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Chapter 9: Cognitive Psychology: Albert Bandura and Aaron Beck Multiple Choice Questions 1. Bandura provided a new model of human beings as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and A) self-regulating. B) diligent. C) self-conscious. D) capable. Answer: A Rationale: Bandura's model of human beings as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and capable emphasizes the importance of self-regulation in shaping behavior. Self-regulation allows individuals to control their behavior and adapt to different situations. 2. In social learning theory, the external environment is not only a cause of behavior, it is also an effect of A) internal events. B) intention. C) behavior. D) emotion. Answer: C Rationale: Social learning theory emphasizes the bidirectional relationship between behavior and the environment. Behavior is not only influenced by the external environment but also has an effect on the environment, shaping future behavior. 3. In contrast to traditional behaviorists, Bandura has argued that much significant human learning occurs through A) practice. B) observation. C) behavior. D) studying. Answer: B Rationale: Bandura's social learning theory suggests that much of human learning occurs through observation of others. This is in contrast to traditional behaviorist theories, which emphasize learning through direct experience with the environment. 4. Which of the following factors has Bandura found to influence observational learning? A) The imagined rewards B) The characteristics of the bystanders C) The punishment associated with the behaviors D) The characteristics of the observers Answer: D Rationale: Bandura found that the characteristics of the observers, such as their perceived similarity to the model, their level of attention, and their ability to retain and reproduce the observed behavior, can influence the effectiveness of observational learning. 5. According to Bandura, perhaps the most important source of motivation is when we do what to ourselves after a performance? A) Reward ourselves B) Reflect on our behavior C) Solicit others’ feedback D) Keep practicing Answer: A Rationale: Bandura emphasized the role of self-rewards and self-punishments in motivating behavior. Self-rewards, such as praising oneself after a performance, can enhance motivation and reinforce desired behaviors. 6. Research on the mirror neuron system in humans seems to indicate that we are neurologically “wired” to learn from A) emotion. B) punishment. C) observation. D) cognition. Answer: C Rationale: Mirror neurons are neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. This suggests that humans are neurologically wired to learn from observation, which supports Bandura's ideas about observational learning. 7. Bandura found high self-efficacy leads to setting high goals, whereas low self-efficacy leads to discouragement and A) giving up. B) co-dependency. C) aggression. D) alcoholism. Answer: A Rationale: Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to successfully perform a specific task. Bandura found that individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to set ambitious goals and persevere in the face of challenges, while those with low self-efficacy are more likely to become discouraged and give up. 8. Which of the following methods has Bandura found to enhance self-efficacy? A) Encourage people to set goals that are easy to reach. B) Have the person observe models performing successfully. C) Withhold verbal encouragement and let the person find his or her own way. D) Encourage late nights and fasts when under pressure. Answer: B Rationale: Bandura believed that observing others who are successful can enhance self-efficacy by providing individuals with a vicarious experience of success. This can help individuals believe that they can also be successful in similar tasks. 9. Bandura has argued that with more information readily available than ever before, educators need to focus on enhancing students’ sense of A) self-efficacy. B) belonging. C) self-esteem. D) competency. Answer: A Rationale: Bandura believed that self-efficacy plays a crucial role in learning and performance. He argued that educators should focus on enhancing students' sense of self-efficacy to help them succeed in an increasingly information-rich environment. 10. Moral disengagement occurs through the cognitive restructuring of inhumane actions as A) evil. B) appropriate. C) coercive. D) justifiable. Answer: D Rationale: Moral disengagement refers to the process of cognitive restructuring that allows individuals to justify inhumane actions to themselves. This can involve reinterpreting harmful behavior as justified or minimizing the harm caused by the behavior. 11. When a group of spectators fails to help someone in trouble and the people involved say they were waiting for someone else to act first, this is what has happened: A) blaming victims. B) displacement. C) diffusion of responsibility. D) dehumanization. Answer: C Rationale: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less personal responsibility to take action, assuming that someone else will act instead. This can lead to bystander apathy, where no one takes action because everyone is waiting for someone else to do so. 12. Automatic thoughts are present in emotionally disturbed people and A) systems. B) conversation. C) healthy people. D) computers. Answer: C Rationale: Automatic thoughts are thoughts that occur spontaneously and quickly without conscious effort. They are not limited to emotionally disturbed individuals but are also present in healthy people. However, in emotionally disturbed individuals, these thoughts may be more negative and distorted. 