognitive development? a. at age 12 b. at age 25 c. at age 55 d. at age 75 Answer: a Rationale: Piaget's theory suggests that individuals typically reach the stage of formal operations, marking substantial completion of cognitive development, around the age of 12 and into adolescence. 76. The text reports a study conducted on students from Harvard and Radcliffe. Compared to how their thinking was characterized as seniors, when these students were freshmen, their thinking was more likely to: a. be tolerant of many different points of view b. reflect their self-chosen ideas and convictions c. be dualistic, emphasizing the “either-or” aspects of thought d. focus on understanding ambiguous answers, rather than focusing on truth and knowledge Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. The study found that freshmen tended to exhibit more dualistic thinking, emphasizing simplistic "either-or" perspectives, compared to seniors. This reflects a developmental progression in cognitive complexity. 77. Which of the following is the term that describes thought that seeks to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations? a. normative thought b. dialectical thought c. preformal thought d. postformal thought Answer: b Rationale: Dialectical thought involves the ability to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations, leading to a more nuanced understanding of complex issues. It represents a higher level of cognitive development. 78. Brittany often engages in the kind of thought in which she argues both sides of a question, pointing out the “pros” and “cons” of the situation. Her focus on trying to integrate opposing points of view and conflicting aspects of situations comes closest to thought that is called: a. formal operational thinking b. postformal thought c. normative thought d. dialectical thought Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the text, dialectical thought is the style of thinking that seeks to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations. 79. Jacob explains a difficult situation by bringing together ideas that reflect the logical aspects of the problem, the emotional aspects of the problems, and his own past experiences in solving problems of this type. The term that best describes Jacob’s approach to explaining this problem is: a. formal operational thinking b. postformal thought c. normative thought d. dialectical thought Answer: b Rationale: Postformal thinking typically involves both cognitive and emotional aspects in problem solving and often is seen when issues are framed within a social context. 80. If a person has developed postformal thought, this would imply that she: a. can consider both cognitive and emotional aspects of a problem, in addition to her own experiences b. can understand hypothetical situations and can reason through “what if” problems c. has mastered the concepts that underlie conservation tasks d. knows the difference between “right” and “wrong” Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, postformal thinking typically involves both cognitive and emotional aspects in problem solving and often is seen when issues are framed within a social context. 81. As adolescents become adults, their thinking becomes more _______ and more ________. a. complex; realistic b. concrete; idealistic c. precise; idealistic d. abstract, idealistic Answer: a Rationale: One way in which thinking changes as young people move into adulthood is that it becomes more reflective and complex. Another dimension of adult thought is that it is more realistic, reflecting not just what is ideal but also what is possible. 82. According to the work of Daniel Goleman, which of the following is the term given to those aspects of the intellect that relate to understanding others’ and one’s own emotions and emotional responses? a. social intelligence b. dialectical intelligence c. emotional intelligence d. empathetic intelligence Answer: c Rationale: As defined in the text, emotional intelligence is the term given to those aspects of the intellect that relate to understanding others’ and one’s own emotions and emotional responses. 83. As Shelly gets older, she is better able to work productively with people she doesn’t like or doesn’t respect. This ability is most central to which of the following concepts? a. formal operations b. emotional intelligence c. postformal thought d. dialectical thought Answer: b Rationale: Emotional intelligence is the term given to those aspects of the intellect that relate to understanding others’ and one’s own emotions and emotional responses. 84. As Kyle has gotten older, he has come to understand that, when two of his coworkers don’t like each other, he can sometimes smooth their disagreements so that they can work productively together. This ability is best captured by viewpoints that emphasize: a. formal operations b. postformal thought c. dialectical thought d. emotional intelligence Answer: d Rationale: Emotional intelligence is the term given to those aspects of the intellect that relate to understanding others’ and one’s own emotions and emotional responses. 85. Wilma is using her intellectual abilities to pursue her chosen career and to decide on a lifestyle. In which of Warner Schaie’s stages of adult thinking is she? a. achieving period b. social responsibility period c. acquisitive period d. executive period Answer: a Rationale: According to Schaie, in the achieving period we apply our intellectual, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities toward accomplishing goals and a life plan. 86. According to Warner Schaie, in what period do children and adolescents acquire increasingly complex structures for understanding the world through formal operational thought? a. acquisition b. achieving c. social responsibility d. reintegrating Answer: a Rationale: The powerful tools of formal operational thinking are the key achievement of the acquisition period, according to Schaie. 87. Warner Schaie views childhood and adolescence as a period of cognitive development that focuses on the ________ of cognitive skills. a. acquisition b. reintegrating c. reorganization d. regression Answer: a Rationale: According to Schaie, during childhood and adolescence we acquire increasingly complex structures for understanding the world. The powerful tools of formal operational thinking are the key achievement of this period, called the acquisition period. 88. In Schaie’s view, childhood and adolescence is to acquisitive as young adulthood is to: a. executive b. responsible c. achieving d. reintegrative Answer: c Rationale: During childhood and adolescence we acquire increasingly complex structures for understanding the world; Schaie called this the acquisition period. In young adulthood we use our intellectual abilities to pursue a career and to choose a lifestyle; Schaie called this the achieving period. 89. Schaie's stage of social responsibility typically occurs during: a. childhood and adolescence b. young adulthood c. middle adulthood d. late adulthood Answer: c Rationale: According to Schaie, the stage of social responsibility occurs in middle adulthood when we use our cognitive abilities to solve problems for others in the family, in the community, and on the job. 90. Schaie suggests that adult intelligence is characterized by: a. a steady decline in functioning b. a return to concrete operational thinking c. a substitution of postformal thought for the formal thought of adolescence d. flexible use of the cognitive skills they already possess Answer: d Rationale: Schaie’s view emphasizes that the focus of cognitive development in adulthood is not on expanded intellectual capacity or on a change in cognitive structures. Instead, it emphasizes the flexible use of intelligence in different ways at different stages of the lifespan. 91. Jake studied business in college and took a summer job in an accounting firm to help him decide whether he really wanted to pursue a career in accounting. According to Schaie, Jake is in which stage of adult thinking? a. acquisition b. achieving c. reintegrating d. social responsibility Answer: b Rationale: According to Schaie, in the achieving period we apply our intellectual, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities toward accomplishing goals and a life plan. 92. Warner Schaie's social responsibility period for cognitive skills is typically characterized by: a. seeking objectively correct answers in problem-solving situations b. applying cognitive skills to problem solving in the family, community, and workplace c. choosing personal solutions that become integrated into a life plan d. reintegrating life experiences so as to see life and its purpose as a whole Answer: b Rationale: According to Schaie, the stage of social responsibility occurs in middle adulthood when we use our cognitive abilities to solve problems for others in the family, in the community, and on the job. 93. David has been a defense lawyer for 15 years. Now in his early 40s, he has volunteered his services to battered women in the community. According to Schaie, David's application of his cognitive skills reflects what stage of adult thinking? a. acquisition b. achieving c. reintegrating d. social responsibility Answer: d Rationale: According to Schaie, the stage of social responsibility occurs in middle adulthood when we use our cognitive abilities to solve problems for others in the family, in the community, and on the job. 94. In his 60s, Arthur joins a Bible study group to help him make sense of his life and to explore questions of purpose. According to Schaie, Arthur's questions reflect what stage of adult cognition? a. acquisition b. achieving c. reintegrating d. social responsibility Answer: c Rationale: The central task of the reintegration stage involves reintegrating the elements experienced earlier in life—making sense of life as a whole and exploring questions of purpose. 95. According to Schaie, what is the central task of late adulthood? a. acquisition b. achievement c. social responsibility d. reintegration Answer: d Rationale: According to Schaie, in the later years, the central task is one of reintegrating the elements experienced earlier in life—making sense of life as a whole and exploring questions of purpose. Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development 96. Dr. Lee advanced a theory that prescribes that nearly all adults go through an ordered series of five “life conflicts” that define how adult development unfolds. This type of theory fits best into which of the following theoretical approaches? a. a cognitive development model b. a context model c. a stage model d. a postformal model Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, stage models are those that specify how individuals change as they move through stages of development and emphasize the commonalities of development. 97. Dr. Parks suggests that every person is so unique that theory of adult development cannot capture the widely varying patterns of development that individuals undergo. Dr. Parks’ point of view fits best into which of the following theoretical approaches? a. a stage model b. a postformal model c. a dialectical model d. a context model Answer: d Rationale: Context models focus attention on the specific experiences that shape each individual’s life. 98. Which of the following theories is the best example of a context model? a. Piaget’s view of cognitive development b. Schaie’s view of adult development c. Erikson’s view of psychosocial development d. Goleman’s view of emotional intelligence Answer: d Rationale: Context models focus on the specific experiences that shape each person’s life and they view these unique circumstances as important in determining how development proceeds. Stage models emphasize the commonalities of development and specify that all (or most) individuals pass through the same ordered stages in the same sequence and at approximately the same age. Piaget’s, Schaie’s, and Erikson’s theories all emphasize this universal, ordered sequence of stages, whereas Goleman’s model instead focuses on basic tasks that contribute to emotional development. Thus, Goleman’s model is the best example of a context model. 