CH-1 Understanding Human Development – Understanding Human Development : Exam Guide

Chapter 1 - Understanding Human Development 1. A “discrete period of the lifespan during which predictable changes occur” is referred to as a: a. developmental stage b. transitional phase c. developmental epoch d. critical period Answer: a Rationale: A developmental stage refers to a distinct period in the lifespan characterized by predictable changes and behaviors. These stages often mark significant milestones in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. 2. Which of the following statements is true regarding the corporal punishment of children? a. About 80% of parents spank their children at least occasionally. b. The use of corporal punishment has been banned in all public schools in the U.S., although private schools are allowed to determine their own rules for punishment c. Except for the U.S., no other industrialized countries have banned corporal punishment in the public schools. d. All of the three statements provided as answers in this question are true. Answer: a Rationale: Option a is true. Research indicates that a significant percentage of parents use corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure, with estimates suggesting that about 80% of parents spank their children at least occasionally. 3. According to Freud, the part of the human mind that is concerned with following the rules of society and that may experience feelings of guilt when one violates social norms is called the: a. id b. ego c. superego d. libido Answer: c Rationale: Freud proposed a structural model of the mind consisting of the id, ego, and superego. The superego represents the moral conscience, incorporating societal norms and values, and leading to feelings of guilt or shame when one violates these norms. 4. Which of the following statements comes closest to describing the principle central to Darwin’s idea of natural selection? a. Individuals within a species vary, and those with the best adapted characteristics survive to reproduce, thereby passing their genes to future generations. b. Nature selects the particular individuals that have the best characteristics and these individuals are allowed to interbreed with each other, thereby creating the strongest offspring. c. People prefer to mate with the most attractive members of the opposite sex, selecting their mates according to natural factors related to physical attractiveness. d. Humans evolved from the apes. Answer: a Rationale: Option a best describes the principle central to Darwin's idea of natural selection, emphasizing the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, thereby passing on those traits to future generations. 5. Lev Vygotsky’s views on human development can be best categorized as belonging to which of the following theoretical perspectives? a. biological b. evolutionary c. psychodynamic d. social-cognitive Answer: d Rationale: Lev Vygotsky's views on human development align most closely with the social-cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the role of social interactions, cultural influences, and cognitive processes in shaping development. 6. The sequential-cohort design combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs by: a. testing several age groups at several different times b. testing a single individual in a number of situations c. matching people of different ages or cohorts on a number of relevant factors d. testing a different cohort each year of the sequence Answer: a Rationale: The sequential-cohort design involves testing several age groups at different times, allowing researchers to examine both age-related changes and cohort effects. This design provides insights into developmental trends across different generations. 7. Which of the following is the best example of what is meant by the term maturation? a. a first-grader who is learning to do arithmetic problems b. an infant who babbles “ga-ga-ga-ga” when she is content c. a college student who is working hard to learn to speak Spanish d. a mother who teaches her 2-year-old to control his temper by ignoring him when he has a tantrum Answer: b Rationale: Maturation refers to the biological growth and development processes that unfold naturally over time, independent of specific environmental influences. The example of an infant babbling "ga-ga-ga-ga" when content illustrates a developmental milestone driven by maturation. 8. Two-year-old Katherine sees a goat for the first time, and calls it a cow because it has four legs and horns. According to Piaget, Katherine’s response is best considered an example of: a. fixation b. re-classification c. accommodation d. assimilation Answer: d Rationale: Piaget described assimilation as the process of interpreting new experiences or information by incorporating them into existing mental schemas or frameworks. In this scenario, Katherine assimilates her understanding of a cow (which has similar features like four legs and horns) to the new experience of seeing a goat. 9. A researcher studies a group of 1-year-olds, 4-year-olds, and 7-year-olds for one day, and compares the different age groups in terms of their independence. What research design is the researcher using? a. longitudinal b. cross-sectional c. sequential-cohort d. age cohort Answer: b Rationale: The researcher is using a cross-sectional research design by studying participants from different age groups at the same point in time. This design allows for comparing age-related differences in independence across various age groups simultaneously. 10. Suppose you collect data about child abuse and find that mothers who have their first child before age 18 are more likely to be abusive than mothers who are older. However, you also note that young mothers are also more likely to be poor and have less access to prenatal care. Therefore, you cannot draw conclusions about maternal age and child abuse. The reason you cannot draw this conclusion is because your study involved: a. a sequential-cohort design b. a nonrandom sample c. a nonrepresentative sample d. confounding Answer: d Rationale: Confounding occurs when the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is mixed with the effect of an extraneous variable. In this scenario, maternal age is confounded with factors such as socioeconomic status and access to prenatal care. Without controlling for these confounding variables, it is impossible to determine the true relationship between maternal age and child abuse. Therefore, the inability to draw conclusions stems from confounding. 1. In contrast to earlier previous times, by the end of the Middle Ages, attitudes about children in Western societies had: a. changed for the worse – children were viewed primarily as burdens on the family b. changed for the better – children came to be viewed as experiencing a period of innocence c. changed for the worse – children were viewed as miniature adults with adult responsibilities d. changed for the better – children’s opinions were given much broader responsibilities and had greater obligations for helping the family Answer: b Rationale: During the Middle Ages, children were often viewed as miniature adults and were expected to take on adult responsibilities at an early age. However, by the end of the Middle Ages, there was a shift in attitudes, and children began to be seen as experiencing a period of innocence. This shift in perception led to greater emphasis on nurturing and protecting children, rather than viewing them solely as contributing members of society. 2. According to the text, the decade of the 1990s was labeled by President George H. W. Bush as “the decade of _________.” a. the genome b. evolution c. the brain d. natural selection Answer: c Rationale: President George H. W. Bush labeled the decade of the 1990s as "the decade of the brain" to emphasize the importance of neuroscience and brain research during that period. 3. Which research design tests groups of subjects of different ages, all at the same time? a. cross-sectional design b. longitudinal design c. sequential design d. age cohort design Answer: a Rationale: A cross-sectional design involves testing individuals from different age groups at the same point in time to compare developmental differences across age groups. 4. Which of the following is of highest value in a collectivist culture? a. interdependence b. competition c. individuality d. personal achievement Answer: a Rationale: Interdependence is of highest value in collectivist cultures, where individuals prioritize group harmony, cooperation, and interconnectedness over individual pursuits. 5. Which of the following best describes the difference in Freud’s and Erikson’s views about human development? a. Erikson emphasized the role of unconscious processes; Freud emphasized conscious processes. b. Erikson emphasized the role of conditioning and social learning; Freud emphasized unconscious processes. c. Erikson emphasized the role of conscious processes; Freud emphasized unconscious processes. d. None of the answers are correct because Freud and Erikson emphasized very similar processes as guiding human development. Answer: c Rationale: Erikson emphasized the role of conscious processes, such as the development of identity and psychosocial conflicts, while Freud focused more on unconscious processes, such as the dynamics of the id, ego, and superego. 6. A researcher obtains individuals’ permission before randomly assigning them to the treatment or the control group. She is complying with the basic ethical principle regarding: a. freedom from harm b. informed consent c. use of deception d. maintenance of privacy Answer: b Rationale: Informed consent is the ethical principle that requires researchers to inform participants about the nature of the study, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw, before obtaining their voluntary consent to participate. 7. In Dr. Arnold’s developmental psychology class, she chooses to organize the course chronologically. This means that: a. the easiest concepts are presented first, followed by harder concepts b. students are given as much time as they need to master the basic concepts covered in the course c. the course begins with prenatal development, then proceeds to cover each age-related developmental period as it unfolds through the lifespan d. she intends to cover the major topics in development one at a time, for example, brain development, cognitive development, social development, and so forth Answer: c Rationale: Organizing the course chronologically means that it follows the progression of development from prenatal development through different age-related developmental periods, allowing students to understand developmental changes as they occur over the lifespan. 8. Suppose that Peggy once became ill after eating pizza. Now anytime that she smells pizza she starts to feel queasy. Peggy’s situation has most likely developed as the result of: a. adaptation b. assimilation c. classical conditioning d. operant conditioning Answer: c Rationale: Peggy's situation is an example of classical conditioning, where a previously neutral stimulus (the smell of pizza) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (becoming ill), leading to a conditioned response (feeling queasy) upon exposure to the conditioned stimulus (smell of pizza). 9. If you were to explain a particular behavior as being learned according to Vygotsky’s social-cognitive learning theory, you would most likely emphasize which of the following in your explanation of that behavior? a. how children learn from other people b. how reinforcement shapes behavior c. how punishment shapes behavior d. how toilet training affects later personality development Answer: a Rationale: Vygotsky's social-cognitive learning theory emphasizes the role of social interactions, cultural tools, and the zone of proximal development in cognitive development. Therefore, in explaining a behavior according to this theory, one would likely emphasize how children learn from others through social interactions, guidance, and collaboration. 10. A researcher investigating the effect of peer tutoring on reading skills studies two groups of children in remedial reading classes. One group receives peer tutoring three times a week for three months, the other group does not. At the end of the three months, the two groups are tested in reading skills. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? a. peer tutoring versus no tutoring b. reading skills level at the beginning of the experiment c. reading skills level at the end of the experiment d. the number of children in each group Answer: c Rationale: The dependent variable in this experiment is the reading skills level at the end of the experiment, as it is the variable being measured to assess the effect of peer tutoring on reading skills. Multiple Choice questions: Introduction to Development 1. The period of development referred to as infancy refers to which of the following? a. conception to 12 months b. birth to 12 months c. birth to 24 months d. 12 to 24 months Answer: c Rationale: Infancy typically encompasses the first two years of life, during which significant developmental milestones occur. While development is rapid during the first year, extending the period to 24 months better captures the entirety of infancy, including the transition from newborn to toddlerhood. 2. A “discrete period of the lifespan during which predictable changes occur” is referred to as a: a. developmental stage b. transitional phase c. developmental epoch d. critical period Answer: a Rationale: A developmental stage is characterized by predictable changes or milestones that occur within a specific age range. These stages provide a framework for understanding typical development across various domains such as physical, cognitive, and social-emotional. 3. When developmental researchers consider periods of development arranged according to age, they are taking which type of approach? a. traditional b. scientific c. chronological d. transitional Answer: c Rationale: Chronological organization involves arranging developmental periods based on age, providing a straightforward and widely understood framework for studying and discussing human development. This approach facilitates comparisons across individuals and populations at different stages of life. 4. Generalizing from the text, you would expect that culture would have the greatest impact on development during which of the following developmental periods? a. infancy b. toddlerhood c. early childhood d. adolescence Answer: d Rationale: Infants and young children around the world experience development in much the same way because of the limitations imposed by their physical growth and capabilities. Adolescence, however, is a period that is defined more by cultural expectations than by physical abilities. Thus, culture has a greater impact on this period than earlier periods of development. 5. In Dr. Arnold’s developmental psychology class, she chooses to organize the course chronologically. This means that: a. the easiest concepts are presented first, followed by harder concepts b. students are given as much time as they need to master the basic concepts covered in the course c. the course begins with prenatal development, then proceeds to cover each age-related developmental period as it unfolds through the lifespan d. she intends to cover the major topics in development one at a time, for example, brain development, cognitive development, social development, and so forth Answer: c Rationale: Chronological means arranged according to age. In a developmental psychology class, a chronological organization of content would begin at the beginning of life and proceed year by year (or stage by stage) through the remainder of the lifespan, ending with older adulthood and death. 6. Which of the following statements best captures the sense of the term interaction, as it is used in the context of a course focusing on human lifespan development? a. Genes determine most of the important physical characteristics about an individual. b. The environment determines to a large degree how children are treated by their parents and genetic forces are seldom involved. c. Genetic and environmental forces both contribute to how development unfolds and their influences are intertwined. d. Genetic and environmental forces are both important forces that affect human development. Answer: c Rationale: The term interaction refers to the idea that variables influence each other and that their influence is combined, with all variables playing a role. 7. If Jason states that “human development is the result of genetic instructions that influence development in combination with the many environmental experiences an individual has throughout the lifespan,” you should conclude that his answer emphasizes the role of which of the following ideas? a. interaction b. sociocultural c. evolution d. maturation Answer: a Rationale: Jason’s answer stresses that biology and environment both exert influences through a combination of the relative influences. This is the essential meaning of the term interaction. Sociocultural refers to a context that includes social and cultural influences, evolution is the view that species change as the result of adaptation across many generations, and maturation implies that developmental changes are closely linked to biological events. 8. Which of the following is generally NOT part of the sociocultural context for a given individual? a. genes b. culture c. family d. peers Answer: a Rationale: Genes are part of an individual's biological makeup and are inherited from parents. While genes influence various aspects of development, they are not typically considered part of the sociocultural context, which primarily encompasses social and cultural factors such as culture, family, and peers. Genes shape biological characteristics and predispositions but do not directly involve social or cultural influences. 9. A guiding principle of understanding human development is that it is best studied using the methods of: a. philosophy b. introspection c. culture d. science Answer: d Rationale: Human development involves complex processes that require systematic observation, experimentation, and analysis. Science provides empirical methods and rigorous frameworks for studying human development, allowing researchers to gather reliable data, test hypotheses, and develop theories based on evidence. The Nature of Human Development 10. A person experiences a traumatic event during childhood. A developmental psychologist would view the traumatic event as an example of which of the following? a. biological factor b. random factor c. representative factor d. environmental factor Answer: d Rationale: The book defines environmental factors as the specific situations that an individual experiences and that influence behavior and development. A traumatic event is an example of one such specific situation. 