13. A vicious cycle combines what with unpleasant emotional or physical symptoms? A) Automatic thoughts B) Needs C) Experience D) Cognitive schemas Answer: D Rationale: A vicious cycle refers to a pattern in which negative cognitive schemas, or core beliefs about oneself, others, and the world, lead to automatic thoughts and interpretations that reinforce these schemas. This can result in unpleasant emotional or physical symptoms. 14. With training, automatic thoughts can become A) personal. B) developed. C) conscious. D) babble. Answer: C Rationale: Through cognitive therapy or other forms of training, individuals can learn to become more aware of their automatic thoughts. This increased awareness allows them to evaluate and challenge these thoughts, leading to more adaptive and constructive thinking patterns. 15. According to Beck, the source, as well as the solution, lies within the individual’s A) friends. B) theory. C) awareness. D) behavior. Answer: C Rationale: Beck emphasized the importance of individuals' awareness of their thoughts and beliefs in cognitive therapy. He believed that by becoming aware of and challenging their automatic thoughts, individuals can change their emotional responses and behaviors. 16. Recent research has examined these as underlying the cognitive aspects of depression: A) neural mechanisms. B) unprocessed emotions. C) fantasy imagery. D) abuse experiences. Answer: A Rationale: Recent research has focused on understanding the neural mechanisms underlying depression, including how changes in brain structure and function may contribute to cognitive aspects of depression such as negative thinking patterns and emotional processing. 17. With a strong commitment to scientific empiricism, cognitive therapy focuses on the effect of cognition on human A) behavior. B) emotions. C) wants. D) experience. Answer: B Rationale: Cognitive therapy emphasizes the role of cognition, or thoughts, in influencing emotions and behavior. It is based on the premise that changing maladaptive thoughts can lead to changes in emotional and behavioral responses. 18. In cognitive therapy, self-defeating thoughts are A) maintained. B) modified. C) rushed. D) self-directed. Answer: B Rationale: In cognitive therapy, the goal is to identify and modify self-defeating thoughts or cognitive distortions that contribute to emotional distress. By challenging and replacing these thoughts with more realistic and adaptive ones, individuals can improve their emotional well-being. 19. The therapist-client relationship in cognitive therapy is A) cold. B) controversial. C) correct. D) collaborative. Answer: D Rationale: The therapist-client relationship in cognitive therapy is collaborative, with the therapist and client working together as a team to identify and change maladaptive thought patterns. The therapist serves as a guide and facilitator, helping the client develop new ways of thinking and coping. 20. Rational-emotive therapy was developed by A) Casey. B) James. C) Ellis. D) Cleveland. Answer: C Rationale: Rational-emotive therapy (RET), now known as rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), was developed by Albert Ellis. It is based on the idea that irrational beliefs and thoughts lead to emotional distress, and aims to help individuals identify and change these irrational beliefs. 21. As people’s painful symptoms are eliminated in cognitive therapy, people become A) quiet. B) popular. C) funny. D) productive. Answer: D Rationale: In cognitive therapy, as individuals work through and address their painful symptoms, they often experience a reduction in negative thought patterns and behaviors. This can lead to increased productivity as they are better able to focus on tasks and goals without being weighed down by their symptoms. 22. This type of cognitive distortion occurs in the thinking of depressed people: A) logic. B) clarity. C) generalization. D) overgeneralization. Answer: D Rationale: Overgeneralization is a common cognitive distortion in depression where individuals draw overly broad conclusions based on limited evidence or a single negative experience. This can contribute to feelings of hopelessness and pessimism. 23. Personalization is seeing oneself as the cause of a(n) A) doubt. B) thought. C) external event. D) relationship. Answer: C Rationale: Personalization is a cognitive distortion where individuals attribute external events to themselves, even when they are not responsible. This can lead to feelings of guilt or unwarranted responsibility for events beyond their control. True False Questions 24. Aaron Beck is best known as the founder of social learning theory and for his theory of self-efficacy. Answer: False Rationale: Aaron Beck is actually best known for his development of cognitive therapy and cognitive restructuring techniques, not social learning theory or self-efficacy. 25. Albert Bandura developed the concept of triadic reciprocality. Answer: True Rationale: Triadic reciprocality is a key concept in Bandura's social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the dynamic interaction between behavior, personal factors, and the environment. 26. According to social learning theory, our behavior affects the external environment. Answer: True Rationale: Social learning theory emphasizes the role of observational learning and modeling, suggesting that our behavior can influence the environment and vice versa. 27. In a classic study of observational learning, children who observed an adult attack an inflated “Bobo” doll were three times as aggressive as children in a control group that had not seen the adult attack the doll. Answer: False Rationale: In Albert Bandura's classic Bobo doll experiment, children who observed an adult model aggressive behavior were more likely to replicate the behavior, but the specific increase in aggression was not three times higher than the control group. 