99. According to Havighurst, selecting a mate and rearing children are tasks of: a. late adulthood b. later maturity c. middle age d. early adulthood Answer: d Rationale: Table 12-3 lists the developmental tasks that occur at each stage of adulthood, according to Havighurst. According to this table, selecting a mate and rearing children are tasks of early adulthood. 100. According to Havighurst, which of the following is a developmental task most commonly associated with middle age? a. taking on civic responsibility b. adjusting to death of a spouse c. developing leisure-time activities d. establishing satisfactory living arrangements Answer: c Rationale: Table 12-3 lists the developmental tasks that occur at each stage of adulthood, according to Havighurst. According to this table, developing leisure-time activities is a task of middle adulthood. 101. At this stage in his life, Martin is busy with providing money for his family, with working on his relationship with his wife, and with helping his parents adjust to the processes of aging. According to Havighurst’s model, which stage of development is Martin most likely in? a. middle age b. early adulthood c. older adulthood d. adolescence Answer: a Rationale: Table 12-3 lists the developmental tasks that occur at each stage of adulthood, according to Havighurst. According to this table, establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living, relating to one’s spouse as a person, and adjusting to aging parents are tasks associated with middle adulthood. 102. Adjustment to changing circumstances is a task that is required throughout adulthood. However, in Havighurst’s model, adjustment to a wide variety of life circumstances is an especially important dimension of which of the following periods of the lifespan? a. adolescence b. early adulthood c. middle adulthood d. older adulthood Answer: d Rationale: Table 12-3 lists the developmental tasks that occur at each stage of adulthood, according to Havighurst. According to this table, older adults make the most adjustments: adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health, to retirement and reduced income, and to death of spouse. 103. According to Erik Erikson, young adults typically experience the crisis of: a. integrity versus despair b. generativity versus stagnation c. trust versus mistrust d. intimacy versus isolation Answer: d Rationale: Erikson's theory of psychosocial development suggests that the crisis faced by young adults is that of intimacy versus isolation, where individuals seek to form meaningful relationships while grappling with feelings of loneliness and social isolation. 104. Camilla has established a mutually satisfactory close relationship with Herb. This couple has achieved what Erik Erikson called: a. intimacy b. generativity c. integrity d. industry Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, intimacy involves establishing a mutually satisfying, close relationship with another person. 105. Lindsay spends a good share of time daydreaming about her ideal mate and how she plans to become a wonderful spouse to that person. According to Erikson’s view of development, her thoughts best reflect the developmental task of: a. autonomy b. trust c. intimacy d. identity Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, intimacy involves establishing a mutually satisfying, close relationship with another person. 106. Jack is 60 years old, has never married, and consequently feels like he “missed out” on the most important thing in life – to fall in love and be in love with another person. According to Erikson’s view of adult development, Jack is experiencing a sense of: a. existential loneliness b. isolation c. mistrust of emotions d. stagnation Answer: b Rationale: As noted in the text, isolation involves the inability or failure to achieve mutuality, sometimes because the individual’s identity is too weak to risk a close union with another person. 107. According to the text, the young adult’s development of intimacy depends most importantly on the previous development of: a. integrity b. trust c. initiative d. identity Answer: d Rationale: The development of intimacy in young adulthood relies heavily on the prior establishment of a coherent sense of identity. Without a clear understanding of oneself, it can be challenging to form deep and meaningful connections with others. 108. Sally is 60 years old. Looking back at her life, she feels that she has accomplished the things that were important to her and she sees her life as being unified and whole. Using Levinson’s term, you would conclude that she has successfully developed: a. identity b. a life structure c. intimacy d. autonomy Answer: b Rationale: According to the text, Levinson’s term life structure refers to the overall pattern that underlies and unifies a person’s life. 109. According to the view of Daniel Levinson, the life structure develops out of which of the following processes? a. taking on and resolving the tasks of life b. growing older physically and mentally c. forming an intimate relationship with a person who loves you d. raising children and helping them become successful adults Answer: a Rationale: Growing older, forming an intimate relationship, and raising children can be part of developing a life structure, but the formation of a life structure includes resolving all of the tasks of life, which vary somewhat from one stage in the lifespan to the next. 110. To achieve complete entry into adulthood, Levinson believes that the young man must master all of the following development tasks EXCEPT: a. finding a mentor b. developing a career c. establishing intimacy d. becoming a parent Answer: d Rationale: Levinson's theory of adult development suggests that becoming a parent is not a necessary task for achieving complete entry into adulthood. While it may be a common milestone for many individuals, it is not universally essential for the transition to adulthood. 111. In Levinson's seasons of a man's life, the era of early adulthood extends from ages: a. 17 to 33-35 b. 17 to 40-45 c. 21 to 25-30 d. 25 to 45-50 Answer: b Rationale: According to Levinson's theory, early adulthood spans from approximately ages 17 to 40-45, marking a period of exploration, establishment of career and relationships, and consolidation of adult identity. 112. According to Levinson’s original research, women were less likely to have mentors for their career because: a. they have difficulty in listening to how another person believes they should live their lives b. they believe that they must achieve career success unaided c. they choose careers where mentoring is not necessary d. there are few female mentors available Answer: d Rationale: The text notes that at the time of Levinson’s original work—the 1980s—fewer accomplished female mentors were available in the workforce. 113. According to research on the way women progress through Levinson’s stages of the life cycle, it appears women’s transitions may depend more on _____________ than on their age. a. their stage in the family life cycle b. their physical attractiveness c. the income group to which they and their family belong d. their sexual orientation Answer: a Rationale: Levinson's stages of the life cycle theory suggests that individuals go through distinct stages of development, with each stage characterized by specific tasks and transitions. Women's transitions, according to this theory, are more closely tied to their stage in the family life cycle rather than their chronological age. This is because family life cycle stages, such as marriage, parenthood, and empty nest, often dictate the major life transitions and roles that women experience. 114. Generalizing from the text, normative models of human development such as Levinson’s theory would be expected to provide the LEAST accurate explanations of women’s development and behavior during which of the following decades? a. 1930s b. 1950s c. 1980s d. 2000s Answer: c Rationale: Normative models have difficulty keeping pace when cultural events are in rapid and dramatic transition. For women, the decades of the 1970s and 1980s were particularly in transition, reflecting the dramatic changes in expectations and opportunities brought on by the women’s movement. Thus, compared to the other periods noted in this question, when women’s roles were less in a state of flux, the decade of the 1980s would likely pose the greatest challenge for normative models. 115. The central focus of Roger Gould’s model of transformations of adulthood is: a. career development b. family transitions c. love relationships d. cognitive development Answer: d Rationale: Roger Gould's model of transformations of adulthood focuses primarily on cognitive development. It emphasizes the psychological changes and shifts in perspectives that individuals undergo as they progress through different stages of adulthood, rather than focusing on external factors such as career, family, or relationships. 116. Jonathon tells his best friend: “I’m going to accept a job offer from a start-up technology company, but if that doesn’t work out, I’m sure my parents will bail me out and I can always join the family business.” Generalizing from Gould’s theory, if Jonathon is typical for people his age, he is most likely about: a. age 18 b. age 25 c. age 36 d. age 48 Answer: b Rationale: According to Gould, between the ages of 22 and 28, young adults often make a false assumption that reflects their continuing doubts about self-sufficiency: “Doing things my parents’ way, with willpower and perseverance, will bring results. But if I become too frustrated, confused, or tired, or am simply unable to cope, they will step in and show me the right way.” 117. Martha says, “I know who I am, I know where I’m going, and I know how to get there.” According to Gould, her view is most clearly reflective the false assumption reflected by people in which of the following age categories? a. ages 16-18 b. ages 18-22 c. ages 22-28 d. ages 28-34 Answer: d Rationale: According to Gould, during the period spanning ages 28-34, the major false assumption is: “Life is simple and controllable. There are no significant coexisting contradictory forces within me.” 118. Although Jennifer has become a well-respected partner in her public relations firm, recently she has been having doubts that she will not be successful enough, and not accomplish enough in her career to satisfy her need to be successful. According to Gould’s view of adult development, your best guess would be that Jennifer is about how old? a. about 24 years old b. about 28 years old c. about 38 years old d. about 58 years old Answer: c Rationale: According to Gould, during the period spanning ages 35-45, individuals are fully involved in the adult world, but experience time pressure and they fear that they will not accomplish all of their goals. Changing Perspectives: History, Culture, and the Information Age 119. According to the text, in comparison with earlier times, the death of a child today is _________ traumatic because ____________. a. more; so many fewer children die in childhood b. less; so many fewer children die in childhood c. more; so many more children die in childhood d. less; families typically have many fewer children Answer: a Rationale: The death of a child today is considered more traumatic compared to earlier times because there are far fewer occurrences of children dying in childhood. Advances in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition have significantly reduced child mortality rates, making the loss of a child a rarer and more emotionally devastating event for families. 