11. Which of the following is the best example of what is meant by the term maturation? a. a first-grader who is learning to do arithmetic problems b. an infant who babbles “ga-ga-ga-ga” when she is content c. a college student who is working hard to learn to speak Spanish d. a mother who teachers her 2-year-old to control his temper by ignoring him when he has a tantrum Answer: b Rationale: Maturation refers to those developmental changes that are linked closely to biological events. In this example, the baby’s babbling is the best choice, since it is not the result of reinforcement or learning, but rather is the result of the maturation of the nervous system. The other examples clearly reflect more “environmental” factors. 12. The development of breasts and body hair is best considered to be an example of: a. aging b. growth c. maturation d. readiness Answer: c Rationale: Maturation refers to developmental changes that are linked closely to biological events. The development of breasts and body hair is an example of one such biological event. 13. Which of the following processes is most clearly the result of primarily environmental forces acting on the person? a. learning b. growth c. maturation d. aging Answer: a Rationale: Learning refers to developmental changes that are dependent on a person’s interactions with the environment, not on biological processes. 14. Which of the following refers to the basic developmental process in the individual that changes as a result of experience or practice? a. maturation b. growth c. learning d. aging Answer: c Rationale: Learning is defined in the textbook as developmental changes that are dependent on a person’s interactions with the environment. Experience and practice refer to interactions with the environment. 15. Which of the following is the best example of maturation? a. learning algebra in high school b. learning to walk in infancy c. learning to ride a bicycle in middle childhood d. learning to make a cake in early adulthood Answer: b Rationale: The textbook defines maturation as developmental changes that are linked closely to biological events. Learning to walk in infancy is the event most clearly influenced by biological changes as opposed to a person’s interactions with the environment. 16. If Martha believes that childhood should be considered to be “a time of innocence, during which children should have few responsibilities or chores,” she would be describing the view of childhood that was common: a. in ancient Greece b. in ancient Rome c. in modern, industrialized societies like the United States today c. throughout history in Western societies since about 3,000 B. C. Answer: c Rationale: In both ancient Greece and ancient Rome, children were viewed as little more than material possessions, who were often exploited and treated harshly. Only since about 1500 have children in Western societies been considered as innocents who should not be required to adopt adult roles and responsibilities. 17. In contrast to earlier times, by the end of the Middle Ages, attitudes about children in Western societies had: a. changed for the worse – children were viewed primarily as burdens on the family b. changed for the better – children came to be viewed as experiencing a period of innocence c. changed for the worse – children were viewed as miniature adults with adult responsibilities d. changed for the better – children’s opinions were given much broader responsibilities and had greater obligations for helping the family Answer: b Rationale: During the Middle Ages, children were often viewed as miniature adults and were expected to take on adult responsibilities at an early age. However, by the end of the Middle Ages, there was a shift in attitudes, and children began to be seen as experiencing a period of innocence. This shift in perception led to greater emphasis on nurturing and protecting children, rather than viewing them solely as contributing members of society. 18. According to the text, about what percent of U. S. parents spank their children, at least occasionally: a. 2-3% b. 10% c. 40% d. 80% Answer: d Rationale: The prevalence of spanking in the United States is estimated to be high, with approximately 80% of parents reporting that they spank their children at least occasionally, according to research studies. 19. In the United States today, about what percentage of the states have enacted laws that ban the use of corporal punishment in public schools? a. 98% b. 78% c. 62% d. 32% Answer: c Rationale: The text states that 31 states have banned corporal punishment, but the rest allow local school districts to decide if they will allow this type of punishment; 31 of 50 states is 62%. 20. Which of the following statements is true regarding the corporal punishment of children? a. About 80% of parents spank their children at least occasionally. b. The use of corporal punishment has been banned in all public schools in the U.S., although private schools are allowed to determine their own rules for punishment c. Except for the U.S., no other industrialized countries have banned corporal punishment in the public schools. d. All of the three statements provided as answers in this question are true. Answer: a Rationale: Among the options provided, the statement that about 80% of parents spank their children at least occasionally is true based on research findings. The other statements contain inaccuracies or incomplete information. 21. Cultures in which individuals are encouraged to put time and energy into projects that will help large groups of people in their own society are best described as: a. primitive b. collectivistic c. individualistic d. idealistic Answer: b Rationale: Collectivist cultures are defined as cultures in which the group takes precedence over the individual and in which cooperation and group achievement are stressed over competition and individual achievement. 22. Cultures in which individuals are encouraged to put time and energy into projects that will benefit only themselves are best described as: a. primitive b. collectivistic c. individualistic d. idealistic Answer: c Rationale: As defined in the textbook, individualistic cultures are those in which competition predominates over cooperation and personal achievement is typically valued more highly than group achievement. 23. Which of the following is of highest value in a collectivist culture? a. interdependence b. competition c. individuality d. personal achievement Answer: a Rationale: Collectivist cultures are defined as cultures in which the group takes precedence over the individual and in which cooperation and group achievement are stressed over competition and individual achievement. 24. Individuals from collectivist cultures tend to emphasize _________; individuals from individualist cultures tend to emphasize _________. a. competition; cooperation b. individuals; groups c. money; success d. cooperation; competition Answer: d Rationale: Individualist cultures are those in which personal achievement is more highly valued than group achievement and competition predominates; collectivist cultures are those in which group achievement and cooperation are stressed. 25. Which of the following is the best example of a country that embraces a collectivist culture? a. the U.S. b. Japan c. England d. Australia Answer: b Rationale: Japan is commonly cited as an example of a country with a collectivist culture, where emphasis is placed on the group and community over individual desires or achievements. This is contrasted with individualistic cultures, such as that of the United States. 26. Andre’s teacher organizes activities that are competitive, so that students who are high achievers get most of the rewards. Andre’s classroom would be considered to be an example of the philosophy advanced in: a. classrooms that ban corporal punishment b. collectivist societies c. classrooms with female teachers d. individualistic societies Answer: d Rationale: In individualistic societies, competition and individual achievements are valued above cooperative and collaborative work. Use of corporal punishment is not discussed with respect to its possible effect on creating a competitive environment, and the text draws no conclusions about classrooms taught by male versus female teachers. 27. The sociocultural domain is comprised of: a. ethnocentrism and socialization b. enculturation and assimilation c. evolution and accommodation d. socialization and enculturation Answer: d Rationale: The sociocultural domain encompasses processes such as socialization and enculturation, which involve the transmission of cultural norms, values, and practices within a society or community. These processes shape individuals' development within their cultural context. 28. Dr. Walton is interested specifically in how the brain changes during the period of infancy and early childhood. As such, his interest falls most clearly into which of the following domains of human development? a. the sociocultural domain b. the physical domain c. the cognitive domain d. the personality domain Answer: b Rationale: The physical domain involves changes in physical shape and size, in addition to changes in brain structures, sensory capabilities, and motor skills. 29. A researcher who is most interested in understanding how children develop reasoning and problem-solving skills would be described as having a focus on the: a. physical domain b. sociocultural domain c. personality domain d. cognitive domain Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the textbook, the cognitive domain refers to those aspects of development that involve the acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and language. 30. Dr. Muchmore studies how shy children differ from bold children in their adjustment to kindergarten by investigating how differences in their basic dispositions and temperament shape their later behavior. Her research interest falls most clearly into which of the following domains of human development? a. the sociocultural domain b. the physical domain c. the cognitive domain d. the personality domain Answer: d Rationale: Shyness is usually considered to be a personality characteristic, and therefore it falls most clearly into the personality domain. It is not typically considered a brain-determined function, or a problem-solving style, so it is less closely associated with the physical or cognitive domains, respectively. It also is not thought to be a consequence of the culture or society in which a child develops. 31. Dr. Ledder conducts research on intelligence and problem-solving skills of fourth-grade children. His research area best fits into which of the following domains of learning? a. the sociocultural domain b. the physical domain c. the cognitive domain d. the personality domain Answer: c Rationale: The cognitive domain includes skills involved in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and the development of language. 32. Although no one has ever taught Kenna how to behave in church, when she goes there she seems to understand that it is a place to be quiet, to sit calmly, and to do what other people do. Kenna’s church behavior is best thought of as developing through: a. maturation b. enculturation c. socialization d. individualist cultural immersion Answer: b Rationale: Enculturation is learning by observing and absorbing rather than being taught, which is what is described in this example. It is different from socialization, which focuses on teaching by parents and others about how to fit in and function in society. Maturation involves an unfolding of biologically based processes. Individualist cultures focus on competition and individual achievement, which is unrelated to the example given. 33. Gloria plans to spend a semester abroad in Thailand. She looks forward to learning about the culture by living with a local family. She does not plan to attend any formal classes. Her knowledge of the culture will be gained primarily through which of the following? a. scheme formation b. natural selection c. enculturation d. accommodation Answer: c Rationale: Enculturation is the process of learning about a culture on our own by observing and absorbing without any formal teaching. Socialization, on the other hand, involves the direct and deliberate teaching by others about how to fit in and function in a society or culture. 34. Gloria plans to spend a semester abroad in Thailand. She looks forward to learning about the culture by reading books, studying about the culture and religions, and interviewing people she meets. Her form of learning is best considered to be an example of: a. facilitation b. socialization c. natural selection d. interpretation Answer: b Rationale: Socialization refers to direct and deliberate teaching by others about how to fit in and function in a society or culture. Enculturation, on the other hand, is the process of learning about a culture on our own by observing and absorbing without any formal teaching. Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development 35. “An organized, coherent set of ideas that helps us to understand, to explain, and to make predictions” is known as a: a. scientific law b. domain c. theory d. phenomenon Answer: c Rationale: A theory is a comprehensive framework that organizes and explains a wide range of observations and phenomena within a particular field of study, providing a basis for understanding, explanation, and prediction. 36. Dr. Manfred has spent a lifetime developing a detailed explanation for why some children have difficulty learning arithmetic. She has written a book on this topic, which presents her ideas, including a set of assumptions about mathematical thinking, a set of predictions about which children will experience the most difficulty, and an overarching explanation for the entire phenomenon. Using the terms of science, we would conclude that Dr. Manfred’s work represents what would typically be called a(n): a. hypothesis b. theory c. evolution d. maturational determination Answer: b Rationale: A theory is an organized, coherent set of ideas that helps us to understand, to explain, and to make predictions. Thus, Dr. Manfred’s work, since it does these things, could be considered to be an example of a theory. 37. The results of scientific investigation are referred to as: a. platforms b. hypotheses c. data d. scientific text Answer: c Rationale: The results of scientific investigation typically refer to the data gathered through systematic observation, experimentation, or research methods. Data provide the empirical basis for drawing conclusions and making interpretations in scientific inquiry. 38. The term used to describe the entire arrangement of all human genes is: a. the human genome b. the chromosome complex c. the natural selection of genetics d. the DNA code Answer: a Rationale: The human genome refers to the complete set of genetic material (DNA) present in humans, including all genes and non-coding sequences, organized across chromosomes within the nucleus of human cells. 39. According to the text, the decade of the 1990s was labeled by President George H. W. Bush as “the decade of _________.” a. the genome b. evolution c. the brain d. natural selection Answer: c Rationale: President George H. W. Bush referred to the 1990s as "the decade of the brain," highlighting the era's increased focus on neuroscience research and understanding the complexities of brain function and development. 40. This field of study attempts to understand how brain function is related to human development: a. sociology b. behaviorism c. developmental neuroscience d. evolutionary psychology Answer: c Rationale: Developmental neuroscience is the field of study that investigates how brain development and function influence human development across the lifespan. This interdisciplinary field integrates principles and methods from neuroscience, psychology, and developmental biology to understand the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development. 41. Darwin’s idea of “survival of the fittest” is also referred to as the theory of: a. natural selection b. social learning c. social success d. biological change Answer: a Rationale: Natural selection refers to the theory that better-adapted individuals survive to reproduce and thereby transfer their genes to their offspring and future generations. This idea is also referred to as “survival of the fittest.” 42. In order to explain how human ancestors moved from living in trees to walking upright, Mary talks about “the survival of the fittest.” Another term of this same idea is: a. generational drift b. natural selection c. neuroscience d. the origin of species Answer: b Rationale: The concept of “survival of the fittest” is described by the evolutionary term natural selection. Natural selection describes situations where better-adapted individuals survive to reproduce, thereby transferring their genes to their offspring and into future generations. Generational drift is not a term introduced in this text, and The Origin of Species was the title of Charles Darwin’s book, in which he described the principles involved in evolution, including natural selection. 43. Which of the following statements comes closest to describing the principle central to Darwin’s idea of natural selection? a. Individuals within a species vary, and those with the best adapted characteristics survive to reproduce, thereby passing their genes to future generations. b. Nature selects the particular individuals that have the best characteristics and these individuals are allowed to interbreed with each other, thereby creating the strongest offspring. c. People prefer to mate with the most attractive members of the opposite sex, selecting their mates according to natural factors related to physical attractiveness. d. Humans evolved from the apes. Answer: a Rationale: Natural selection refers to the evolutionary idea that better-adapted individuals survive to reproduce, thereby transferring their genes to their offspring and into future generations. 44. The main ideas that define the evolutionary perspective can be traced most directly to the writings of which of the following people? a. Charles Darwin b. Lev Vygotsky c. Carl Rogers d. Urie Bronfenbrenner Answer: a Rationale: The evolutionary perspective in psychology, particularly in understanding human behavior and development, is rooted in the work of Charles Darwin. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection provides the foundational framework for understanding how species, including humans, adapt and change over time in response to environmental pressures. 45. According to Freud, the part of the human mind that is concerned with following the rules of society and that may experience feelings of guilt when one violates social norms is called the: a. id b. ego c. superego d. libido Answer: c Rationale: Freud's psychoanalytic theory posits three parts of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. The superego represents the moral component, internalizing societal standards and values, and inducing feelings of guilt or shame when these standards are violated. 