28. People are more affected by the behavior of models than is realized. Answer: True Rationale: Social learning theory suggests that people are often influenced by the behavior of models (individuals they observe), even if they are not consciously aware of this influence. 29. The verbal representational system is composed of vivid, retrievable images formed while observing a model. Answer: False Rationale: The verbal representational system, as described by Bandura, involves the encoding of observed behaviors into verbal descriptions, not vivid images. 30. Applied research has shown that modeling techniques may be used to lower test anxiety. Answer: True Rationale: Modeling techniques, such as observing others cope successfully with test situations, can be effective in reducing test anxiety through observational learning. 31. Self-efficacy theory holds that beliefs in one’s own capabilities are among the most important factors in one’s behavior. Answer: True Rationale: Self-efficacy theory, developed by Bandura, emphasizes the role of beliefs in one's own capabilities in determining behavior, motivation, and achievement. 32. Although still influential, verbal persuasion is probably the least common of the five major sources from which self-efficacy develops. Answer: False Rationale: Verbal persuasion, which involves receiving encouragement or feedback from others, is one of the five major sources from which self-efficacy can develop, according to Bandura. 33. Bandura found that a high sense of family efficacy was facilitated by task-focused family communication and selective sharing by adolescents of their activities outside the home. Answer: False Rationale: Bandura did not specifically study family efficacy, but his work suggests that self-efficacy can be influenced by various factors, including social support and modeling within the family context. 34. Goal setting is an important aspect of self-regulation. Answer: True Rationale: Goal setting is a key component of self-regulation, as it involves setting specific objectives and monitoring progress toward achieving them. 35. The concept of moral disengagement provides a useful framework for understanding adolescent bullying. Answer: True Rationale: Moral disengagement, a concept introduced by Bandura, helps explain how individuals, including adolescents, can justify harmful behaviors like bullying by mentally disengaging from moral standards. It provides insight into the cognitive processes involved in bullying behavior. 36. Probably the best-known modern psychotherapist, Bandura is the “father” of cognitive therapy. Answer: False Rationale: While Bandura is well-known for his contributions to psychology, including social learning theory and self-efficacy theory, he is not considered the "father" of cognitive therapy. That title is often attributed to Aaron Beck, who developed cognitive therapy in the 1960s. 37. Depressed people talk to themselves in highly critical tones. Answer: True Rationale: Cognitive therapy, as developed by Aaron Beck, posits that individuals with depression often engage in negative self-talk, which contributes to their negative mood and low self-esteem. 38. Automatic thoughts are usually followed by unpleasant emotions. Answer: True Rationale: According to cognitive therapy, automatic thoughts are rapid, unbidden thoughts that often have a negative or distorted content. These thoughts can trigger or exacerbate unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, sadness, or anger. 39. The discovery of automatic thoughts produced a shift in Albert Ellis’s practice. Answer: False Rationale: The discovery of automatic thoughts was a key development in the field of cognitive therapy, particularly associated with Aaron Beck's work. Albert Ellis, on the other hand, developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which focuses on irrational beliefs rather than automatic thoughts. 40. Only therapists can recognize a client’s automatic thoughts. Answer: False Rationale: While therapists are trained to recognize and work with clients' automatic thoughts, individuals can also learn to identify and challenge their own automatic thoughts as part of cognitive therapy techniques. 41. Beck’s approach focuses on how the personality is formed around important social issues, such as acceptance or rejection and respect or disdain. Answer: True Rationale: Beck's cognitive therapy emphasizes how individuals' beliefs about themselves, others, and the world influence their emotions and behaviors. These beliefs can be shaped by experiences of acceptance, rejection, respect, or disdain, among other social factors. 42. Beck’s cognitive approach respects human beings’ capabilities to heal themselves. Answer: True Rationale: Beck's cognitive therapy is based on the premise that individuals have the capacity to change their thinking patterns and alleviate their psychological distress through structured cognitive and behavioral techniques. 43. The gap is enormous between the expert and the layperson in cognitive therapy. Answer: False Rationale: Cognitive therapy emphasizes collaboration between therapist and client, with the goal of empowering the client to understand and change their own thoughts and behaviors. This approach minimizes the perceived gap between expert and layperson. 