120. In Germany in 1600, about ____ of children died before they reached adulthood; in the U.S. today this percentage is about _____. a. 33%; 3% b. 10%; 1% c. 80%; 15% d. 50%; 1% Answer: d Rationale: In Germany in 1600, approximately 50% of children died before reaching adulthood, reflecting the harsh living conditions and lack of medical advancements during that time period. In contrast, in the U.S. today, the percentage of children who die before reaching adulthood is around 1%, indicating significant improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and overall living standards. 121. According to the work of Dinesh Sharma, the most important social change in contemporary world society is: a. the rapid increase in the world’s population b. the escalation of the religious conflicts in the world c. the development of the Internet and the information age d. the failure of the traditional religions of the world to attract new members Answer: c Rationale: Dinesh Sharma, a contemporary scholar of rapid social change in India, has been studying the impact of the new technologies on the cognitive development of children, on the functioning of families, and on cultural patterns in a more general sense. Sharma suggests that we are at the cusp of a new digitally connected world, which is giving rise to a radically different interactive culture. Current Issues: The Changing Face of HIV/AIDS 122. About how many new cases of AIDS were diagnosed in the United States in 2010? a. about 1,000 b. about 33,000 c. about 100,000 d. about 238,000 Answer: b Rationale: In 2010, approximately 33,000 new cases of AIDS were diagnosed in the United States. This figure highlights the ongoing prevalence of HIV/AIDS as a public health concern, necessitating continued efforts in prevention, education, and treatment. 123. According to statistics presented in the text, which subgroup in the U.S. population currently is being hardest hit by increasing rates of HIV/AIDS infection? a. White women b. White men c. African American women d. Hispanic American women Answer: c Rationale: Statistics indicate that African American women currently face the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection within the U.S. population. This subgroup experiences disproportionate rates of HIV transmission, reflecting underlying socioeconomic and healthcare disparities. 124. In which of the following regions of the world is the rate of HIV/AIDS infection currently the highest? a. China and Southeast Asia b. South America c. the United States d. Sub-Saharan Africa Answer: d Rationale: Sub-Saharan Africa is the region of the world where the rate of HIV/AIDS infection is currently the highest. This region has been heavily impacted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, with widespread prevalence and significant public health challenges related to prevention, treatment, and care. 125. According to the text, if you were a volunteer working with an AIDS population in Africa today, you would need to raise about how many dollars to pay for one patient’s antiretroviral therapy for a year? a. about $10,000 b. about $3,000 c. about $300 d. about $13 Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, a year’s supply of antiretroviral drugs can now be obtained at the cost of between $80 and $660 per patient. True-False questions: Perspectives on Adult Development 126. The events that define the entry and exit of developmental periods during childhood and adolescence are less defined by culture and more defined by maturation than are the developmental periods during adulthood. Answer: True Rationale: During childhood and adolescence, developmental milestones such as puberty onset or school transitions are largely driven by biological maturation and less influenced by cultural factors. In contrast, adulthood is marked by a greater diversity of experiences and transitions, including career changes, marriage, and parenthood, which are often shaped by cultural norms and individual choices. 127. Retirement at age 65 would be a good example of a normative event. Answer: True Rationale: Retirement at age 65 aligns with societal norms and expectations regarding the typical age at which individuals cease full-time employment. It is considered a normative event because it follows a culturally established pattern and represents a shared experience for many individuals as they reach a certain age. 128. Idiosyncratic events often create considerable stress and a need for reorganization in one’s life. Answer: True Rationale: Idiosyncratic events are unique, unexpected occurrences that disrupt the normal course of life, such as sudden illness, divorce, or job loss. These events can generate significant stress and necessitate adaptive responses and reorganization of one's life to cope with the challenges they present. 129. The period of middle adulthood typically extends from age 30 to age 50. Answer: False Rationale: Early adulthood extends from age 20-40, and middle adulthood extends from age 40-60 or 65. 130. Age clocks let us know whether our development is proceeding too quickly or too slowly. Answer: True Rationale: Age clocks, such as biological age, psychological age, and social age, provide indicators of an individual's developmental progress relative to their chronological age. Discrepancies between chronological age and other age measures can signal whether development is proceeding faster or slower than expected, prompting adjustments or interventions as needed. 131. Although Luke and Connor are both 30 years old, Luke is married, has two children, and is progressing in his career, whereas Connor is still in graduate school, has never had time for a serious romantic relationship, and doesn’t yet know what he wants to accomplish in his professional life. The concept that best describes the differences between these men is psychological age. Answer: False Rationale: Psychological age refers to an individual’s current ability to cope with and adapt to social and environmental demands, which both of these young men appear to be handling, albeit in different ways. The differences between Luke and Connor are better addressed by considering their social ages, which reflects their status as compared with cultural norms. General Physical Development 132. The decline in physical strength and biological functions that occurs between the ages of 20 and 40 is significant and is noticeable by all but the most highly trained athletes. Answer: False Rationale: Although there is a slight decline in strength and biological functions during this period, the decline is slight enough and gradual enough that most people do not notice any decline at all. The exception would be trained athletes, whose peak performance generally occurs in the early to mid-20s. 133. The early adult years are likely to be the time of adulthood in which use of drugs and alcohol is highest. Answer: True Rationale: Early adulthood is a period characterized by exploration, experimentation, and increased independence, which may contribute to higher rates of drug and alcohol use compared to other stages of adulthood. Factors such as peer influence, social norms, and stressors associated with transitioning into adulthood can also contribute to substance use during this period. 134. Professional baseball players usually hit their peak performance at younger ages than professional tennis players. Answer: False Rationale: Professional tennis players usually hit their peak performance in their early 20s; baseball players usually hit their peak around age 27-30, although the great players may peak even later than that. 135. The best performance of 60-year-old marathon runners today approximately matches the best performance of 60-year-old marathon runners of a century ago. Answer: False Rationale: The text cites statistics that 60-year-old runners today can match the records set by much younger runners in the Olympics a century ago. 136. Death rates are lower for people in the young adult age group than in any other age group in the U. S. today. Answer: True Rationale: Young adulthood typically has the lowest death rates compared to other age groups in the United States. This is attributed to generally good health, fewer chronic illnesses, and lower mortality risks compared to older age groups, where age-related diseases and conditions become more prevalent. 137. The law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability is usually called the Civil Rights Act. Answer: False Rationale: The law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability is the Americans with Disabilities Act, which is often called the ADA. Sex and Sexuality 138. Women are at their peak of fertility at about age 15. Answer: False Rationale: Peak fertility for both men and women occurs in late adolescence and early adulthood. 139. A woman may have a harder time becoming pregnant after age 38, since her production of ova becomes less regular and the number of ova she produces declines after this age. Answer: True Rationale: After age 38, women experience a decline in fertility due to changes in reproductive physiology, including irregular ovulation and decreased ovarian reserve. These age-related changes can make conception more difficult and increase the likelihood of infertility, highlighting the importance of reproductive health awareness and family planning options for women as they age. 140. Partly as the result of the AIDS epidemic, young people in the U. S. today are more likely to decrease their sexual activity or use condoms when they do have sexual intercourse. Answer: True Rationale: The AIDS epidemic has led to increased awareness of the risks associated with unprotected sexual activity, resulting in greater emphasis on safe sex practices among young people in the United States. As a result, there has been a trend towards decreased sexual activity or increased condom use among this demographic to prevent the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. 141. During the decades of the 1970s, the average duration of sexual intercourse declined, although the frequency of sexual intercourse increased. Answer: False Rationale: During the 1970s, the duration of sexual intercourse increased markedly, suggesting that partners were experiencing greater enjoyment from sex. 142. There are three general patterns of sexual relations: About 80% of couples have sex two or more times a week, about 10% have sex several times a month, and about 10% have sex only a few times a year or not at all. Answer: False Rationale: According to statistics cited from a study conducted at the University of Chicago, about a third of the adults in this study engaged in each of the three patterns described in this question. 143. A study by the University of Illinois suggested that sexual satisfaction is very closely tied to having an orgasm. Answer: False Rationale: This study in fact showed that sexual satisfaction was NOT closely tied to having an orgasm. 