46. Sam was going to steal candy from a store but feelings of guilt kept him from doing so. According to Freud, Sam’s internalized sense of right and wrong and his feelings of guilt comes from his: a. id b. ego c. superego d. psychic censor Answer: c Rationale: The superego is the mental process that, according to Freud, triggers an individual’s conscience to feel guilty when social norms are violated. 47. Freud viewed this part of the mind as the mediator, resolving conflicts between one’s impulses and one’s ideas about right and wrong. a. id b. ego c. superego d. mediating region Answer: b Rationale: The ego is the mental process that, according to Freud, works to resolve conflicts between the id (which motivates an individual to seek pleasure or avoid pain) and the superego (which triggers an individual to feel guilty when social norms are violated). 48. Freud viewed this part of the mind as involving a person’s impulsive tendencies, particularly the search for pleasure and the avoidance of pain. a. id b. ego c. superego d. pleasure center Answer: a Rationale: As defined in the textbook, the id is the mental process that, according to Freud, motivates an individual to seek pleasure or to avoid pain. 49. The research method used most frequently by Sigmund Freud was: a. the experiment b. sequential-cohort study c. cross-sectional study d. case study Answer: d Rationale: Freud’s work was based largely on the therapy sessions he provided to his patients. Thus, because his ideas were developed from these in-depth interviews with a relatively small number of individuals, the method he used would best be described as a case study method. He did not examine different cohort groups, making sequential-cohort and cross-sectional methods inaccurate answers. 50. What is the correct developmental sequence of Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages? a. oral, genital, anal, latency, phallic b. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital c. genital, phallic, latency, anal, oral d. oral, latency, phallic, anal, genital Answer: b Rationale: As presented in the textbook, Freud believed that development involves a progression through five stages, in a predictable order: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. 51. During the phallic stage, pleasure is focused on what body part? a. anus b. mouth c. genitals d. hands Answer: c Rationale: According to Freud's psychosexual theory, the phallic stage occurs during early childhood, and pleasure is focused on the genitals. This stage is characterized by the Oedipus and Electra complexes, where children develop unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent. 52. Freud’s genital stage begins during: a. infancy b. childhood c. adolescence d. adulthood Answer: c Rationale: Freud's genital stage, which is the final stage of psychosexual development, begins during adolescence. It is characterized by the reemergence of sexual desires and the establishment of mature sexual relationships. 53. According to Freud, children at this stage of development repress sexual interests and instead focus on developing cognitive and interpersonal skills: a. genital b. latency c. phallic d. anal Answer: b Rationale: As presented in the textbook, in the latency stage a child represses sexual interests and instead focuses on developing cognitive and interpersonal skills. The genital stage, in contrast, involves a reemergence of sexual impulses. During the anal stage, the focus is on elimination functions, and during the phallic stage, a child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals. 54. Emily is 2 years old. In which of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development is she most likely immersed? a. anal b. oral c. latency d. phallic Answer: a Rationale: According to Freud, children are in the anal stage of psychosexual development from 18 months until 3 years of age. 55. Freud’s genital stage extends from: a. birth to age 18 months b. age 3 to 6 years c. age 6 years to adolescence d. adolescence through adulthood Answer: d Rationale: The genital stage, according to Freud, extends from adolescence through adulthood. This stage marks the culmination of psychosexual development, where individuals develop mature sexual relationships and express their sexuality in socially acceptable ways. 56. Which of the following is NOT a term typically used to describe one of the stages in Freud’s psychosexual theory? a. oral b. phallic c. latency d. puberty Answer: d Rationale: In Freud's psychosexual theory, the stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Puberty is not considered a stage in his theory but rather a biological period of physical and sexual maturation. 57. Whenever Judy gets nervous, she starts biting her nails. A Freudian psychologist would most likely view Judy’s nail biting as an example of: a. superego stress b. fixation c. psychosexual development d. psychodynamic anxiety Answer: b Rationale: Fixation is the term Freud used for primitive behavior (for example, nail biting) that results from a developmental stage being carried forward (oral behavior from the oral stage of psychosexual development). 58. A high school student who sucks his or her thumb when stressed is an example of: a. Piaget’s notion of accommodation b. Bandura’s notion of social learning c. Darwin’s notion of natural selection d. Freud’s notion of a fixation Answer: d Rationale: Fixation results in a primitive behavior from that developmental stage being carried into adulthood. In this case, an oral fixation has occurred. None of the other concepts (accommodation, social learning, or natural selection) describe behaviors that are primitive when exhibited during adulthood. 59. Which of the following best describes the difference in Freud’s and Erikson’s views about human development? a. Erikson emphasized the role of unconscious processes; Freud emphasized conscious processes. b. Erikson emphasized the role of conditioning and social learning; Freud emphasized unconscious processes. c. Erikson emphasized the role of conscious processes; Freud emphasized unconscious processes. d. None of the answers are correct because Freud and Erikson emphasized very similar processes as guiding human development. Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the textbook, Erikson’s theory emphasizes conscious (or ego) forces and the effect of social interactions is shaping personality. Freud’s theory, on the other hand, focuses most heavily on unconscious processes and psychosexual development. 60. Which of the following theorists placed the greatest emphasis on developmental events that occur early in life, especially during the first five years? a. Sigmund Freud b. Erik Erikson c. Jean Piaget d. B. F. Skinner Answer: a Rationale: The text notes that Freud believed that adult personality was heavily influenced by events that occurred in early childhood. Erikson’s theory extends throughout the lifespan. Piaget believed that cognitive development continues on through age 12 or so, when the stage of formal operations was reached. B. F. Skinner focused on principles of reinforcement, which can shape behavior at any time during the lifespan. 61. Erik Erikson believed that human development proceeds through a series of planned, biologically programmed stages. He referred to this idea as: a. maturational selection b. evolution c. the epigenetic principle d. natural selection Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, the epigenetic principle is a biological concept that there is a “plan” built into all living organisms that determines or at least sets the stage for development throughout the organism’s lifespan. The concepts of evolution and natural selection are related to evolutionary theory and usually traced to Charles Darwin. 62. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development focus on: a. pleasurable erogenous zones b. a hierarchy of needs c. predictable conflicts throughout the lifespan d. the interactions of the id, ego, and superego Answer: c Rationale: Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages of development focus on the predictable conflicts or crises that individuals encounter throughout the lifespan, each stage presenting a unique challenge that must be resolved for healthy development. 63. According to Erik Erikson, there are ____ stages of human development. a. 2 b. 3 c. 6 d. 8 Answer: d Rationale: Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of human development, each associated with a specific psychosocial crisis or challenge that individuals face as they progress through life. 64. What is the positive outcome of Erikson’s stage of “autonomy versus shame and doubt”? a. feelings of trust b. development of a sense of competence c. development of a sense of initiative d. self-sufficiency Answer: d Rationale: In Erikson's stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt (which occurs during toddlerhood), the positive outcome is the development of a sense of self-sufficiency and independence, where the child learns to assert control over their actions and environment. 65. According to Erik Erikson, it is typical for individuals to consider their lives and to judge themselves. If they are satisfied with their lives, they have a sense of integrity. If they are not satisfied with their lives, they may have a sense of despair. At what age are adults most likely to experience this developmental conflict? a. in their 20s b. in their 40s c. in their 50s d. in their 60s or later Answer: d Rationale: This item describes Erikson’s psychosocial stage called integrity versus despair, which, according to the text, applies to individuals 65 years and older. 66. This researcher proposed that children between the ages of 3 and 6 years might develop feelings of guilt if they are severely criticized or punished for their own actions. a. Sigmund Freud b. Jean Piaget c. Erik Erikson d. Urie Bronfenbrenner Answer: c Rationale: The proposal described refers to Erikson’s third psychosocial stage, initiative versus guilt, which applies to children ages 3 years to 6 years. 67. A child who is just beginning first grade most likely would be entering which of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development? a. ego identity vs. ego diffusion b. initiative vs. guilt c. intimacy vs. isolation d. industry vs. inferiority Answer: d Rationale: According to Erikson, children are in the industry versus inferiority stage of psychosocial development between the ages 6 years to 12 years. 68. Erik Erikson proposed that a person who was focused on resolving the conflict between developing trust versus mistrust would likely be about how old? a. birth to age 1 year b. age 6-12 years c. age 3-6 years d. age 12-18 years Answer: a Rationale: Trust vs. mistrust is Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development. In this stage, infants up to 1 year of age learn about the basic trustworthiness of their environment from their caregivers. 69. David states that the appropriate subject matter for students of human development to study is how people act. He argues that scientists have no business studying how people think or feel, because thoughts and feelings cannot be directly observed. David’s ideas are most similar to those advocated by: a. B. F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov b. Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson c. Lev Vygotsky d. Jean Piaget Answer: a Rationale: The behaviorists, including Skinner and Pavlov, argued that the appropriate focus of psychology should be on observable behavior. Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) perspective; Vygotsky focused on the importance of social contexts in the development of thinking, and hence would be considered a cognitive (or social-cognitive theorist, and Piaget is a cognitive theorist since his work centered on understanding the development of thinking. 70. Suppose that Peggy once became ill after eating pizza. Now anytime that she smells pizza she starts to feel queasy. Peggy’s situation has most likely developed as the result of: a. adaptation b. assimilation c. classical conditioning d. operant conditioning Answer: c Rationale: In classical conditioning, a naturally occurring reflex becomes associated with an environmental cue. In this case, the feelings of nausea that accompany illness have become associated with the smell of pizza. The smell of pizza is the environmental cue. 71. Jimmy notices that the time is twelve o’clock noon. After looking at his watch, he begins to feel hungry. His hunger response is best thought of as an example of: a. shaping b. classical conditioning c. operant conditioning d. counter conditioning Answer: b Rationale: In classical conditioning, a naturally occurring reflex becomes associated with an environmental cue. In this case, the feeling of hunger that accompanies not having eaten for several hours has become associated with the time twelve o’clock noon. The time is the environmental cue. 72. Three-year-old Kayla has been seeing her pediatrician for checkups every six months and fears the shots she receives each time. Now, even though he does not administer the shots, Kayla cries when the pediatrician enters the room because she associates him with receiving shots. Her behavior is a result of: a. habituation b. social learning c. operant conditioning d. classical conditioning Answer: d Rationale: In classical conditioning, a naturally occurring reflex becomes associated with an environmental cue. In this case, the fear that accompanies an impending shot has become associated with the pediatrician who has administered these shots in the past. The pediatrician is the environmental cue. 73. William recalls a time when he was a child when he nearly drowned in a public swimming pool. It was a very frightening experience. Since that time, the smell of chlorine leaves him with feelings of dread. William’s situation can be most easily explained by which of the following? a. classical conditioning b. guided participation c. superego d. social learning theory Answer: a Rationale: In classical conditioning, a naturally occurring reflex becomes associated with an environmental cue. In this case, the fright that naturally accompanies the experience of having nearly drowned has become associated with the smell of chlorine that was part of the environment at the time that William almost drowned. The smell of chlorine, then, is the environmental cue. 74. According the B. F. Skinner, if you would like to get your child to keep his or her room tidy, which of the following is most likely to work? a. having a chat with the child about his or her feelings about cleanliness b. showing the child how to clean and then the child will learn from observing you c. consistently rewarding the child when the child carries out any cleaning d. create a learned association between dirtiness and feeling physically ill Answer: c Rationale: B. F. Skinner is the psychologist most closely identified with the phenomenon operant conditioning, which refers to a type of learning that occurs when an organism is rewarded or punished. 75. Which researcher believed that human behavior could be best understood in terms of how rewards and punishments exert an influence on people’s actions? a. Charles Darwin b. Mary Ainsworth c. Lev Vygotsky d. B. F. Skinner Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the textbook, B. F. Skinner is the psychologist most closely identified with the phenomenon operant conditioning, which refers to a type of learning that occurs when an organism is rewarded or punished. 76. Which of the following terms would be most closely associated with the field of operant conditioning? a. fixation b. assimilation c. systems d. reward Answer: d Rationale: Operant conditioning describes how rewards (also called reinforcements) and punishments influence the behavior they follow. Fixation is a Freudian term; assimilation describes cognitive development as it was described by Piaget; and systems is a term used most frequently in the context of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model. 77. Which of the following theorists is most closely associated with behavioral theory? a. Sigmund Freud b. Jean Piaget c. B. F. Skinner d. Lev Vygotsky Answer: c Rationale: Operant conditioning, a phenomenon with which B. F. Skinner is the psychologist most closely identified, is one of the three general trends within the behaviorist tradition. 78. The text describes a study by Albert Bandura in which children watched an adult “beat up” a Bobo doll. The conclusions from this theory are best considered as supporting which of the following theoretical perspectives? a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. social learning d. psychosexual processing Answer: c Rationale: Social learning theory is a view that emphasizes the influence of the social behavior of others on learning. In this case, children were influenced by their exposure to adults’ aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll. 79. A child attempts to carry out a stunt involving a skateboard and a ramp that he has seen on television. The child’s knowledge about how to do this stunt was most likely acquired through which of the following processes? a. accommodation b. social learning c. assimilation d. apprenticeship Answer: b Rationale: Social learning theory is a view that emphasizes the influence of the social behavior of others on learning. In this case, the child was influenced by his observation of others’ social behavior (skateboarding) on television. 80. Four-year-old Sasha watches carefully how her older brother unlocks the chest where her mother hides special toys. After her brother locks the chest and leaves, Sasha is able to remember the steps he used and she now unlocks the chest. Sasha’s method of learning is best thought of as an example of: a. operant conditioning b. classical conditioning c. social learning d. fixation Answer: c Rationale: Social learning theory emphasizes the influence of the social behavior of others on our learning. Because this example emphasizes that Sasha learned to unlock the chest by watching her brother, it is best considered an example of social learning. Operant conditioning emphasizes reward and punishment. Classical conditioning rests on learning associations between environmental stimuli that come to predict responses. Fixation is a Freudian term that describes how anxiety can cause a person to revert back to behavior characteristic of previous stages of development. 