44. Cognitive therapy tends to be long-term and is based on Freud’s later work. Answer: False Rationale: Cognitive therapy, as developed by Aaron Beck, is typically short-term and focused on specific, present-centered problems. It is not based on Freud's later work, which focused more on psychoanalysis and long-term, depth-oriented therapy. 45. The aim of cognitive therapy is to relieve the patient’s suffering. Answer: False Rationale: While one aim of cognitive therapy is indeed to alleviate the patient's suffering, it also aims to help the patient develop skills to effectively cope with future challenges and prevent relapse. It is a more comprehensive approach than just symptom relief. 46. In cognitive therapy, clients are capable of changing maladaptive patterns. Answer: True Rationale: Cognitive therapy is based on the idea that individuals can learn to identify and change their maladaptive thinking patterns and behaviors, leading to improved emotional well-being and functioning. 47. Many self-help books and programs today incorporate the methods of cognitive therapy. Answer: True Rationale: The principles and techniques of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring and thought monitoring, have been widely adopted in self-help literature and programs for individuals seeking to improve their mental health and well-being. 48. Rational-emotive therapists use empathy and unconditional support to encourage behavioral change. Answer: False Rationale: Rational-emotive therapists, following Albert Ellis's approach, typically emphasize rationality, logical reasoning, and challenging irrational beliefs rather than providing unconditional support. They aim to help clients change their thinking patterns to improve emotional and behavioral responses. 49. Logic characterizes the thinking of depressed and anxious people. Answer: False Rationale: Depressed and anxious individuals often experience distorted thinking patterns, such as catastrophizing or overgeneralizing, which are characterized by irrationality rather than logic. 50. The methods of cognitive therapy are convoluted and obscure, not straightforward. Answer: False Rationale: Cognitive therapy techniques are typically structured, systematic, and straightforward, aiming to help clients identify and change specific maladaptive thoughts and behaviors. The approach is designed to be accessible and easily understood by clients. 51. In emotional reasoning, the person assumes that negative emotions must be true. Answer: True Rationale: Emotional reasoning is a cognitive distortion where individuals believe that because they feel a certain way, their feelings must reflect reality. For example, feeling guilty about something minor may lead to the belief that one must have done something terribly wrong. 52. Mainstream culture has embraced cognitive psychology. Answer: True Rationale: Cognitive psychology, including concepts and techniques from cognitive therapy, has become widely accepted and integrated into mainstream culture, influencing areas such as education, self-improvement, and everyday problem-solving. Essay Questions 53. Discuss the characteristics of the modeling situation. Which three factors influence observational learning? Give an example from your own life illustrating one of the three factors. Answer: Observational learning, a key concept in social learning theory, occurs when individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors. The characteristics of the modeling situation include: 1. Attention: Individuals must pay attention to the model's behavior in order to learn from it. Factors such as the model's characteristics (e.g., attractiveness, status) and the complexity of the behavior can influence attention. 2. Retention: Individuals must be able to remember the observed behavior in order to reproduce it later. This involves encoding the behavior into memory and then retrieving it when needed. 3. Reproduction: Individuals must be able to reproduce the observed behavior. This requires not only the physical ability to perform the behavior but also the belief that one can perform it successfully. 4. Motivation: Individuals must be motivated to reproduce the observed behavior. This motivation can come from various sources, such as the perceived rewards associated with the behavior or the desire to imitate the model. 5. Reinforcement: Finally, individuals may be more likely to reproduce the observed behavior if they receive reinforcement for doing so. This reinforcement can be positive (e.g., praise, rewards) or negative (e.g., avoiding punishment). Three factors that influence observational learning are: • Model characteristics: The characteristics of the model, such as their competence, prestige, and similarity to the observer, can influence the likelihood of observational learning. For example, a child may be more likely to imitate the behavior of a popular and well-liked classmate than that of a less popular peer. • Observer characteristics: The characteristics of the observer, such as their attention, retention, and motor skills, can also influence observational learning. For example, a person who is highly attentive and has good memory skills may be more likely to learn from observation than someone who is easily distracted. • Environmental factors: The environment in which the observation takes place can also influence observational learning. For example, if the observed behavior is reinforced in the environment (e.g., by receiving praise or rewards), the observer may be more likely to imitate it. Example: In my own life, I remember observing my older sibling successfully ride a bike without training wheels. I paid close attention to how they balanced and pedaled. Their skill and my desire to ride a bike like them motivated me to learn. Eventually, with practice, I was able to reproduce their behavior and ride a bike myself. This example illustrates the influence of model characteristics, observer characteristics, and motivation in observational learning. 