144. Today, more than half of men and women ages 18 to 49 engage in oral sex. Answer: True Rationale: Oral sex has become a common sexual practice among adults in the United States, with surveys indicating that a majority of men and women aged 18 to 49 report engaging in oral sex. This reflects shifting sexual norms and behaviors within contemporary society. 145. Research suggests that there may be a genetic link on the X chromosome for women who have a lesbian orientation, but no such genetic factor has been identified for men. Answer: False Rationale: Research has identified a particular gene sequence on the X chromosome that may be implicated for male homosexuality, although no such link appears for female homosexuality. 146. Most researchers studying sexual preference today agree that sexual orientation is, for the most part, a choice made by men and women who would otherwise be heterosexual. Answer: False Rationale: Although there is some disagreement in the research community about the degree to which biological versus social forces are involved in homosexuality, nearly all agree that homosexuality is much more complex than simply making a choice as to be homosexual versus heterosexual. 147. Gay men and lesbian women are more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to live is urban areas and to graduate from college. Answer: True Rationale: Research has shown that gay men and lesbian women are more likely to reside in urban areas, where there tends to be greater acceptance and support for LGBTQ+ communities. Additionally, studies have indicated that gay men and lesbian women are more likely to pursue higher education and attain college degrees compared to their heterosexual counterparts, reflecting resilience and striving for social acceptance and equality. 148. Homophobia is not a true phobia. Answer: True Rationale: Homophobia is not a true phobia in the clinical sense because it does not involve an irrational fear or anxiety response towards homosexuality. Instead, it typically manifests as prejudice, discrimination, or hostility towards individuals who are homosexual or perceived to be homosexual. Cognitive Development in Adulthood 149. Jean Piaget proposed that the last stage of cognitive development, formal operational thought, was followed by at least three more stages of more advanced thinking, although he did not describe these stages in detail. Answer: False Rationale: According to Piaget, cognitive development was complete when the stage of formal operational thought was reached, at around age 12 for most people. 150. Dialectical thought occurs when people who have mastered formal operational thought regress back to using thought more characteristic of the period of concrete operations. Answer: False Rationale: Dialectical thought is more complex than formal operational thought and it involves the ability to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations. This is not consistent with concrete operational thinking. 151. When a person is capable of weighing both the cognitive and emotional aspects of a situation, this style of thought is called postformal thought. Answer: True Rationale: Postformal thought involves the ability to integrate both cognitive and emotional aspects when addressing complex or ambiguous situations. It goes beyond formal operational thinking, which is primarily logical and abstract, to incorporate emotional understanding and context into problem-solving. 152. Critics of Goleman’s concept of emotional intelligence note that it may simply be a different word to describe personality and cognitive traits that others have studied previously. Answer: True Rationale: Some critics argue that the concept of emotional intelligence, as proposed by Goleman, may overlap with existing constructs such as personality traits and general intelligence. They suggest that emotional intelligence may not represent a distinct or novel aspect of human functioning but rather a reiteration of traits already recognized in psychology. 153. According to Schaie’s view of adult development, young adults first enter a period of social responsibility, in which they learn to behave like adults, and then they enter a period called acquisition, in which they develop a set of career and life goals. Answer: False Rationale: According to Schaie, young adults first enter the stage of acquisition, in which they use their intellectual abilities to pursue a career and choose a lifestyle. Later, individuals who successful establish themselves enter a period called social responsibility, in which they solve problems for others in the family and the community. Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development 154. Context models focus attention on the specific experiences that shape each individual’s life, whereas stage models focus on how adults move through life in similar patterns. Answer: True Rationale: Context models emphasize the unique life experiences and circumstances that shape an individual's development, recognizing that individuals may follow different trajectories based on their environment and personal history. In contrast, stage models propose universal stages of development through which individuals progress in a fixed sequence, regardless of their specific context. 155. The primary developmental tasks of early adulthood according to Havighurst are to establish a family and find a career. Answer: True Rationale: According to Robert Havighurst's developmental tasks theory, establishing a family and finding a career are primary developmental tasks of early adulthood. These tasks typically occur between the ages of 20 and 40 and represent key milestones in achieving adult roles and responsibilities. 156. Erik Erikson saw the central developmental conflict of early adulthood to be one of identity versus confusion. Answer: False Rationale: For Erikson, the developmental crisis of early adulthood centers on intimacy versus isolation. The identity conflict is associated with adolescence. 157. According to Levinson, women follow much the same developmental trajectory as men do. Answer: True Rationale: Daniel Levinson's theory of adult development suggests that men and women follow similar developmental trajectories, although their life structures and experiences may differ due to gender roles and societal expectations. Levinson proposed that both men and women go through similar stages of adulthood, such as early adulthood, midlife transition, and late adulthood. 158. Gould conceptualized the period of adulthood as one in which individuals need to challenge and resolve a series of “false assumptions,” such as “I’ll always belong to my parents and believe in their world.” Answer: True Rationale: According to Howard Gardner's theory of adult development proposed by Gould, individuals in adulthood need to confront and challenge false assumptions or beliefs they may have held since childhood. This process of reassessment and growth involves moving beyond childhood beliefs and developing a more nuanced understanding of oneself and the world. 159. Compared to the theories proposed by Levinson and Erikson, the theory advanced by Gould is much more social in focus. Answer: False Rationale: Gould’s theory is primarily cognitive in focus, whereas Levinson focused more on social roles including career choice and Erikson focused on psychosocial changes. 160. Gould considered growth in adulthood to be the process of casting off false assumptions. Answer: True Rationale: Howard Gardner's theory of adult development, as articulated by Gould, emphasizes that growth in adulthood involves shedding false assumptions or beliefs acquired during childhood and adolescence. This process of reassessment and cognitive maturation allows individuals to develop a more sophisticated understanding of themselves and their place in the world. 161. One criticism of stage theories is that they tend to overvalue the role of multiple contexts. Answer: False Rationale: Stage theories are often criticized because they undervalue the role of multiple contexts. Short Answer questions: Perspectives on Adult Development 162. Explain the difference between normative and idiosyncratic events. Provide examples of each. Answer: Normative events are typical life events that occur at predictable times and are shared by most individuals within a particular culture or society. Examples include graduating from high school, getting married, or retiring at a certain age. In contrast, idiosyncratic events are unique, unexpected occurrences that deviate from the norm and are specific to an individual's life circumstances. Examples of idiosyncratic events may include experiencing a sudden illness, winning the lottery, or encountering a significant career opportunity. 163. Define the concept of age clock and give an example for how an adult might consider an age clock in determining whether or not to get married or to start a family. Answer: An age clock refers to an individual's subjective perception of their age or developmental stage relative to their chronological age. It encompasses factors such as biological age, psychological age, and social age, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and make life decisions. For example, an adult might consider their biological age when deciding whether to get married or start a family, taking into account factors such as fertility decline with age and overall health status. If an individual perceives their biological age as advancing, they may feel pressured to make decisions regarding family planning sooner rather than later. 164. Give an example of two people who are of the same chronological age but of different biological ages. Answer: Two people of the same chronological age can have different biological ages based on various factors influencing their health and physiological functioning. For instance, consider two individuals both aged 60. One person may have maintained a healthy lifestyle, engaged in regular exercise, and had access to quality healthcare throughout their life, resulting in a biological age that aligns closely with their chronological age. In contrast, the other person may have experienced chronic health conditions, engaged in unhealthy behaviors such as smoking or excessive drinking, and lacked access to adequate healthcare, leading to an accelerated biological aging process. Despite being the same age on paper, these individuals may exhibit differences in physical appearance, vitality, and overall health due to their distinct biological ages. 165. Identify the key idea that makes a contextual paradigm different from a specific theory, such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Answer: The key idea that distinguishes a contextual paradigm from a specific theory like Piaget's theory of cognitive development is that a paradigm provides a broader framework or perspective within which multiple theories can exist and be understood. A contextual paradigm emphasizes the importance of understanding human development within the context of diverse factors, such as culture, social environment, historical context, and individual experiences. In contrast, a specific theory, such as Piaget's theory, focuses on explaining specific aspects of development, such as cognitive processes and stages, within a narrower scope. While theories offer explanations for particular phenomena, paradigms offer overarching perspectives that shape how theories are formulated, interpreted, and applied in understanding human development. General Physical Development 166. How would you describe the physical decline that occurs between the ages of 20 and 40 for most people? When would this decline most likely be noticed? Answer: The physical decline between the ages of 20 and 40 is generally characterized by a gradual decrease in physical fitness, muscle strength, and metabolic efficiency. This decline may be noticed in various ways, such as reduced stamina, slower recovery from physical exertion, and changes in body composition. While individuals may still maintain overall health and vitality during this period, they may begin to notice subtle signs of aging, particularly in comparison to their youthful peak. 167. Describe how early adulthood can be thought of as a contradictory period in terms of how healthy this period is for typical adults. In what ways are young adults healthy, and in what ways are they not healthy? Answer: Early adulthood can be viewed as a contradictory period in terms of health for typical adults. On one hand, young adults often enjoy good physical health, high energy levels, and fewer chronic health conditions compared to older age groups. They are generally in the prime of their physical capabilities and may engage in healthy behaviors such as regular exercise and balanced nutrition. However, early adulthood is also a time of increased risk-taking behaviors, such as substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices, and unhealthy diet habits, which can undermine overall health and well-being. 