81. According to Piaget, a mental category or structure is called a(n): a. scheme b. model c. system d. theory Answer: a Rationale: Piaget referred to mental categories or structures as "schemes." Schemes are cognitive frameworks or patterns of thought that individuals use to organize and interpret information about the world around them. 82. Two-year-old Katherine sees a goat for the first time, and calls it a cow because it has four legs and horns. According to Piaget, Katherine’s response is best considered an example of: a. fixation b. re-classification c. accommodation d. assimilation Answer: d Rationale: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas. In this example, Katherine incorporates what we know as a goat into her schema “cow.” Accommodation, on the other hand, is the process that requires schemas to change when a new object or event does not fit. In the current example, the schema does not change. 83. The process by which organisms change to become more successful in their environment is: a. enculturation b. adaptation c. maturation d. socialization Answer: b Rationale: Adaptation refers to the process by which organisms change over time to become better suited to their environment, enhancing their chances of survival and reproduction. This process involves both genetic changes over generations (evolutionary adaptation) and individual adjustments within a lifetime (developmental adaptation). 84. Sixteen-year-old Dave was an exchange student in Europe for a year. When he returned, he had altered many of his ways of thinking about people, because his new experiences did not fit his old concepts. What Piagetian process was at work? a. fixation b. assimilation c. accommodation d. maturation Answer: c Rationale: Accommodation is the process that requires schemas to change when a new object or event does not fit. In this example, Dave’s old schemas (i.e., concepts) changed because the new European events/experiences did not fit within these schemas. Assimilation, on the other hand, is the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas. In this example, the new information is not merely incorporated into the old (i.e., existing) schemas. 85. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children start out in life relying primarily on their senses and bodily motion. This stage is referred to as which of the following? a. preoperational b. formal operational c. concrete operational d. sensorimotor Answer: d Rationale: Piaget termed the initial stage of cognitive development as the sensorimotor stage, during which infants explore the world through their senses and actions. This stage is characterized by the development of object permanence and the understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. 86. If you were to explain a particular behavior as being learned according to Vygotsky’s social-cognitive learning theory, you would most likely emphasize which of the following in your explanation of that behavior? a. how children learn from other people b. how reinforcement shapes behavior c. how punishment shapes behavior d. how toilet training affects later personality development Answer: a Rationale: Vygotsky’s social-cognitive view emphasizes the significance of learning from others with more advanced knowledge, often through playing and talking with them and learning from these interactions. 87. Which of the following situations best exemplifies Vygotsky’s view of development? a. Tommy learned to excel at mathematics by counting his allowance. b. Ellen learned a large vocabulary by reading her spy novels. c. Rudy learned to wash the dishes by helping his father wash them. d. Tina learned to sing by listening to her music tapes. Answer: c Rationale: Vygotsky’s social-cognitive view emphasizes the significance of learning from others with more advanced knowledge, often through playing and talking with them and learning from these interactions. 88. Lev Vygotsky’s views on human development can be best categorized as belonging to which of the following theoretical perspectives? a. biological b. evolutionary c. psychodynamic d. social-cognitive Answer: d Rationale: Vygotsky’s social-cognitive view emphasizes the significance of learning from others with more advanced knowledge, often through playing and talking with them and learning from these interactions. None of the other theorists emphasized the role of learning from more expert people. 89. Dr. Matthews believes that children learn by observing and by being guided by older children and adults. Thus, child development is like the apprenticeship that electricians serve as they learn their trade by working with experienced individuals. Dr. Matthews’s view of child development is most similar to that advanced by: a. Jean Piaget b. Lev Vygotsky c. Urie Bronfenbrenner d. Erik Erikson Answer: b Rationale: Vygotsky emphasized the social context in which development takes place as playing a significant role. He believed that older children and adults play an especially significant role helping younger children understand complex experiences. Thus, children are like apprentices, who learn by being coached by more experienced people. 90. Because in her family older women always do the cooking and younger women wash the dishes, Lucille comes to understand that this is how housework should be done. In Vygotsky’s terms, Lucille has developed a(n): a. bioecological understanding b. assimilated understanding c. shared meaning d. classically conditioned response Answer: c Rationale: Vygotsky argued that what people learn is transmitted to them through the shared meanings of objects and events, which are passed from generation to generation through observation and language. This example emphasizes the cultural transmission of knowledge, based on experience. 91. The idea that people learn by observing and being coached by “experts” stems most directly from the work of: a. Jean Piaget b. Lev Vygotsky c. Erik Erikson d. Sigmund Freud Answer: b Rationale: Vygotsky argued that people develop understanding and expertise mainly through apprenticeship with more knowledgeable learners, who serve as “experts” to guide learning. None of the other theorists emphasized the role of learning from more expert people. 92. According to Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, the customs and traditions that are common to one’s culture would most likely be considered a part of that person’s _________. a. microsystem b. macrosystem c. mesosystem d. exosystem Answer: b Rationale: The microsystem refers to the activities, roles, and interactions of an individual in that person’s immediate setting. Examples include one’s family, school, church, and neighborhood. 93. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, your family, friends, and classmates are part of your: a. exosystem b. macrosystem c. mesosystem d. microsystem Answer: d Rationale: In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the microsystem consists of the immediate environments and relationships that directly influence an individual's development, such as family, friends, school, and community. These are the settings where the individual experiences direct interactions and influences. 94. Sarah’s parents attend parent-teacher meetings, serve as volunteers for class field trips, and are members of the school board. Sarah’s progress at school is affected positively by her parents’ close involvement with the teachers. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, these connections exemplify the: a. microsystem b. exosystem c. mesosystem d. macrosystem Answer: c Rationale: The mesosystem refers to the interrelationships among two or more microsystems such as one’s school, neighborhood, and family. 95. Margaret argues that understanding human development is most like understanding botany, since in botany you need to learn about various systems, such as respiration, photosynthesis, energy production, and so forth. She states: “It is only by understanding how each system works that it is possible to understand the entire process.” Margaret’s view is most like that described in which theory of human development? a. the bioecological model b. operant conditioning c. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development d. Vygotsky’s view of social-cognitive development Answer: a Rationale: This question emphasizes the idea of inter-related systems and therefore it best fits into Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, which also emphasizes that development is best understood by focusing on all of the inter-related systems that influence how an individual grows and changes. 96. Which model emphasizes that human development is a dynamic, interactive process that begins with an individual’s genetic endowment and unfolds over time as a result of interactions with various levels of the environment? a. natural selection b. psychosexual model c. guided participation approach d. bioecological model Answer: d Rationale: The bioecological model, proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, underscores the dynamic interplay between individuals and their environment across different levels of influence, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. It emphasizes the bidirectional influences and transactions between individuals and their environments in shaping development. 97. Which of the following is a correct matching of theorist and theoretical perspective? a. Vygotsky – Psychodynamic view b. Erikson – Behavioral view c. Bronfenbrenner – Psychodynamic view d. Piaget – Cognitive view Answer: d Rationale: Vygotsky is a cognitive (social-cognitive) theorist, Erikson’s views are usually considered as being in the psychodynamic tradition, and Bronfenbrenner is associated with the bioecological model, a systems approach. Piaget is correctly associated with the cognitive view. 98. Which of the following theorists viewed development as proceeding continuously, without dramatic shifts from one stage of development into another dissimilar stage? a. Jean Piaget b. Sigmund Freud c. Erik Erikson d. Lev Vygotsky Answer: d Rationale: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, and Erikson’s psychosocial theory all emphasize the predictable progression through discrete stages throughout childhood or the entire lifespan. Vygotsky’s social-cognitive theory, on the other hand, emphasizes continuous learning through interactions with learners who are more knowledgeable. 99. Which of the following theorists placed the greatest emphasis on unconscious experience as an important influence in development? a. Sigmund Freud b. Erik Erikson c. Jean Piaget d. Lev Vygotsky Answer: a Rationale: Piaget and Vygotsky did not consider the role of unconscious processes as important in human development. Although Erikson believed that unconscious processes played some role in development, it was Freud who emphasized the role of the unconscious mind as a major determinant of development. The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development 100. Human development is studied from a scientific perspective, meaning that its methods of study are: a. objective b. important c. based on cases of individuals d. based on random samples of individuals Answer: a Rationale: Science relies on objective and systematic methods of investigation, which may or may not be important. Sometimes methods involve case studies or random sampling, but not always because other methods of inquiry are also used. 101. A “baby biography” is best considered to be an example of which of the following research methods? a. experiment b. cross-sectional study c. survey d. case study Answer: d Rationale: The text presents the method used in baby biographies as a precursor to the use of case studies. (They could also be an example of naturalistic observation, since they involve observing infants and recording how and when key development events occur.) They do not, however, involve observing groups of individuals of different ages (the cross-sectional method) or assigning individuals to groups (the experimental method). Since baby biographies are observations of babies, they also cannot fit into the survey method, which involves asking questions and recording responses. 102. A researcher conducts extensive, in-depth interviews with a small group of highly gifted children with genius IQs. What type of study is he conducting? a. case study b. naturalistic observation c. experiment d. laboratory observation Answer: a Rationale: Case studies involve the compilation of detailed information on an individual, a family, or a community through interviews, observations, and formal testing. 103. A researcher conducts in-depth interviews and observations of an individual survivor of the war in Afghanistan. What data collection method has she used? a. case study b. correlation c. survey d. naturalistic observation Answer: a Rationale: Case studies involve the compilation of detailed information on an individual, a family, or a community through interviews, observations, and formal testing. 104. Frank and his baby daughter participate in a research study in which they go to a room where they are met by a researcher. Then Frank is asked to leave the room and the researcher observes how his daughter reacts. This study is most similar to the one described as: a. a baby biography b. the strange situation c. a bioecological interview d. a sequential-cohort design Answer: b Rationale: The text describes the strange situation studies conducted by Mary Ainsworth, which involve the same methodology as that described in this question. Baby biographies are records of when and how babies achieve developmental milestones. The term “bioecological interview” has no particular meaning but is simply two words from the chapter combined. A sequential-cohort study involves the study of several overlapping cohorts of different ages at various points in time. 105. A researcher plans to investigate how toddlers interact with each other, starting from the first time they meet. In the planned study, toddlers that do not know one another will be placed in a room with many interesting toys. Parents will be nearby. Researchers will record the toddlers’ interaction and examine the videotapes at a later time. This type of research is best described as which of the following? a. experiment b. laboratory observation c. naturalistic observation d. cross-sectional design Answer: b Rationale: In a laboratory observation, researchers set up controlled situations designed to elicit the behavior of interest, which describes well the scenario in this item. Naturalistic observation is also an observational method, but refers to situations in which researchers go into everyday settings and observe unobtrusively rather than setting up a controlled situation. 106. The fact that people do not always remember their own behavior correctly poses the most significant problem for which of the following research methods? a. an experiment b. a psychological test c. a survey d. a correlational study Answer: c Rationale: Because a survey always asks people to respond based on their memory or their opinions, memory distortions are especially a problem for this research method. Experiments, tests, and correlational studies can also ask participants about their memory for events. 107. Dr. Abboud wants to better understand how college students solve problems involving moral dilemmas. To do so, he passes out questionnaires to students in his developmental psychology class, asking them to respond. In Dr. Abboud’s study, the students in his class would be considered the _________ and all college students would be considered the _________. a. population; sample b. sample; population c. random sample; representative sample d. representative sample; random sample Answer: b Rationale: This question centers on understanding that a sample consists of a selection of individuals who participate in a study. Researchers study the characteristics or responses of a sample in order to generalize conclusions to the whole group of interest, defined as the population. The distinction between a random sample (where all members of the population are equally likely to be included in the sample) and a representative sample (where the sample is specifically selected so members represent the population in important ways) is not what this question is asking about. 108. Bob and Tim are 16-year-old twins who are contacted every three years and asked to complete a series of psychological tests. The type of research study they most likely are part of is called: a. cross-sectional study b. longitudinal study c. age cohort study d. sequential-cohort study Answer: b Rationale: In longitudinal studies, the same participants are studied at various points in time to see how they change as they age. Since this example suggests only one cohort that is studied every three years, the sequential-cohort study is not correct (because there is only one cohort), nor is the cross-sectional study (because participants are studied at more than one point in time). 109. Dr. Martinez is interested in how thinking changes in adolescence and early adulthood. She identifies two hundred 18-year-olds and has them respond to a written set of questions. She then waits four years, contacts them all again, and has them respond to a similar set of questions. Finally, she waits another four years, contacts the people again (who are now 26 years old), and asks them one last time to respond to her questions. The study Dr. Martinez has conducted is best considered an example of: a. a longitudinal study b. a cross-sectional study c. a sequential-cohort study d. an age-cohort experiment Answer: a Rationale: A longitudinal study identifies a cohort of participants and studies them at various points in time to see how they change as they age. That is what Dr. Martinez’s study does. 110. Dr. Albert is interested in how thinking changes in adolescence and early adulthood. She indentifies a group of people who are 18 years old, a second group who are 22 years old, and a third group who are 26 years old. She asks participants in all three groups to answer some questions testing their moral reasoning skills. Her research study is best considered an example of: a. a longitudinal study b. a cross-sectional study c. a sequential-cohort study d. an age-cohort experiment Answer: b Rationale: A cross-sectional study compares people of different ages at one point in time. That is what Dr. Albert has done in this example. 111. Which research design tests groups of subjects of different ages, all at the same time? a. cross-sectional design b. longitudinal design c. sequential design d. age cohort design Answer: a Rationale: Cross-sectional design involves comparing groups of individuals of different ages at the same point in time to examine age-related differences. This design allows for the efficient study of age-related changes but does not provide information on individual development over time. 112. A researcher interested in studying how friendship changes with age asks students in first-, third-, fifth-, seventh-, ninth-, and eleventh-grades to complete a questionnaire. What type of research design is this researcher using? a. sequential-cohort b. longitudinal c. cross-sectional d. age cohort Answer: c Rationale: Cross-sectional designs compare individuals of different ages at one point in time. In this example, students of different ages (as signified by their different grades) are compared to one another at one point in time (the time that the questionnaire is completed). 