54. Analyze the concept of moral disengagement. Using real life examples, describe two of the eight “self-exonerative cognitive activities” that people use to justify immoral behavior. Answer: Moral disengagement is a term introduced by Albert Bandura, describing the process by which individuals rationalize immoral behavior, distancing themselves from the negative effects of their actions. It involves various "self-exonerative cognitive activities" that allow individuals to justify their actions. Two examples of these activities are: • Moral Justification: This involves portraying harmful behavior as serving a morally acceptable or higher purpose. For example, a person might justify cheating on a test by convincing themselves that they need to do so in order to achieve a good grade and secure a scholarship, which they believe will ultimately benefit their future and society. • Euphemistic Labeling: This involves using language to make harmful behavior seem more acceptable or less serious. For example, instead of calling cheating "dishonesty," a student might euphemistically label it as "creative problem-solving" or "taking initiative" to lessen the perceived moral weight of the action. These cognitive activities allow individuals to maintain a positive self-image and reduce the cognitive dissonance that arises from engaging in behavior that contradicts their moral beliefs. 55. How does automatic thinking affect a person’s emotions? How is this connection useful in therapy? Answer: Automatic thinking, also known as automatic thoughts, refers to the rapid, uncontrolled thoughts that often occur in response to a situation. These thoughts can greatly influence a person's emotions. For example, if someone automatically thinks, "I'm going to fail this exam," they are likely to feel anxious or stressed. This connection between automatic thinking and emotions is useful in therapy, particularly in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT aims to identify and change negative thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress. By helping individuals become aware of their automatic thoughts and teaching them to challenge and reframe them, therapists can help clients manage their emotions more effectively. For example, if a person automatically thinks, "I'm worthless," a therapist can help them recognize this thought, examine the evidence for and against it, and develop a more balanced and realistic view of themselves. This can lead to a reduction in negative emotions such as sadness or low self-esteem. 56. What role does “common sense” have in cognitive therapy? Answer: In cognitive therapy, "common sense" refers to the beliefs and assumptions that individuals hold about themselves, others, and the world around them. These beliefs are often deeply ingrained and can influence how people perceive and interpret events. Common sense plays a significant role in cognitive therapy because it affects how individuals think, feel, and behave. For example, if someone believes that they must always be perfect to be accepted, they may experience anxiety and stress when faced with situations where they cannot meet this unrealistic standard. Therapists in cognitive therapy work with clients to identify and challenge these common sense beliefs, replacing them with more realistic and adaptive ones. By doing so, clients can change the way they perceive and respond to events, leading to improvements in their mental health and well-being. Short Answer Questions 57. In 2002, Bandura was ranked the fourth most-frequently ___________ psychologist of all time. Answer: cited 58. Focused attention and prior ___________ of the modeled behavior help us understand, remember, and imitate the modeled behavior. Answer: knowledge 59. When Bandura studied ___________, he found that self-efficacy beliefs were related to positive changes in behavior and fear responses. Answer: phobias 60. Thoughts that have to do with ___________-___________ tend to arise quickly and automatically, as if by reflex. Answer: self-monitoring 61. Beck and his followers have freely shared their ___________ with therapists and the general population. Answer: discoveries 62. According to cogntive therapists, ___________-___________ patterns of thinking and acting can be changed to bring about a happier, more fulfilling life. Answer: self-defeating Matching Questions 63. Cognitive distortions BB. A failure in self-regulation concerning our moral and ethical behavior 64. Human cognition CC. The cognitive processes and structures we use to observe and regulate our own behavior 65. Triadic reciprocity DD. Composed of both general and specific fundamental core beliefs 66. Moral disengagement EE. Both scientists and laypeople develop and test hypotheses about the world 67. Person-as-scientist FF. Systematic errors in reasoning that combine negative thinking into automatic chains of negative processing 68. Self GG. Exhibiting behavior that others imitate or learn from 69. Modeling HH. Phenomena that comprise the processes of thinking, perceiving, remembering, and more 70. Cognitive schemas II. Interaction of cognitive processes and the external social and physical environment 71. Reciprocal determinism JJ. Occurs as a result of observing the behavior of others 72. Observational learning KK. Theory of interaction among behavior, internal factors, and the environment Answers: 63) E 64) G 65) J 66) A 67) D 68) B 69) F 70) C 71) H 72) I Test Bank for Personality and Personal Growth Robert Frager, James Fadiman 9780205953752, 9780205254781