168. The text describes the race times in the marathon achieved by runners in the 1896 Olympics and today. How do the times of adults today compare to those of 100 years ago? Answer: Compared to 100 years ago, race times in the marathon achieved by runners today are significantly faster. Advances in training techniques, nutrition, equipment, and overall athleticism have led to considerable improvements in marathon performance. Today's elite marathon runners routinely achieve times that would have been considered exceptional or even impossible a century ago, reflecting the continuous evolution of athletic ability and human performance. 169. Identify the three leading preventable causes of death for young adults. What behavioral changes and social changes could prevent such deaths? Answer: The three leading preventable causes of death for young adults are typically accidents (including motor vehicle accidents), substance abuse (including drug overdoses and alcohol-related incidents), and violence (including homicides and suicides). Behavioral changes such as practicing safe driving habits, avoiding substance misuse, and resolving conflicts peacefully can help prevent accidents, substance abuse-related deaths, and violent incidents. Social changes such as implementing stricter regulations on alcohol and drug use, improving access to mental health resources, and promoting conflict resolution and violence prevention programs can also contribute to reducing these preventable deaths. 170. What are employers expected to do if they have a worker who becomes disabled? Answer: If an employer has a worker who becomes disabled, they are generally expected to make reasonable accommodations to enable the disabled worker to perform their job duties. This may include modifying the work environment, providing assistive technology, adjusting work schedules, or offering alternative job assignments that align with the worker's abilities and limitations. Employers are also encouraged to comply with relevant laws and regulations, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which prohibit discrimination against individuals with disabilities and mandate equal opportunities in employment. Sex and Sexuality 171. Describe how a man’s and a woman’s fertility changes between the ages of 20 and 60. Answer: Fertility for both men and women undergoes significant changes between the ages of 20 and 60. In men, fertility typically remains relatively stable during this period, with a gradual decline starting around age 40. However, advanced paternal age (over 45) is associated with a slightly increased risk of infertility and certain genetic abnormalities in offspring. For women, fertility begins to decline more noticeably after the age of 35, with a significant decrease in both quantity and quality of eggs. By age 40, fertility decreases further, and by age 50, natural conception becomes extremely rare due to menopause. Overall, both men and women experience declining fertility with age, but the decline is generally more pronounced and occurs earlier for women. 172. What steps might a 40-year-old woman take if she were no longer ovulating regularly and she wanted to become pregnant? Answer: If a 40-year-old woman is experiencing irregular ovulation and desires to conceive, she may consider several options. Firstly, she could consult a fertility specialist to explore assisted reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), which involves fertilizing eggs with sperm outside the body and then transferring the resulting embryos into the uterus. Additionally, she might undergo fertility treatments such as hormone therapy to stimulate ovulation or intrauterine insemination (IUI), where sperm is directly inserted into the uterus during ovulation. Adoption or using donor eggs could also be considered as alternative paths to parenthood. 173. Describe two ways that the AIDS epidemic has likely affected the sexual behavior of adults in the United States today. Answer: The AIDS epidemic has had significant impacts on the sexual behavior of adults in the United States. Firstly, it has led to increased awareness and emphasis on safer sex practices, such as consistent condom use and regular testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and other diseases. Secondly, the fear of contracting HIV/AIDS has prompted changes in sexual norms and behaviors, including a shift towards monogamy or fewer sexual partners, as well as greater caution and communication regarding sexual health and history between partners. Additionally, the AIDS epidemic has spurred educational campaigns and initiatives aimed at promoting sexual health and reducing risky behaviors. 174. Describe two ways in which sexual attitudes and behaviors changed as the result of the “sexual revolution” that took place in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. Answer: The sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s brought about significant shifts in sexual attitudes and behaviors in the United States. Firstly, there was a greater acceptance and normalization of premarital sex, as societal taboos and stigmas surrounding sexual activity outside of marriage began to diminish. This led to increased experimentation with sexual practices and behaviors among young adults. Secondly, there was a greater emphasis on sexual freedom and autonomy, particularly for women, who gained more control over their reproductive health through access to contraception such as the birth control pill. This empowered women to make choices about their sexual lives and pursue sexual pleasure without the fear of unwanted pregnancy. Additionally, the sexual revolution fostered discussions and activism around issues of sexual identity, LGBTQ+ rights, and sexual liberation, paving the way for greater acceptance and visibility of diverse sexual orientations and lifestyles. 175. Explain the difference among the terms lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered. Answer: Lesbian refers to a woman who is emotionally, romantically, or sexually attracted to other women. Gay typically refers to a man who is attracted to other men, though it can be used more broadly to encompass all individuals attracted to the same gender. Bisexual refers to individuals who are attracted to both men and women. Transgendered individuals are those whose gender identity does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. It's important to note that these terms refer to different aspects of sexual orientation and gender identity. 176. Define the term “homophobia” and comment on whether or not homophobia is more like a phobia or more like a prejudice. Answer: Homophobia is the prejudice, fear, or aversion held by individuals directed against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. While the term includes "phobia," indicating fear, it's more accurately described as a prejudice. Unlike clinical phobias, which typically involve irrational fears, homophobia arises from societal attitudes, stereotypes, and discriminatory beliefs rather than an irrational fear. 177. What evidence exists to support the view that U.S. society is becoming more tolerant regarding sexual orientation? Cite two different arguments. Answer: One argument supporting increased tolerance in U.S. society regarding sexual orientation is the legalization of same-sex marriage nationwide. This landmark decision by the Supreme Court in 2015 reflects a shift towards recognizing and accepting diverse forms of relationships. Another piece of evidence is the increasing visibility and representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in media, politics, and other public spheres. This heightened representation helps challenge stereotypes and fosters greater understanding and acceptance of different sexual orientations and gender identities within society. Cognitive Development in Adulthood 178. Describe the results of a study reported in the text in which students at Harvard and Radcliffe were studied during their college years. How did the thought processes that characterized individuals during their freshman year differ from thinking that was typical at the end of college? Answer: The study reported in the text followed students at Harvard and Radcliffe during their college years. It found that there was a significant shift in thought processes from freshman year to the end of college. Initially, students tended to think in more concrete, black-and-white terms, but by the end of college, they demonstrated more complex and nuanced thinking, often characterized by a greater appreciation for ambiguity and multiple perspectives. 179. Define the term “dialectical” thought and give an example of it. Answer: Dialectical thought refers to the ability to consider and reconcile opposing viewpoints or contradictory information. An example of dialectical thought is when an individual can understand and appreciate both the benefits and drawbacks of a particular decision or argument without automatically favoring one side over the other. For instance, someone practicing dialectical thought might acknowledge the importance of both personal freedom and social responsibility in discussions about government policies. 180. How does postformal thought differ from the formal operations thought described by Jean Piaget? Answer: Postformal thought differs from the formal operations thought described by Jean Piaget in several ways. While formal operations thought focuses on logical reasoning and problem-solving within a fixed set of rules, postformal thought acknowledges the complexity and ambiguity of real-life situations. Postformal thought is characterized by greater flexibility, the ability to consider multiple perspectives, and an understanding that some problems may not have clear-cut solutions. Additionally, postformal thought often involves integrating emotions and practical considerations into decision-making processes, whereas formal operations thought tends to prioritize abstract reasoning and logical consistency. 