113. A researcher studies a group of 1-year-olds, 4-year-olds, and 7-year-olds for one day, and compares the different age groups in terms of their independence. What research design is the researcher using? a. longitudinal b. cross-sectional c. sequential-cohort d. age cohort Answer: b Rationale: Cross-sectional designs compare individuals of different ages at one point in time. Since this example suggests only one cohort that is studied on one day, the sequential-cohort study is not correct (because there is only one cohort), nor is the longitudinal study (because participants are studied at only one point in time). 114. If a researcher combined the method used in a cross-sectional design with that used in a longitudinal design, the result would be called: a. an experiment b. a mixed design c. a correlational design d. a sequential-cohort design Answer: d Rationale: A sequential-cohort design combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs by testing different age groups at multiple time points. This design allows researchers to study both age-related differences and individual development over time, providing a more comprehensive understanding of developmental processes. 115. The sequential-cohort design combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs by: a. testing several age groups at several different times b. testing a single individual in a number of situations c. matching people of different ages or cohorts on a number of relevant factors d. testing a different cohort each year of the sequence Answer: a Rationale: In the sequential-cohort design, several overlapping cohorts of different ages are studied longitudinally. 116. A researcher collects data on a group of children age 4 and another group age 6. He then waits three years, and collects similar data on these same groups of children, who now are age 7 and 9. His research design is an example of: a. a sequential-cohort design b. a cross-sectional design c. a longitudinal design d. a correlational design Answer: a Rationale: A sequential-cohort design involves the study of two or more overlapping cohorts of different ages that also are studied longitudinally. That is what this researcher’s study does. 117. A researcher studies how individuals born during the 1940s compare to individuals born during the 1970s with regard to political participation. The groups of individuals are called: a. reference groups b. alliances c. support groups d. cohorts Answer: d Rationale: Groups of individuals of different ages studied in cross-sectional and sequential-cohort designs are referred to as cohorts. 118. The strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by a statistic called a(n): a. empirical coefficient b. experiment coefficient c. correlation coefficient d. causal coefficient Answer: c Rationale: The correlation coefficient quantifies the degree and direction of the relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to +1, with positive values indicating a positive relationship, negative values indicating a negative relationship, and zero indicating no relationship between the variables. 119. Suppose a researcher wishes to study the relationship between a high-protein diet and school performance. She asks students to record their eating habits for a week and compares their protein consumption to their grade point average in school. If she finds that students who eat more protein generally get better grades, it would be appropriate to conclude that she has identified a: a. positive correlation b. negative correlation c. causal relationship d. “zero order” correlation Answer: a Rationale: Positive correlations describe relationships where as one variable increases the other variable increases as well. In this example, protein consumption increases as grade point average increases. 120. Suppose you find that as children get older, they have larger vocabularies. You have found a _________ correlation between age and vocabulary size. a. sequential b. confounded c. negative d. positive Answer: d Rationale: A positive correlation is the term used to describe relationships between variables in which, as one variable increases in number, the other variable increases also. Here, age is increasing along with vocabulary, making this a positive correlation. 121. A researcher investigating the effect of peer tutoring on reading skills studies two groups of children in remedial reading classes. One group receives peer tutoring three times a week for three months, the other group does not. At the end of the three months, the two groups are tested in reading skills. What is the independent variable in this experiment? a. peer tutoring versus no tutoring b. reading skills level at the beginning of the experiment c. reading skills level at the end of the experiment d. reading skills test itself Answer: a Rationale: An independent variable is the variable in an experiment that is manipulated in order to observe its effects on the dependent variable. In this example, the researcher manipulates whether children receive peer tutoring or not and observes the effects on reading skills at the end of the experiment. 122. A researcher investigating the effect of peer tutoring on reading skills studies two groups of children in remedial reading classes. One group receives peer tutoring three times a week for three months, the other group does not. At the end of the three months, the two groups are tested in reading skills. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? a. peer tutoring versus no tutoring b. reading skills level at the beginning of the experiment c. reading skills level at the end of the experiment d. the number of children in each group Answer: c Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable in an experiment that changes as a result of manipulating the independent variable. In this example, the researcher manipulates whether children receive peer tutoring or not and observes the effects on reading skills at the end of the experiment. 123. In an experiment testing the effects of a drug on behavior, whether or not a subject receives a drug represents the: a. dependent variable b. independent variable c. control variable d. random variable Answer: b Rationale: In experimental research, the independent variable is the factor that the researcher manipulates or controls to observe its effect on the dependent variable, which is the outcome variable being measured. 124. Which of the following statements best describes the role of a dependent variable? a. It is the variable that the researchers manipulate. b. It is the variable that the researchers measure. c. It is the variable also known as the treatment. d. It is a type of variable used in laboratory research, but not applied research. Answer: b Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that researchers measure or observe to assess the effect of the independent variable. It represents the outcome or response that is expected to change as a result of manipulating the independent variable. 125. In an experiment, the variable that the researcher manipulates is called the: a. dependent variable b. independent variable c. controlled variable d. uncontrolled variables Answer: b Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates or controls in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable, which is the outcome variable being measured. 126. A researcher studies how the scores children receive on a spelling test are affected by the amount of sugar they consumed for breakfast. She identifies a group of children and feeds half of them a high-sugar breakfast and feeds the other half a low-sugar breakfast. She gives them the spelling test three hours later. In this study, what is the independent variable? a. the number of words the children can spell correctly on the spelling test b. the number of children tested in the study c. amount of sugar eaten for breakfast d. the difficulty of the words on the spelling test Answer: c Rationale: An independent variable is the variable in an experiment that is manipulated in order to observe its effects on the dependent variable. In this example, the researcher looks at how the amount of sugar consumed (independent variable) affects the dependent variable (scores on a spelling test). 127. Suppose that Dr. Jones reads about a new study with an interesting result. She decides to repeat the study in her own lab to see if she gets the same result. In this case, Dr. Jones’s study would best be considered a(n): a. validation study b. correlational study c. replication d. independent study Answer: c Rationale: A replication study involves repeating a previous study to determine if its findings can be reproduced under similar conditions. By conducting a replication, Dr. Jones aims to verify the reliability and validity of the original study's results. This process is essential for establishing the robustness of scientific findings and ensuring the generalizability of research findings across different contexts. 128. Suppose you collect data about child abuse and find that mothers who have their first child before age 18 are more likely to be abusive than mothers who are older. However, you also note that young mothers are also more likely to be poor and have less access to prenatal care. Therefore, you cannot draw conclusions about maternal age and child abuse. The reason you cannot draw this conclusion is because your study involved: a. a sequential-cohort design b. a nonrandom sample c. a nonrepresentative sample d. confounding Answer: d Rationale: Confounding results when differences between cohort groups, in this case younger and older mothers, involve cohort effect. In this case, the cohort effects include differences between the two groups of mothers with respect to poverty and prenatal care. 129. Which of the following methods of assigning participants to groups in an experiment is the best example of random sampling? a. putting the girls in one group and the boys in another b. making sure that children are able to select the group to which they want to belong c. putting all children’s names in a hat and drawing names to form the groups, even if this results in having unequal numbers of boys and girls in the groups d. having the teacher assign children to groups in order to best separate friends from each other Answer: c Rationale: Random sampling involves placing people in groups so that the groups are roughly equivalent. When children self-select their groups, they are likely to be unequal in important ways. Having a teacher assign children, although better than letting children self-select, may also result in a non-random sampling, since the teacher may be placing children with some specific strategy in mind. Random sampling is best done by drawing names because no bias of any sort can enter into this selection method. 130. A screening committee rejected a research proposal to study frustration in children because the method involved exposing 5-year-olds to repeated failure on a series of highly difficult tasks. The committee's decision to reject this study reflected their concern about which ethical principle? a. informed consent b. privacy c. beneficial treatments d. protection from harm Answer: d Rationale: Under certain circumstances, a psychologist may study humans under conditions that involve minimal risk. However, under no circumstances should research be conducted that has the potential for serious or lasting physical or psychological harm. In this example, exposing 5-year-olds to repeated failure might lead these children to doubt their own abilities even after the study ends, suggesting the potential for lasting psychological harm. 131. When George agrees to participate in a research study, he is told that he may quit at any point for any reason. The reason for this option of quitting is required by the ethical guideline the text refers to as: a. informed consent b. protection from harm c. beneficial treatments d. privacy and confidentiality Answer: a Rationale: The text defines informed consent as involving a statement of the procedures and risks, as well as the obligations of the participants and the researchers. It gives an example of informed consent as the participant’s right to discontinue participation at any point for any reason without fear of punishment. 132. According to the text, which ethical principle holds that people should participate voluntarily, should be told fully of the nature and possible consequences of the experiment, and should not be offered excessive rewards to participate? a. privacy b. beneficial treatments c. informed consent d. protection from harm Answer: c Rationale: Informed consent is an ethical principle that ensures individuals are fully informed about the nature, risks, and potential benefits of participating in research. It emphasizes voluntary participation without coercion and requires researchers to provide clear and understandable information to participants before they agree to take part in a study. 133. A researcher obtains individuals’ permission before randomly assigning them to the treatment or the control group. She is complying with the basic ethical principle regarding: a. freedom from harm b. informed consent c. use of deception d. maintenance of privacy Answer: b Rationale: Informed consent refers to the ethical principle that people should participate in research voluntarily, be fully informed of the nature and possible consequences of the research, and not be coerced in any way. In this situation, the researcher is ensuring that informed consent exists. Changing Perspectives: Children and War 134. Eighteen-year-old Trisha is experiencing the following symptoms: frequent sleep disturbances, the inability to feel normal emotions, problems controlling her impulses, and difficulty concentrating. She walks around much of the time in a “daze,” and she often complains of pain in her neck and of feeling generally “ill.” Based on information presented in the text, you would conclude that Trisha may be suffering from: a. post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) b. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) c. childhood onset schizophrenia d. a low IQ Answer: a Rationale: The symptoms mentioned in this question are exactly those listed in the text for PTSD, which is discussed in the context of the trauma associated with war. HIV, schizophrenia, and low IQ are not discussed in this chapter and they do not have symptom patterns that would correspond to those of PTSD. 135. According to the text, the children who fare best in times of war are those who: a. have rigid and concrete ways of thinking about the world around them b. use a single coping strategy, rather than a range of coping strategies c. who have loving parents and good peer relationships d. who have few friends, so they experience a lesser sense of loss Answer: c Rationale: Research suggests that children who have supportive and loving relationships with parents and peers tend to fare better during times of war or adversity. These positive relationships provide a buffer against stress and help promote resilience in children facing challenging circumstances. 136. According to the text, in the 1990s, there were 50 regions in the world at war. In about how many of these regions were children involved as soldiers? a. 2 regions b. 6 regions c. about 14 regions d. about 34 regions Answer: d Rationale: The text notes that of the 50 regions of the world at war in the 1990s, about two-thirds involved underage soldiers in their conflicts. Current Issues: Fragile Families and Child Well-Being 137. The participants in the “Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study” were: a. children born with birth defects b. children born to single-parent, economically poor mothers or fathers c. married and unmarried couples who had just had their first baby d. teachers working in school districts where most of the children were defined as “at risk” Answer: c Rationale: The "Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study" focused on married and unmarried couples who had just had their first baby. This study aimed to examine the challenges and outcomes associated with fragile family structures, particularly those characterized by unmarried parents. 138. The original phase of the “Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study” assessed children at which of the following ages? a. at birth and at age 5, when they entered school b. at birth, and at 12, 30, and 48 months of age c. at birth, at age 10, and at age 18 d. at birth and at age 16 Answer: b Rationale: The original phase of the "Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study" assessed children at birth, and then followed up at 12, 30, and 48 months of age. This longitudinal design allowed researchers to track developmental outcomes and family dynamics over time. 139. What was the primary purpose of the “Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study?” a. to determine health risks for children exposed to drugs and alcohol during the prenatal period b. to identify characteristics associated with fathers who were most likely to abandon their children c. to evaluate the impact of child welfare legislation that provided benefits for unwed mothers d. to evaluate the impact of poverty and environmental stress on the development of young children Answer: d Rationale: The primary purpose of the "Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study" was to evaluate the impact of poverty and environmental stress on the development of young children within fragile family structures. This study aimed to understand the challenges faced by children born into economically disadvantaged and unmarried family situations. True/False questions: Introduction to Development 140. Developmental psychologists generally focus their study on the unusual individuals in order to learn about the extremes of human development. Answer: False Rationale: Developmental psychologists usually focus on typical individuals, because they hope to better understand developmental processes that are common to nearly all normal individuals. Psychologists interested in the study of abnormal psychology or individual differences would be more likely to study unusual individuals as a method of understanding deviation. The Nature of Human Development 141. Learning to talk in infancy is a good example of maturation because it is closely linked to the development of the brain and the increasing ability to coordinate motor control. Answer: True Rationale: Maturation refers to the biological process of growth and development that unfolds naturally over time, largely driven by genetic factors. The ability to talk in infancy involves complex neurological and motor skills, which develop as the brain matures and the infant gains greater control over their vocal cords and mouth muscles. Therefore, learning to talk is indeed closely linked to maturation, as it is influenced by the developmental changes occurring in the brain and motor systems. 