181. What is emotional intelligence and how does it differ from the cognitive abilities we normally think of when we consider the concept of intelligence? Answer: Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and express emotions effectively in oneself and others. It encompasses skills such as empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, and social skills. Unlike traditional cognitive abilities associated with intelligence, such as problem-solving and logical reasoning, emotional intelligence focuses on the interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of human interaction. 182. What are “executive functions,” as envisioned by Warner Schaie? Are executive functions related only to work environments, or do they impact social and emotional relationships as well? Answer: "Executive functions," as conceptualized by Warner Schaie, refer to cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, execute tasks, and regulate behavior effectively. These functions include abilities such as attentional control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. While executive functions are crucial in work environments for tasks such as decision-making and problem-solving, they also play a significant role in social and emotional relationships by facilitating impulse control, empathy, and conflict resolution. 183. Explain the difference between Schaie’s executive period and legacy period. Answer: Schaie's executive period refers to a stage in adulthood characterized by the peak development of executive functions, typically occurring in middle adulthood. During this period, individuals demonstrate high levels of cognitive efficiency and effectiveness in managing complex tasks. In contrast, the legacy period, which occurs later in life, involves the transfer of accumulated knowledge and wisdom to younger generations. It marks a shift from actively engaging in executive tasks to focusing on mentoring, advising, and leaving a lasting impact through the transmission of experience and knowledge. Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development 184. Describe two ways that a context model of adult development is different from a stage model. Answer: In a context model of adult development, individuals are viewed as constantly evolving within the context of their environment, relationships, and experiences. This model emphasizes the importance of socio-cultural influences, life events, and personal choices in shaping development. In contrast, a stage model suggests that individuals progress through distinct, universal stages of development, characterized by specific tasks and challenges. Unlike the stage model, the context model recognizes the variability and complexity of adult development, acknowledging that individuals may navigate through different pathways and trajectories based on their unique circumstances. 185. What are the major tasks associated with each of the three stages of adult development identified by Havighurst: early adulthood, middle adulthood, and older adulthood? Answer: According to Robert Havighurst, early adulthood is marked by several major tasks, including establishing independence, selecting a career, finding a partner, and starting a family. In middle adulthood, individuals focus on advancing their careers, contributing to society, and maintaining stable relationships while also dealing with the challenges of aging parents and potential health issues. Finally, in older adulthood, the major tasks revolve around adapting to retirement, finding meaningful activities, maintaining social connections, and coping with declining physical abilities and potential loss of loved ones. 186. Describe what Erikson meant when he described the fundamental developmental task of early adulthood as one of “intimacy versus isolation.” Answer: Erik Erikson proposed that the primary psychosocial challenge of early adulthood is the conflict between intimacy and isolation. During this stage, individuals seek to establish intimate relationships with others while maintaining a sense of identity and independence. Intimacy involves forming close, meaningful connections with friends, romantic partners, and family members, fostering trust, and sharing emotions. Failure to achieve intimacy may result in feelings of loneliness, isolation, and a lack of emotional fulfillment. Erikson viewed successful resolution of this conflict as essential for healthy psychological development and the ability to form lasting, satisfying relationships. 187. According to Levinson, what is a “life structure” and how does it develop during adulthood? Answer: A "life structure," as described by Levinson, refers to the underlying pattern or organization of a person's life, encompassing roles, relationships, and commitments. It develops during adulthood through a series of transitions and adaptations in response to life events, such as career changes, marriage, and parenthood. 188. According to Levinson, how is a woman’s development in early adulthood likely to be similar to that of a man’s? How is a woman’s development likely to be different? Answer: According to Levinson, both men and women experience similar developmental tasks and transitions in early adulthood, such as establishing careers and forming intimate relationships. However, women's development may be different due to societal expectations and roles related to family and career, leading to distinct challenges and priorities. 189. List an advantage and a disadvantage associated with normative models of adult development. Answer: Advantage: Normative models provide a framework for understanding common developmental trajectories and milestones, offering insights into typical patterns of growth and adjustment. Disadvantage: Normative models may overlook individual variations and diverse life experiences, failing to account for the unique circumstances and challenges faced by different individuals. 190. Describe the “false assumptions” that typify early and middle adulthood, according to the theory proposed by Roger Gould. Answer: Roger Gould proposed that individuals in early and middle adulthood often hold false assumptions about their lives, such as the belief that they have already achieved their goals or that they are no longer capable of significant personal growth. These assumptions may lead to a sense of stagnation and missed opportunities for further development. Essay questions: Perspectives on Adult Development 191. Which type of events – normative or idiosyncratic – do you think pose greater developmental challenges for young adults? Explain your answer. Answer: Normative events tend to pose greater developmental challenges for young adults compared to idiosyncratic events. Normative events are those that are common to most individuals within a particular culture or society, such as completing education, entering the workforce, or starting a family. These events often come with societal expectations and norms, which can create pressure and stress for young adults to conform to these expected milestones within a certain timeframe. On the other hand, idiosyncratic events are unique to the individual and may not carry the same societal pressures. While they can still be challenging, normative events tend to have a more significant impact on young adults' development due to their widespread cultural significance and the expectations associated with them. 192. Explain why there would likely be more variation in age clocks for people of the same age living in complex, transitional societies than for those who live in simpler and more predictable environments. Answer: In complex, transitional societies, there are often diverse paths and opportunities available to individuals, leading to greater variation in experiences and life trajectories. Factors such as rapid technological advancements, globalization, and cultural shifts contribute to this complexity. Consequently, individuals in such societies may experience various life events and transitions at different times and in different sequences. This diversity in experiences can lead to differences in individuals' perceived age clocks, as their life experiences shape their sense of time and progression. In contrast, simpler and more predictable environments often have more uniform social structures and fewer opportunities for diverse experiences, resulting in less variation in individuals' age clocks. 193. Are adults who were born in the same year always of the same age? Include in your answer a discussion of chronological age, biological age, social age, and psychological age. Answer: No, adults who were born in the same year are not always of the same age when considering different dimensions of age. Chronological age refers to the number of years since an individual's birth and is the most commonly recognized form of age measurement. However, biological age considers an individual's physical health and functional capabilities, which can vary significantly among people of the same chronological age due to factors such as genetics, lifestyle, and health care access. Social age relates to an individual's roles, behaviors, and expectations within society, which are influenced by cultural norms and societal standards. Therefore, individuals of the same chronological age may have different social ages depending on their life experiences, achievements, and societal roles. Psychological age reflects an individual's cognitive, emotional, and psychological maturity, which can differ based on personality traits, life experiences, and developmental factors. Overall, while individuals born in the same year share the same chronological age, they may vary in biological, social, and psychological age due to the diverse array of factors that influence human development and experiences throughout the lifespan. 194. Would contextual paradigms have an easier time explaining normative or idiosyncratic events? Explain your answer, being sure to define each of these terms. Answer: Contextual paradigms would have an easier time explaining normative events compared to idiosyncratic events. Normative events refer to common life experiences or transitions that are typical for most individuals, such as marriage or career advancement. These events are influenced by societal norms and cultural expectations, making them easier to analyze within a contextual framework. Idiosyncratic events, on the other hand, are unique and unpredictable occurrences that may have deeply personal significance but are not necessarily shared by others. They are more challenging to explain within a contextual paradigm due to their individualized nature and lack of commonality among different individuals. General Physical Development 195. In recent decades, have young adults in the United States become more or less physically fit? Cite evidence to support your answer. Answer: In recent decades, there has been a concerning trend indicating that young adults in the United States have become less physically fit. One significant piece of evidence comes from a study published in JAMA Network Open in 2019, which analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999 to 2016. The study found that cardiorespiratory fitness levels among youths have declined significantly across the board, with a particularly steep decline among males. This decline in fitness levels is attributed to various factors, including sedentary lifestyles, increased screen time, and poor dietary habits. 196. How has the general health of U.S. adults changed over the last 100 years? Are adults healthier now, or were they healthier 100 years ago? Cite research statistics to support your answer. Answer: Over the last 100 years, there have been significant improvements in the general health of U.S. adults. Research statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicate that life expectancy has increased steadily over the past century, from around 54 years in 1920 to over 78 years in recent years. Additionally, advancements in medical science, improved sanitation, better nutrition, and public health initiatives have contributed to reduced mortality rates from infectious diseases and other health conditions. Overall, adults are healthier now compared to 100 years ago, as evidenced by these improvements in life expectancy and reductions in mortality rates. 197. Suggest two reasons why it is critical to have good exercise and eating habits as young adults, when the body is relatively resilient against injury and disease. Answer: 1. Establishing good exercise and eating habits during young adulthood sets the foundation for lifelong health and wellness. Research indicates that habits formed during this period are likely to persist into later stages of life. Therefore, adopting healthy behaviors early on can significantly reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease later in life. 2. Young adulthood is a critical period for physical development and growth. Engaging in regular exercise and consuming a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients ensures proper development of muscles, bones, and organs. Moreover, maintaining a healthy weight during this stage can help prevent issues such as osteoporosis and muscle degeneration in later years. Overall, cultivating good exercise and eating habits during young adulthood not only promotes immediate health benefits but also lays the groundwork for a healthier and more fulfilling life in the long term. 198. What is the primary purpose of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)? What are two major accomplishments this Act has provided with respect to improving the lives of people with disabilities? Answer: The primary purpose of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is to ensure equal rights and opportunities for people with disabilities in various aspects of life, including employment, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications. Two major accomplishments of the ADA are: 1. Accessibility: The ADA has mandated accessibility standards for buildings, transportation, and communication, making public spaces more accessible to people with disabilities. 2. Anti-discrimination: The ADA prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, ensuring they have equal opportunities for hiring, promotions, and workplace accommodations. Sex and Sexuality 199. Describe the changes in fertility that a man and a woman should expect as they move through adulthood, from age 20 to age 80. Answer: As individuals age from 20 to 80: • Men: Fertility tends to gradually decline after the age of 40 due to a decrease in sperm count and quality, although men can remain fertile well into older age. • Women: Fertility declines more significantly with age, especially after the age of 35. This decline is primarily due to a decrease in the number and quality of eggs, leading to increased difficulty in conceiving and higher risks of complications during pregnancy. 200. Is AIDS a “gay disease”? Explain your answer to this question by describing how the AIDS epidemic started and what its current status is. Answer: AIDS is not a "gay disease." It is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and can affect anyone, regardless of sexual orientation. The AIDS epidemic started in the 1980s and initially disproportionately affected gay men due to various factors including stigma, lack of understanding, and certain behaviors that increased the risk of HIV transmission. However, HIV/AIDS is now recognized as a global pandemic affecting people of all demographics, including heterosexual individuals, injecting drug users, and children born to HIV-positive mothers. Efforts in education, prevention, and treatment have led to significant progress in managing the epidemic, although challenges such as access to healthcare and stigma persist in certain regions. 201. Describe four of the major results from the University of Chicago survey on sexual behavior among U.S. adults. Which of these four results do you believe is most contradictory to popular opinion about how U.S. adults experience sexuality? Why? Answer: Result 1: The survey found that 20% of adults aged 18 to 59 had same-sex sexual experiences. Result 2: It revealed that 8.2% of men and 7.9% of women identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Result 3: About 7% of men and 4% of women reported that they were unsure about their sexual orientation. Result 4: The research showed that same-sex attraction was more common among younger people, with nearly 10% of those aged 18 to 24 reporting same-sex sexual experiences. Among these results, the finding that 20% of adults had same-sex sexual experiences is most contradictory to popular opinion. Many might assume that same-sex experiences are far less common than this figure suggests, especially among older adults. This challenges the conventional notion that same-sex attraction or behavior is rare or limited to a small percentage of the population. 202. Describe four of the main results of the 2010 University of Indiana survey of sexuality. What do you think is the most important conclusion to draw with respect to the results of this study? Answer: Result 1: The survey found that about 7% of men and 8% of women identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Result 2: It revealed that sexual orientation was fluid for many individuals, with 13% of men and 17% of women reporting changes in their sexual orientation over a five-year period. Result 3: The research indicated that sexual satisfaction was strongly correlated with emotional intimacy and communication between partners. Result 4: It showed that individuals who engaged in casual sex often experienced negative emotional consequences, such as regret or disappointment. The most important conclusion to draw from this study is likely the fluidity of sexual orientation. The finding that a significant portion of respondents experienced changes in their sexual orientation over time challenges the notion of fixed and immutable sexual identities. It suggests that sexual orientation is more complex and dynamic than previously assumed, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of human sexuality. 203. What does it mean to suggest that sexual orientation is not an “either-or” trait but rather one that exists on a continuum? Give an example that supports this continuum view. Answer: Suggesting that sexual orientation exists on a continuum means that it's not strictly limited to binary categories of homosexual or heterosexual but rather encompasses a spectrum of attractions and behaviors. For instance, someone might identify as predominantly heterosexual but occasionally experience same-sex attractions or engage in same-sex behavior. Similarly, an individual might identify as gay but occasionally feel attracted to members of the opposite sex. An example that supports this continuum view is the Kinsey Scale, which proposes a spectrum of sexual orientations ranging from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual, with various degrees of bisexuality in between. This scale recognizes that individuals' experiences of attraction and behavior can fall anywhere along this continuum, rather than fitting neatly into discrete categories. 204. How might the continuum approach to sexual orientation help to explain incidences or periods of heterosexual behavior by a person who self-identifies as homosexual, and conversely, homosexual behavior by a person who self-identifies as heterosexual? Answer: The continuum approach to sexual orientation acknowledges that sexuality exists on a spectrum rather than being strictly binary. This perspective allows for the understanding that individuals may experience shifts or variations in their sexual behavior or attractions over time. For someone who identifies as homosexual but engages in heterosexual behavior, it could be a result of various factors such as societal pressure, personal curiosity, or fluidity in their attractions. Similarly, someone who identifies as heterosexual but engages in homosexual behavior may also be influenced by fluidity in their attractions, experimentation, or situational factors. The continuum approach provides a framework for understanding these complexities without necessitating rigid categorizations. 205. Why do some people prefer to use the term “transgendered” rather than “homosexual”? Answer: Some individuals prefer to use the term "transgendered" rather than "homosexual" because it more accurately reflects their gender identity rather than their sexual orientation. "Transgendered" refers to individuals whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth, whereas "homosexual" refers to individuals who are attracted to people of the same sex. Using "transgendered" emphasizes the aspect of gender identity, which may be more pertinent to certain individuals in describing their experiences and identities. Cognitive Development in Adulthood 206. Using the results of the study of freshmen through seniors at Harvard and Radcliffe as a source of data, describe how the thought processes of young adults change during their college years. Answer: The study of freshmen through seniors at Harvard and Radcliffe suggests that the thought processes of young adults undergo significant changes during their college years. Initially, incoming freshmen tend to exhibit more concrete and black-and-white thinking, often focused on immediate concerns and goals. However, as they progress through college, their thinking becomes more abstract and nuanced. They start to consider broader perspectives, question established beliefs, and engage in critical thinking. Additionally, exposure to diverse ideas and experiences in a college environment fosters intellectual growth and the development of more complex thought processes. By the time students reach their senior year, they typically demonstrate greater maturity in their thinking, with a capacity for deeper reflection and analysis. This progression highlights the transformative nature of the college experience on the cognitive development of young adults. 207. What is dialectical thought? Give an example of dialectical thought from your own experience. Answer: Dialectical thought refers to the ability to understand and reconcile contradictory or opposing ideas or perspectives. It involves synthesizing conflicting viewpoints to arrive at a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues. An example of dialectical thought from my own experience is when I encountered conflicting opinions from two colleagues during a team meeting. Instead of dismissing either viewpoint, I facilitated a discussion where we explored the underlying reasons for their perspectives and found common ground to reach a consensus. 