142. In the United States, the use of corporal punishment has been completely banned in public schools. Answer: False Rationale: In 2008 in the United States, 31 states have banned corporal punishment in the public schools, but the rest allow local school districts to decide if they will allow this type of punishment. 143. In collectivist cultures, competition is stressed over cooperation. Answer: False Rationale: Cultures that stress competition over cooperation are referred to as individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures emphasis the good of the group over the achievements of an individual, and they stress cooperation over competition. Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development 144. Developmental psychology is considered to be a science. Answer: True Rationale: Developmental psychology utilizes scientific methods to study human growth and behavior across the lifespan. Researchers in this field employ systematic observation, experimentation, and analysis of data to understand various aspects of development, including cognitive, emotional, social, and physical changes. The scientific approach allows for the formulation of hypotheses, empirical testing, and the accumulation of knowledge through systematic investigation, making developmental psychology a recognized scientific discipline. 145. The entire arrangement of all human genes has been successfully mapped. Answer: True Rationale: The mapping of the entire arrangement of human genes, known as the human genome, has been successfully accomplished through collaborative scientific efforts such as the Human Genome Project. This project, completed in 2003, provided a comprehensive understanding of the sequence and organization of human DNA, laying the foundation for numerous advancements in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology. 146. Evolution refers in general to the process through which species change across generations. Answer: True Rationale: Evolution is a fundamental concept in biology that describes the process through which species undergo genetic change and adaptation over successive generations. It encompasses mechanisms such as natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow, leading to the diversity of life forms observed on Earth. Evolutionary theory provides a framework for understanding the origins of species, their relationships, and the patterns of biodiversity observed in nature. 147. Freud’s theory of human development emphasizes how logical reasoning develops during childhood. Answer: False Rationale: Freud’s view focused on psychosexual development and on the development of personality, not cognition. Piaget and Vygotsky are more closely identified with the developing of cognitive processes, including logical reasoning. 148. Erik Erikson’s view of development, like Freud’s, emphasized the idea that the most important aspects of human development are completed in the first five years of life. Answer: False Rationale: Erikson’s theory emphasized that development occurs throughout the lifespan. Although Erikson did believe that developmental processes during the first five years set the stage for later development, he included three additional stages that describe continuing developmental issues that unfold throughout adolescence and adulthood. 149. Suppose you eat lobster for the first time, then get the flu and become ill. Now, the thought of eating lobster leaves you with a queasy feeling in your stomach. The mechanism that best describes how you learned the “lobster – sick” association is classical conditioning. Answer: True Rationale: Classical conditioning involves learning an association between two stimuli, where one stimulus elicits a response that was originally elicited by another stimulus. In this scenario, the pairing of the lobster (neutral stimulus) with feeling sick (unconditioned stimulus) leads to the association between lobster and feeling queasy (conditioned response). Therefore, classical conditioning best describes how the "lobster – sick" association is learned. 150. Jean Piaget viewed children’s thought as not only limited by experience but also qualitatively different compared to adult thought. Answer: True Rationale: Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development posits that children's thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults. He proposed that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development, marked by qualitative shifts in their thinking processes. According to Piaget, children's cognitive abilities are not just limited versions of adult capabilities but are fundamentally different in nature, characterized by unique modes of reasoning and understanding. 151. Suppose little Maria has a good schema developed for “dogs.” When she sees her neighbor’s new dog, she correctly says, “Dog.” Piaget would explain Maria’s ability to incorporate a new instance of the “dog” category as an example of accommodation. Answer: False Rationale: Incorporating new information into an existing schema is referred to as assimilation. Accommodation involves changing a schema in order to fit a new instance into it. 152. Lev Vygotsky’s view of development emphasized the role of biological factors, and especially evolutionary forces, on development. Answer: False Rationale: Vygotsky emphasized social forces, such as learning by being mentored by an older person, as the primary means by which development unfolds. 153. Systems theories provide explanations that are general, in the sense that they incorporate a very broad focus on development. Answer: True Rationale: Systems theories in psychology, such as ecological systems theory or systems theory of development, offer comprehensive frameworks for understanding development by considering interactions between various components or levels within a system. These theories emphasize the interconnectedness and interdependence of different factors influencing development, including individual characteristics, social contexts, cultural influences, and environmental factors. By taking a holistic approach, systems theories provide broad explanations that account for the complexity and dynamic nature of human development. The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development 154. In a case study, people typically are observed in their everyday lives, often without their knowledge. Answer: False Rationale: The case study method involves conducting an in-depth interview with an individual, who is fully aware that his or her responses are being recorded. 155. In a naturalistic observation, the researcher watches individuals as they act in real life, rather than in a laboratory. Answer: True Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural environment without any manipulation or control by the researcher. This method allows for a more authentic understanding of behavior as it occurs naturally, outside the confines of a laboratory setting. 156. If a researcher selected a sample by selecting every fifth person on an alphabetical list of possible participants, this would be a good example of the technique of representative sampling. Answer: False Rationale: Choosing every fifth person from a population of interest is a good example of random sampling. Representative sampling involves matching the characteristics of the sample to those of the population on variable of interest, such as gender, age, and so forth. 157. Longitudinal studies are more likely to include cohort effects than are cross-sectional studies. Answer: False Rationale: Cohort effects refer to differences between groups of individuals. Because longitudinal studies follow a single group of participants across time, cohort effects are not involved. Cohort effects are an issue in cross-sectional studies, since these compare different groups of people. 158. When a researcher finds a positive correlation between the amount of violent TV watched by school children and the number of violent outbursts by these same children, the researcher can safely conclude that TV viewing directly caused the violent outbursts. Answer: False Rationale: The results of correlational studies do not allow researchers to make cause-and-effect conclusions. Rather, correlational studies simply allow the researchers to conclude that the variables under study are related to each other. 159. In Albert Bandura’s “Bobo doll” study, the independent variable was the consequences for the adult model who behaved aggressively against the doll. Answer: True Rationale: In Bandura's "Bobo doll" study, the independent variable was indeed the consequences for the adult model who behaved aggressively against the doll. Bandura manipulated whether the adult model faced consequences for aggressive behavior or not to observe the effects on the children's subsequent behavior towards the doll. 160. The major responsibility of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to evaluate research projects to determine if they might pose potential harm to participants. Answer: True Rationale: The primary responsibility of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) is indeed to evaluate research projects to ensure that they adhere to ethical standards and do not pose potential harm to participants. IRBs review research protocols to assess risks and benefits, protect participants' rights, and ensure that research is conducted ethically and responsibly. Short Answer questions: Introduction to Development The Nature of Human Development 161. Give an example of how a biological milestone is used to mark the transition from one development stage or period to the next. Give a second example of how these developmental stages are sometimes divided by cultural milestones. Answer: Biological Milestone Example: In human development, the onset of puberty often marks the transition from childhood to adolescence. This biological milestone is characterized by physical changes such as the development of secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive capabilities. Cultural Milestone Example: Another example of marking developmental stages is the transition from adolescence to adulthood, which is often celebrated with cultural rites of passage such as graduation ceremonies, debutante balls, or coming-of-age rituals. These cultural milestones signify the transition to new societal roles and responsibilities. 162. In your own words, describe what it means to state: “development occurs within a sociocultural context.” Answer: To state that "development occurs within a sociocultural context" means acknowledging that individuals' growth and progress are influenced by the social and cultural environment in which they live. This perspective recognizes that factors such as family dynamics, cultural traditions, societal norms, and institutional structures shape individuals' experiences, beliefs, behaviors, and opportunities for development. 163. What is the essential difference between “maturation” and “learning”? Answer: The essential difference between "maturation" and "learning" lies in their underlying processes and origins. Maturation refers to the biological unfolding of predetermined developmental sequences within an organism, driven by genetic factors and influenced by biological processes like aging. In contrast, learning involves the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes through experiences, interactions, and instruction. While maturation is primarily intrinsic and follows a genetically programmed course, learning is influenced by external stimuli and can be shaped by environmental factors, including social and cultural influences. 164. Describe two important differences between collectivist and individualist cultures. Answer: 1. Social Orientation: In collectivist cultures, there is a strong emphasis on group harmony, interdependence, and prioritizing the needs of the collective over individual desires. Individuals in these cultures often maintain close-knit relationships with family, extended family, and community members. Conversely, in individualist cultures, there is a focus on independence, self-expression, and personal achievement. Individuals prioritize their own goals and aspirations over group cohesion and may value personal autonomy and individual rights. 2. Sense of Identity: Collectivist cultures tend to foster an identity that is closely tied to one's social roles and group affiliations. People in these cultures often define themselves in relation to their family, community, or cultural heritage. In contrast, individualist cultures promote a sense of identity that is more self-focused, emphasizing personal attributes, achievements, and aspirations rather than group affiliations. 165. Give an example of a developmental question that would appropriately fit into each of the following domains: the physical domain, the cognitive domain, the personality domain, and the sociocultural domain. Answer: • Physical Domain: "How does a child's fine motor skills development progress from infancy to preschool years?" • Cognitive Domain: "What strategies can be used to encourage problem-solving skills in early childhood?" • Personality Domain: "How do temperament traits like extraversion or neuroticism manifest in adolescence, and how do they influence social interactions?" • Sociocultural Domain: "What impact does exposure to multicultural environments have on children's understanding of diversity and inclusion?" Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development 166. How do scientific theories differ from other ways of drawing conclusions, for example, from the advice given in cultural proverbs? Answer: Scientific theories differ from other ways of drawing conclusions, such as cultural proverbs, in their basis and methodology. Scientific theories are developed through systematic observation, experimentation, and empirical evidence, aiming to provide explanations for natural phenomena that are testable and potentially falsifiable. In contrast, cultural proverbs often rely on anecdotal wisdom passed down through generations and may lack empirical evidence or scientific validation. While cultural proverbs may offer valuable insights based on collective experience, they are not subjected to the rigorous testing and refinement characteristic of scientific theories. 167. Identify the primary functions of the id, the ego, and the superego, according to Freud’s theory. Answer: • Id: According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of primal urges and desires. It is the unconscious part of the psyche that houses innate biological drives such as hunger, thirst, and libido. • Ego: The ego operates on the reality principle, mediating between the id's demands for instant gratification and the constraints of the external world. It seeks to satisfy the id's desires in ways that are socially acceptable and realistic, employing defense mechanisms to cope with conflicting demands. • Superego: The superego represents the internalized moral standards and values acquired from society, parents, and other authority figures. It serves as the conscience, striving for moral perfection and enforcing societal norms through feelings of guilt or pride. 168. Give an example of something that is learned as the result of classical conditioning, something learned through operant conditioning, and something learned primarily as the result of social learning. Answer: • Classical Conditioning Example: A dog learning to salivate at the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) after repeatedly being presented with food (unconditioned stimulus) alongside the bell (conditioned stimulus). • Operant Conditioning Example: A child learning to complete chores to earn an allowance. The child's behavior of completing chores (operant behavior) is reinforced by receiving money (positive reinforcement). • Social Learning Example: A toddler learning to say "please" and "thank you" by observing and imitating the polite language used by caregivers and siblings in social interactions. 169. Define Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation and give an example of each. Answer: • Assimilation: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive schemas or mental frameworks. For example, a child who has a schema for birds may assimilate the concept of a robin into their existing schema of birds when they see one for the first time. • Accommodation: Accommodation is the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences that cannot be assimilated. For instance, if a child encounters a penguin and realizes it does not fit their existing schema of birds, they may create a new schema or modify their existing one to accommodate this new information. 170. Cite a major way in which Vygotsky’s theory differs from that proposed by Piaget. Answer: A major way in which Vygotsky's theory differs from Piaget's is in their emphasis on the role of social interaction in cognitive development. While Piaget focused on the child's independent exploration and discovery of knowledge, Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interaction, cultural context, and language in shaping cognitive development. Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), highlighting the importance of interactions with more knowledgeable others who can provide guidance and support to help children progress to higher levels of understanding. 171. Describe why Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model is a good example of systems theories. Answer: Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model is a good example of systems theories because it emphasizes the complex interactions and interdependence between individuals and their environments. The model consists of nested environmental systems, including the microsystem (immediate environment), mesosystem (interactions between microsystems), exosystem (external settings indirectly influencing development), macrosystem (cultural values, laws, customs), and chronosystem (historical context and changes over time). These systems interact dynamically, shaping individuals' development over time. The bioecological model illustrates how multiple levels of influence, from immediate family relationships to broader cultural contexts, impact human development in interconnected and reciprocal ways, aligning with the principles of systems theories. The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development 172. State why developmental psychology is considered to be a science. Answer: Developmental psychology is considered a science because it employs systematic methods of observation, experimentation, and analysis to study human development across the lifespan. It follows the principles of the scientific method, including formulating hypotheses, conducting empirical research, and drawing conclusions based on evidence. Developmental psychologists use rigorous research designs and statistical analyses to test theories, uncover patterns of behavior, and identify factors influencing developmental processes. By adhering to scientific standards, developmental psychology aims to generate reliable knowledge about how individuals grow, change, and adapt over time. 173. What is the major difference between naturalistic observation methods and laboratory observation methods? When is each most likely to be used? Answer: • Major Difference: Naturalistic observation methods involve studying subjects in their natural environment, without intervention or manipulation by the researcher, while laboratory observation methods involve observing subjects in a controlled setting designed by the researcher. • When Each is Used: Naturalistic observation is most likely to be used when researchers want to observe behavior in its natural context, allowing for greater ecological validity. Laboratory observation is employed when researchers seek to control variables and eliminate potential confounding factors, enabling more precise measurement and manipulation of variables. 174. Contrast the longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Identify advantages and disadvantages of each. Answer: • Longitudinal Design: Longitudinal research follows the same group of individuals over an extended period, observing changes and continuity in development. Advantages include the ability to study individual trajectories of development and identify age-related changes accurately. However, disadvantages include high attrition rates, practice effects, and the time and expense required. • Cross-sectional Design: Cross-sectional research compares different groups of individuals at the same time point, representing different age cohorts. Advantages include efficiency, minimal participant attrition, and reduced time and cost. Disadvantages include cohort effects, difficulty in inferring developmental changes within individuals, and potential confounding variables. 175. What are the most important advantages and disadvantages of correlation as a research method for studying human development? Answer: • Advantages: Correlation research allows researchers to examine the relationship between variables without manipulating them directly, providing valuable insights into associations between factors. It can identify patterns of co-variation and generate hypotheses for further investigation. • Disadvantages: Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that a correlation between variables does not necessarily indicate a cause-and-effect relationship. Additionally, third variables or confounding factors may influence the observed correlation, limiting the ability to draw definitive conclusions about causality. 176. In your own words, explain why researchers value replications of studies or experiments. Answer: Researchers value replications of studies or experiments because they provide an opportunity to verify the reliability and generalizability of findings. Replication studies allow researchers to determine if the results of an original study can be consistently reproduced under similar conditions, strengthening the confidence in the validity of the findings. Moreover, replications help identify any potential limitations or boundary conditions of the original study, contributing to the cumulative knowledge base of a particular research area. 177. Described what the ethical principle of “informed consent” requires researchers to do. Answer: The ethical principle of "informed consent" requires researchers to provide participants with comprehensive information about the nature, purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the study before they agree to participate. Participants must fully understand the research's objectives, potential outcomes, and any potential risks or discomforts involved. Researchers must ensure that participants have the capacity to provide voluntary consent, free from coercion or undue influence, and they must respect participants' right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Informed consent ensures that participants are adequately informed and can make autonomous decisions about their involvement in research. Essay questions: Introduction to Development 178. Suggest two advantages associated with breaking the human lifespan into periods or stages of development for the purposes of studying how development proceeds. Answer: Advantages: 1. Organization and Understanding: Breaking the human lifespan into periods or stages allows researchers to organize developmental processes into coherent segments, facilitating understanding of how humans grow and change over time. For instance, categorizing development into infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood provides a framework for studying unique characteristics, challenges, and milestones within each stage. 2. Predictive and Intervention Strategies: Understanding developmental stages enables professionals to anticipate typical patterns of growth and potential challenges. By identifying stages where individuals may be more susceptible to certain influences or vulnerabilities, interventions and support systems can be tailored accordingly. For instance, recognizing the importance of early childhood development allows for targeted interventions to support optimal growth and mitigate risks. 179. In your own words, describe what is meant by the term “interaction” and give an example of how biological and environmental forces interact to influence human development. Answer: Interaction: Interaction refers to the dynamic interplay between biological factors (genetic predispositions, physiological processes) and environmental influences (social, cultural, and physical surroundings) that shape human development. Example: An example of biological and environmental interaction in human development is seen in the development of language skills. Biologically, humans are born with the capacity for language acquisition due to neurological structures in the brain. However, the specific language(s) a person learns and their proficiency in those languages are influenced by environmental factors such as exposure to language input from caregivers, cultural norms surrounding language use, and opportunities for practice and reinforcement. The Nature of Human Development 180. The nature-nurture debate has received a great deal of attention in developmental psychology. In your own words, explain this debate. Provide one example of an influence on development that represents “nature” and one that represents “nurture.” Answer: Nature-Nurture Debate Explanation: The nature-nurture debate revolves around the question of how much of human behavior and development is determined by innate factors (nature) such as genetics and biology, versus environmental influences (nurture) such as upbringing, experiences, and social context. Example: • Nature: An example of an influence on development representing "nature" is intelligence. Some researchers argue that intelligence is largely determined by genetic factors, meaning individuals inherit cognitive abilities from their biological parents. Twin and adoption studies often support the role of genetics in intelligence, showing similarities in IQ scores between identical twins raised apart. • Nurture: An example of an influence on development representing "nurture" is language acquisition. While humans have a biological predisposition for language, the specific language(s) a person learns and their proficiency are heavily influenced by environmental factors such as exposure to language input, cultural practices, and educational opportunities. 181. Describe how attitudes toward children in Western civilization have changed since the time of ancient Greece. Answer: Attitudes toward children in Western civilization have undergone significant shifts since ancient Greece. In ancient Greece, children were often regarded as immature beings with limited rights and autonomy. They were typically seen as extensions of their fathers, primarily valued for their potential contributions to the family or society. Education focused on developing skills deemed important for citizenship and social status. However, over time, attitudes toward children evolved, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods. There was a growing recognition of childhood as a distinct stage of life deserving of care, nurturing, and education. Philosophers like John Locke emphasized the importance of early experiences in shaping character and intellect, advocating for gentle and nurturing parenting practices. In modern Western societies, children are generally viewed as individuals with inherent rights, deserving of protection, support, and opportunities for growth and development. Child-centered approaches to parenting and education prioritize the well-being and unique needs of children, promoting concepts like positive discipline, child autonomy, and emotional intelligence. Additionally, legal frameworks and social policies have been established to safeguard children's rights and ensure their welfare. Overall, there has been a significant shift from viewing children as passive dependents to recognizing them as active participants in their own development and society. 182. Describe an activity assigned to grade school children that would reflect the values inherent in a collectivist society and another activity that would reflect values inherent in an individualist culture. Then identify the significant ways in which these two types of activities differ, and discuss why those differences are reflective of the cultures they represent. Answer: Collectivist Activity: A project where grade school children work together to create a community garden would reflect the values inherent in a collectivist society. In this activity, children would collaborate to plan, plant, and maintain the garden, sharing responsibilities and resources. The emphasis would be on teamwork, cooperation, and benefiting the group as a whole rather than individual achievement. Individualist Activity: A competitive spelling bee would reflect values inherent in an individualist culture. In this activity, children would compete against each other to demonstrate their individual spelling abilities. The focus would be on personal achievement, outperforming others, and gaining recognition for individual skills rather than cooperation or group success. Significant Differences: 1. Emphasis on Individual vs. Group: The collectivist activity emphasizes collective efforts and benefits, whereas the individualist activity focuses on individual achievement and competition. 2. Cooperation vs. Competition: In the collectivist activity, children cooperate to achieve a common goal, while in the individualist activity, they compete against each other. 3. Values Reinforced: The collectivist activity reinforces values such as teamwork, sharing, and community, whereas the individualist activity reinforces values such as individual achievement, competition, and personal success. Reflective of Cultures: These differences are reflective of the broader cultural values of collectivism and individualism. In collectivist cultures, such as many East Asian societies, emphasis is placed on harmony, cooperation, and the well-being of the group. Conversely, in individualist cultures like those prevalent in Western societies, there is a greater emphasis on personal goals, competition, and individual achievement. 183. Why is interaction such an important concept in the study of human development? As part of your answer, give an example of how the physical and cognitive domains of development interact. Give another example of how the personality and the sociocultural domains interact. Answer: Interaction's Importance in Human Development: Interaction is crucial in human development because it acknowledges the dynamic interplay between various domains, leading to a holistic understanding of individuals' growth. It recognizes that development is not solely determined by one domain but rather by the complex interactions between different aspects of human functioning. Example 1 - Physical and Cognitive Domains: The interaction between physical and cognitive domains is evident in the development of fine motor skills. As children's physical abilities, such as hand-eye coordination, improve, they can engage in activities like drawing or writing, which require cognitive processes like planning and problem-solving. Likewise, as cognitive abilities develop, such as understanding spatial relationships, children can better control their physical movements to accomplish tasks requiring precision. Example 2 - Personality and Sociocultural Domains: Personality development is influenced by sociocultural factors such as family, peers, and societal norms. For instance, a child growing up in a culture that values independence may develop a personality characterized by assertiveness and self-reliance. Conversely, in a culture emphasizing collectivism, a child might develop a personality more focused on cooperation and harmony, influenced by the social dynamics and values of their community. Interactions Reflect Human Development: These interactions demonstrate that human development is not isolated to one domain but is shaped by the continuous interplay between physical, cognitive, personality, and sociocultural factors. Understanding these interactions provides insight into the complexities of development and informs interventions and support systems tailored to individuals' needs. Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development 184. If a student said, “I don’t want to learn about theories of human development because they seem to contradict each other,” what should be your response? Answer: It's understandable to feel overwhelmed or confused by the apparent contradictions in theories of human development. However, it's essential to recognize that these contradictions often arise from the complexity and multifaceted nature of human development rather than the theories themselves being inherently flawed. Instead of viewing contradictions as a hindrance, consider them as opportunities to delve deeper into understanding the diverse perspectives and factors influencing human growth and behavior. By exploring different theories, you gain a more comprehensive understanding of human development, recognizing that each theory offers unique insights into specific aspects of development. Additionally, theories often complement each other, providing different lenses through which to examine human behavior and experiences. Embracing this diversity of perspectives enriches your understanding and enhances your ability to critically analyze and apply developmental concepts in various contexts. Rather than dismissing theories due to perceived contradictions, approach them with curiosity and an open mind, recognizing that the richness of human development cannot be fully captured by any single theory alone. 185. Describe two ways in which an understanding of developmental neuroscience helps researchers studying cognitive development, and those studying personality development, better explain human behavior. Answer: Ways Developmental Neuroscience Aids Researchers: 1. Insights into Brain Development: Developmental neuroscience provides researchers with insights into how the brain develops across different stages of life. Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and executive functions, helps elucidate how these abilities emerge and change over time. For example, studying the development of prefrontal cortex connectivity can explain changes in impulse control and decision-making during adolescence, which are integral to personality development. 2. Identification of Neural Correlates: By identifying neural correlates associated with specific aspects of cognition or personality, researchers can better explain individual differences in behavior and functioning. For instance, studying the neural circuits involved in social processing helps elucidate how variations in brain structure and function contribute to differences in social behavior and personality traits like empathy and altruism. Enhancing Understanding of Human Behavior: These insights from developmental neuroscience enrich researchers' understanding of cognitive and personality development by providing a biological foundation for understanding behavior. By integrating neural findings with psychological theories, researchers can construct more comprehensive models of human development that consider both the psychological and neurobiological factors shaping behavior and individual differences. 186. In your own words, describe the process of natural selection, emphasizing how this theory explains how species change across large numbers of generations. Answer: Natural Selection Explanation: Natural selection is the mechanism by which species adapt to their environments over generations, leading to changes in populations over time. It operates through the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with traits that confer advantages in their specific environment. Here's how it works: Within a population, there exists variation in traits due to genetic diversity. Some of these traits may be advantageous in the given environment, such as better camouflage or resistance to disease. Individuals with these advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes to the next generation. Over successive generations, these advantageous traits become more prevalent in the population, while less advantageous or detrimental traits diminish. This process of "survival of the fittest" leads to the gradual accumulation of beneficial traits within a population, ultimately resulting in the adaptation of species to their environments. Natural selection thus explains how species change and diversify across large numbers of generations, as those with traits best suited to their environment are favored and perpetuated through reproduction. 187. Compare Freud’s and Erikson’s theories of human development by explaining at least one feature they have in common and at least two ways in which they differ. Answer: Common Feature: Both Freud's psychosexual theory and Erikson's psychosocial theory recognize the significance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality and development. They both propose that experiences during specific stages of life have long-lasting effects on an individual's psychological functioning. Differences: 1. Developmental Stages: Freud's theory primarily focuses on psychosexual stages, where the emphasis is on resolving conflicts related to different erogenous zones. In contrast, Erikson's theory encompasses psychosocial stages, which involve resolving conflicts related to social interactions and identity development across the lifespan. 