208. Describe how postformal thought differs from the formal operational thinking described by Piaget. Then identify two ways that postformal thinking might help a young adult to assume the responsibilities associated with raising a family. Answer: Postformal thought differs from formal operational thinking by incorporating greater complexity, flexibility, and contextuality in problem-solving and decision-making. While formal operational thinking is characterized by abstract reasoning and logical deduction, postformal thought acknowledges the importance of subjective experiences, practical considerations, and social factors in navigating real-world challenges. Two ways that postformal thinking might help a young adult to assume the responsibilities associated with raising a family include: 1. Integrating multiple perspectives: Postformal thinkers are better equipped to consider diverse viewpoints and weigh various factors when making family-related decisions. For example, they may balance career aspirations with family priorities, taking into account financial stability, personal values, and the well-being of all family members. 2. Managing complex emotions: Postformal thinkers demonstrate higher levels of emotional intelligence, enabling them to recognize and regulate their own emotions as well as empathize with others. This skill is crucial in maintaining healthy relationships within the family, resolving conflicts constructively, and providing emotional support to family members during challenging times. 209. Define “emotional intelligence” as this term was used by Daniel Goleman. Then describe three of the four areas of emotional intelligence that Goleman identified. Answer: Emotional intelligence, as defined by Daniel Goleman, refers to the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and utilize emotions effectively in various social contexts. Goleman identified four areas of emotional intelligence: 1. Self-awareness: This involves recognizing one's own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, values, and motivations. Individuals with high self-awareness are attuned to their inner experiences and can accurately assess how their emotions influence their thoughts and behaviors. 2. Self-regulation: This refers to the ability to manage and regulate one's emotions, impulses, and reactions in adaptive ways. People with strong self-regulation can control impulses, delay gratification, and cope effectively with stressors, leading to greater emotional stability and resilience. 3. Empathy: Empathy involves understanding and experiencing the emotions of others, as well as being able to perspective-take and show compassion. Individuals with high empathy are sensitive to the feelings and needs of others, fostering positive interpersonal relationships and effective communication. These components of emotional intelligence contribute to interpersonal effectiveness, personal well-being, and overall success in various domains of life, including relationships, work, and health. 210. Warner Schaie proposed a stage-based model of adult thinking. Briefly describe Schaie’s model. Then suggest two characteristics of thought that Schaie would suggest as being typical for traditional, 18• to 22-year-old college students. Answer: Warner Schaie's model of adult thinking proposes that cognitive development continues throughout adulthood in a series of stages. Schaie identified several stages, including the acquisitive stage (early adulthood), achieving stage (middle adulthood), and responsible/executive stage (later adulthood). In the acquisitive stage, individuals focus on acquiring knowledge and skills relevant to their personal and professional lives. Two characteristics of thought typical for traditional, 18• to 22-year-old college students according to Schaie's model may include increased abstract thinking ability and exploration of different perspectives and ideologies. Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development 211. Identify two differences between stage-based models and context-based models of human development. As part of your answer, select one of the theories outlined in this chapter of the text as an example of each type of model and describe how the theory you chose exemplifies either the stage-based or context-based approach. Answer: Two differences between stage-based models and context-based models of human development include the emphasis on universal stages versus the consideration of individual experiences. Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory exemplifies a stage-based model, focusing on universal stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan. In contrast, Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory represents a context-based model, emphasizing the influence of environmental contexts, such as family, peers, and community, on individual development. 212. Which of the following theories – Schaie’s, Erikson’s, Levinson’s, or Gould’s – do you think is most similar to the view originally proposed by Robert Havighurst? What features do these theories have in common? Answer: Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory is most similar to the view originally proposed by Robert Havighurst. Both theories emphasize the concept of developmental tasks or challenges that individuals must navigate at various stages of life. Erikson's theory outlines a series of psychosocial crises that individuals encounter throughout the lifespan, while Havighurst's theory identifies specific developmental tasks that individuals should accomplish during each life stage. Additionally, both theories acknowledge the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping development and the potential for growth and adaptation across the lifespan. 213. What is the central developmental task to be resolved in early adulthood, according to Erik Erikson? How might one’s choice of a marriage partner be linked to the manner in which this task is resolved? Answer: According to Erik Erikson, the central developmental task to be resolved in early adulthood is the establishment of intimacy versus isolation. This stage involves forming close and meaningful relationships with others while maintaining a sense of individual identity. One's choice of a marriage partner can be linked to the manner in which this task is resolved because selecting a partner who fosters intimacy and mutual support can contribute to successful resolution of this stage. A healthy marriage or partnership can provide a supportive environment for personal growth and fulfillment, facilitating the development of intimacy and connection. 214. Describe the core features of a normative model of adult development. Do such models explain human behavior better during times of great, or minimal, social transition? Explain your answer. Answer: A normative model of adult development describes a typical sequence of stages or milestones that individuals are expected to pass through as they age. These stages often include tasks or challenges that are considered normative for a given age group, such as completing education, starting a career, forming intimate relationships, and becoming a parent. Such models tend to explain human behavior better during times of minimal social transition, as they are based on assumptions of stability and predictability in societal norms and expectations. During periods of great social transition, such as cultural shifts or economic upheavals, individuals may deviate from normative patterns of development, making these models less applicable or accurate in explaining behavior. 215. Outline the basic approach that Roger Gould took in explaining how adults cope with age-related transitions. Give an example of the “false assumptions” that adults typically hold in early adulthood versus late adulthood, and describe how the change in these assumptions reflects changes in the responsibilities and lifestyles that typically occur as a person moves through adulthood. Answer: Roger Gould proposed a theory of adult development focusing on age-related transitions and the psychological adjustments individuals make as they navigate these transitions. He suggested that adults experience "stage crises" during transitional periods, characterized by feelings of anxiety, self-doubt, and uncertainty about one's identity and life direction. An example of a false assumption that adults may hold in early adulthood is the belief in unlimited possibilities and opportunities for personal achievement and fulfillment. In contrast, in late adulthood, a false assumption might be the belief in inevitable decline and loss of autonomy or relevance. These changes in assumptions reflect shifts in responsibilities and lifestyles that typically occur as individuals move through adulthood. Early adults often face the challenge of balancing aspirations with realistic constraints, while older adults may grapple with adjusting to changing physical abilities and societal attitudes toward aging. 216. Explain three limitations that stage-based models of human development have. Given these limitations, why do you think it is that stage-based models have often been used to explain the changes that occur during adult development? Answer: Stage-based models of human development have several limitations: 1. Oversimplification: Stage-based models often oversimplify the complexity of human development by categorizing individuals into discrete stages with clear boundaries. In reality, development is a continuous and multifaceted process influenced by various factors, including genetics, environment, and individual experiences. This oversimplification fails to capture the diversity and variability of developmental pathways. 2. Universality assumption: Stage-based models typically assume that developmental stages unfold in a universal sequence and are experienced similarly across individuals and cultures. However, this assumption overlooks cultural variations in norms, values, and social expectations, as well as individual differences in temperament, personality, and life circumstances. Consequently, stage-based models may not adequately account for the diversity of human development. 3. Lack of flexibility: Stage-based models imply a fixed and linear progression through predetermined stages, disregarding the possibility of regression, plateauing, or nonlinear trajectories. Human development is characterized by dynamic interactions between various factors, leading to variability in the timing, sequence, and outcomes of developmental transitions. Stage-based models may fail to accommodate individual differences and deviations from expected developmental patterns. Despite these limitations, stage-based models have often been used to explain changes that occur during adult development due to several reasons: 1. Clarity and simplicity: Stage-based models provide a clear and structured framework for understanding adult development, making complex processes more accessible and easier to communicate. The delineation of distinct stages allows researchers and practitioners to identify common patterns and milestones in adult development, facilitating communication and conceptualization. 2. Predictive value: Despite their oversimplification, stage-based models offer predictive value by highlighting typical developmental sequences and milestones associated with different stages of adult development. This predictive aspect can inform interventions, policies, and practices aimed at supporting individuals through various life transitions and challenges. 3. Historical precedence: Stage-based models, such as Erikson's psychosocial stages or Kohlberg's stages of moral development, have a long history of influence in developmental psychology and education. Their widespread use and familiarity within academic and professional settings contribute to their continued relevance and adoption as explanatory frameworks for adult development, despite their limitations. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079