2. Primary Motivations: Freud emphasizes the role of unconscious sexual and aggressive drives in shaping behavior and personality, proposing that conflicts between these drives and societal demands influence development. On the other hand, Erikson emphasizes the importance of social and cultural influences, proposing that individuals seek to establish a sense of identity and competence within their social context, with less emphasis on biological drives. Summary: While both theories acknowledge the importance of early experiences and conflicts in development, they differ in their conceptualization of developmental stages, primary motivations, and the role of biological versus social factors in shaping personality. 188. Describe at least two important ways that psychodynamic views of development differ from behavioral views. Answer: Differences between Psychodynamic and Behavioral Views: 1. Focus on Unconscious Processes: Psychodynamic perspectives, such as those proposed by Freud and Jung, emphasize the role of unconscious processes, such as drives, instincts, and conflicts, in shaping behavior and personality. These unconscious forces are seen as influencing conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions. In contrast, behavioral views, particularly those of behaviorism, focus on observable behaviors and environmental stimuli, largely disregarding internal mental processes like unconscious motivations. 2. Emphasis on Early Experiences and Personality Development: Psychodynamic theories propose that early childhood experiences, particularly interactions with caregivers, significantly influence personality development and psychological functioning throughout life. Concepts such as attachment, defense mechanisms, and the resolution of unconscious conflicts play central roles in psychodynamic views of development. In contrast, behavioral theories, such as those of B.F. Skinner, prioritize the role of environmental reinforcement and conditioning in shaping behavior, with less emphasis on early childhood experiences or internal psychological processes. Summary: Psychodynamic views emphasize unconscious processes, early experiences, and the role of internal conflicts in shaping personality, whereas behavioral views focus on observable behaviors, environmental stimuli, and the principles of conditioning and reinforcement. 189. Suppose that a child has a schema for “shapes” that includes a circle, a square, and a triangle. Now, the child is shown an irregular four-sided shape, one that looks like a lopsided rectangle. Using Piaget’s concepts of “assimilation” and “accommodation,” suggest how the child would respond to the new shape if she attempted to assimilate it, and if she attempted to accommodate it. Answer: Response to New Shape: If the child attempted to assimilate the new shape, she would likely try to fit it into her existing schema for shapes. In this case, she might perceive the irregular four-sided shape as a variation of a square or rectangle, as it shares some similarities with these familiar shapes in terms of having four sides and right angles. However, she might find it challenging to fully categorize the new shape within her existing schema due to its irregularity. On the other hand, if the child attempted to accommodate the new shape, she would modify her existing schema to incorporate this new information. She might recognize that the shape does not perfectly fit into any of the familiar categories like circle, square, or triangle. Instead, she might create a new category for irregular shapes or revise her understanding of what constitutes a square or rectangle to include variations like the lopsided rectangle. Summary: Assimilation involves fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, whereas accommodation involves modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information. In response to the irregular four-sided shape, the child may initially attempt to assimilate it into her existing schema but may ultimately need to accommodate her understanding to fully incorporate this new shape. 190. Consider the views of Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget on cognitive development. How are they alike? How do they differ? Answer: Similarities: Both Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget were influential figures in the field of cognitive development, and their theories share some commonalities: 1. Focus on Child Development: Both Vygotsky and Piaget focused their theories on understanding how children develop cognitively over time. 2. Constructivist Approach: Both theorists proposed constructivist approaches to cognitive development, suggesting that children actively construct their understanding of the world through interactions with their environment. Differences: Despite these similarities, Vygotsky's and Piaget's theories also differ in several key aspects: 1. Social Interaction vs. Individual Exploration: Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural influences in cognitive development, proposing that children learn through interaction with more knowledgeable others, such as parents or peers. In contrast, Piaget highlighted individual exploration and the role of intrinsic motivation in cognitive development, suggesting that children actively construct knowledge through their own experiences with the environment. 2. Zone of Proximal Development vs. Stages of Development: Vygotsky introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform with the assistance of a more competent individual. In contrast, Piaget's theory is characterized by distinct stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational), each associated with specific cognitive abilities and milestones. Summary: While Vygotsky and Piaget share a constructivist perspective on cognitive development, they differ in their emphasis on social interaction versus individual exploration and in their conceptualization of developmental processes, such as the ZPD and stages of development. 191. What does it mean to say that the study of human development is “plastic”? Give an example that demonstrates this statement. Answer: Meaning of "Plastic" in Human Development: To say that the study of human development is "plastic" means that human development is malleable or adaptable, influenced by various factors such as experiences, environments, and interventions. Plasticity implies that individuals have the capacity to change and develop throughout their lives, not just in childhood but also in adulthood. Example: An example that demonstrates the plasticity of human development is the effect of early intervention programs on children's cognitive and socio-emotional development. Research has shown that providing high-quality early childhood education and support programs to at-risk children can significantly improve their outcomes later in life. For instance, children who participate in early intervention programs that focus on language development, social skills, and school readiness often demonstrate enhanced cognitive abilities, better academic achievement, and improved social and emotional competence compared to those who do not receive such interventions. This illustrates how targeted interventions can positively influence the trajectory of human development, highlighting the plasticity of developmental processes. Summary: The plasticity of human development emphasizes its malleable nature, with individuals' trajectories shaped by experiences, environments, and interventions. The example of early intervention programs demonstrates how targeted efforts can lead to positive developmental outcomes, underscoring the capacity for change and adaptation throughout the lifespan. The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development 192. Suggest two advantages associated with studying human development from a scientific, as opposed to a non-scientific, perspective. Answer: Advantages of Scientific Study of Human Development: 1. Empirical Evidence: Scientific research in human development relies on empirical evidence gathered through systematic observation and experimentation. This approach allows researchers to collect reliable data, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions based on objective findings rather than subjective opinions or anecdotes. Empirical evidence provides a foundation for building knowledge and making informed decisions in areas such as education, healthcare, and social policy. 2. Objectivity and Rigor: The scientific perspective promotes objectivity and rigor in the study of human development. By adhering to methodological standards and principles of scientific inquiry, researchers strive to minimize bias and ensure the validity and reliability of their findings. This commitment to rigorous methodology enhances the credibility and trustworthiness of research outcomes, facilitating the advancement of knowledge in the field of human development. Summary: Studying human development from a scientific perspective offers advantages such as reliance on empirical evidence and adherence to objectivity and rigor, which contribute to the generation of reliable knowledge and informed decision-making in various domains. 193. Identify a research topic in the field of human development that would best be examined using a case study method, a survey method, and an experimental method. Answer: Research Topics and Methods: 1. Case Study Method: A research topic suited for a case study method could be "The Long-Term Effects of Childhood Trauma on Adult Mental Health." A case study approach would allow for an in-depth examination of individual experiences, including detailed histories, behaviors, and outcomes related to childhood trauma and its impact on mental health outcomes in adulthood. 2. Survey Method: A research topic appropriate for a survey method might be "Parenting Styles and Adolescent Academic Achievement." Surveys could be used to gather data from a large sample of parents and adolescents to explore the relationship between different parenting styles (e.g., authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) and academic achievement outcomes in adolescents. 3. Experimental Method: A research topic suitable for an experimental method could be "The Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults." Researchers could conduct an experiment where older adults are randomly assigned to either an exercise intervention group or a control group. Cognitive assessments would be administered before and after the intervention to evaluate changes in cognitive functioning associated with exercise. Summary: Different research methods are best suited for investigating various aspects of human development. Case studies are valuable for exploring individual experiences in depth, surveys are useful for gathering data from large samples to examine associations, and experiments allow for causal inference by manipulating variables and observing their effects. 194. Describe how you might conduct a sequential-cohort design study to explore the question: How do adults in early adulthood, middle adulthood, and older adulthood react to the death of their spouse? Answer: Conducting a Sequential-Cohort Design Study: 1. Selection of Participants: Participants from different age cohorts (early adulthood, middle adulthood, older adulthood) would be recruited through various channels such as community centers, social media, and support groups for bereaved individuals. Sample sizes should be representative of each cohort to ensure adequate statistical power. 2. Data Collection: Data would be collected using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Semi-structured interviews or focus groups could be conducted to gather in-depth insights into participants' experiences and reactions to spousal loss. Additionally, standardized measures of grief, coping strategies, and psychological well-being would be administered to assess quantitative differences across age cohorts. 3. Longitudinal Follow-Up: Participants would be followed over time to track changes in their grief reactions and adjustment to spousal loss. Multiple assessments would be conducted at regular intervals (e.g., every six months) to capture the trajectory of grief and coping strategies across early, middle, and older adulthood. 4. Data Analysis: Data would be analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Qualitative data from interviews or focus groups would be thematically analyzed to identify common themes and patterns in participants' experiences. Quantitative data would be analyzed using statistical methods to examine differences in grief reactions and coping strategies across age cohorts. Summary: A sequential-cohort design study would allow researchers to explore how adults in different age cohorts react to the death of their spouse over time, providing valuable insights into the grieving process and age-related differences in coping strategies and adjustment. 195. Describe how you might conduct an experiment to study this question: Does learning a second language in third grade improve scores on reading tests given in sixth grade? Answer: Conducting an Experiment: 1. Participant Selection: Elementary schools would be recruited to participate in the study. Students in third grade from these schools would be randomly assigned to either a second language learning group or a control group (standard curriculum). Participants' reading abilities would be assessed at baseline to ensure equivalence between groups. 2. Intervention: The second language learning group would receive structured language instruction in a second language (e.g., Spanish) as part of their regular curriculum, while the control group would continue with the standard curriculum. Language instruction would be provided by qualified teachers using evidence-based methods tailored to the age and proficiency level of the students. 3. Follow-Up Assessments: Participants' reading abilities would be assessed using standardized reading tests at baseline (third grade) and at follow-up in sixth grade. The same tests would be administered to both groups to measure reading comprehension, fluency, and vocabulary skills. 4. Data Analysis: Statistical analysis would be conducted to compare reading test scores between the second language learning group and the control group in sixth grade. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) could be used to control for baseline reading abilities and other potential confounding variables. Summary: By conducting a randomized controlled experiment, researchers can investigate whether learning a second language in third grade leads to improved reading scores in sixth grade, providing valuable insights into the potential benefits of early language instruction on academic achievement. 196. What is involved in conducting a “replication” of a study? Why is replication an important component in a scientific approach for understanding human development? Answer: Replication in Research: Conducting a replication of a study involves repeating the original study using the same or similar methods, procedures, and conditions to determine whether the findings can be reproduced. Replication aims to verify the reliability and validity of research findings and assess the generalizability of results across different samples or contexts. Importance of Replication: Replication is an important component in a scientific approach for understanding human development for several reasons: 1. Ensuring Reliability: Replication helps confirm the reliability of research findings by demonstrating that results are consistent and replicable across different studies and populations. It allows researchers to assess the robustness of their findings and identify any potential sources of error or bias. 2. Testing Generalizability: Replication studies contribute to the cumulative knowledge base in human development by testing the generalizability of findings beyond the original study sample or context. Replication allows researchers to determine whether findings hold true across diverse populations, settings, and conditions, enhancing the external validity of research conclusions. 3. Detecting False Positives: Replication helps guard against false positives or spurious findings by independently verifying the validity of initial research findings. If a study's results cannot be replicated consistently across multiple studies, it raises questions about the reliability of the original findings and the robustness of the underlying theories or hypotheses. Summary: Replication plays a crucial role in scientific research by confirming the reliability, generalizability, and validity of research findings. In human development research, replication helps build a cumulative body of knowledge and ensures that research conclusions are based on solid evidence that can withstand scrutiny across different contexts and populations. 197. Explain the role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) in ensuring that research is conducted in such a way that research participants are not harmed. Describe three different questions that IRBs must ask as they evaluate a proposed study. Answer: Role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB): An Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee responsible for reviewing and approving research involving human participants to ensure that it is conducted ethically and in a manner that protects the rights, safety, and well-being of participants. The IRB evaluates proposed research protocols to assess potential risks to participants and the adequacy of safeguards to minimize those risks. Questions IRBs Must Ask: 1. Informed Consent: Does the proposed study provide clear and comprehensive information to participants about the nature, purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives to participation? Is the process for obtaining informed consent voluntary, without coercion or undue influence? 2. Risk-Benefit Ratio: What are the potential risks to participants involved in the study, including physical, psychological, social, and legal risks? Are these risks minimized to the greatest extent possible, and are the anticipated benefits of the research justified in relation to the potential risks? 3. Protection of Vulnerable Populations: Are special protections in place for vulnerable populations, such as children, prisoners, pregnant women, individuals with cognitive impairments, or other groups who may be at increased risk of harm or exploitation? Are additional safeguards implemented to ensure their rights and welfare are upheld throughout the research process? Summary: IRBs play a critical role in safeguarding the rights and welfare of research participants by reviewing research protocols to ensure ethical conduct and compliance with regulatory standards. By asking questions related to informed consent, risk-benefit assessment, and protection of vulnerable populations, IRBs help ensure that research is conducted in a manner that minimizes potential harm and upholds ethical principles in human subjects research. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079