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Chapter 15: Sufism and the Islamic Tradition Multiple Choice Questions 1. The Sufis explore the depth and breadth of human experience by beginning with the understanding that A) we are all born perfect. B) we are all underdeveloped. C) self-reliance is the key to happiness. D) teachers are useful, but not required. Answer: B Rationale: Sufis believe that humans are underdeveloped and have the potential for spiritual growth and realization. This understanding forms the basis for their practices and teachings aimed at spiritual development. The other options are not consistent with the Sufi belief system. 2. Sufism has been described as A) a way of love. B) a way of service. C) the exoteric core of Islam. D) the path toward independence. Answer: A Rationale: Sufism emphasizes the importance of love, particularly love for God, as a central theme in its teachings. Love is seen as a unifying force that connects individuals to the divine. The other options do not capture the essence of Sufism. 3. This stage has been attained by only a few Messengers, Prophets, great sages, and saints: A) sharia. B) tariqa. C) haqiqa. D) marifa. Answer: D Rationale: Marifa, or mystical knowledge, is considered to be a high stage of spiritual attainment in Sufism. It is believed to be attained by only a select few who have reached the pinnacle of spiritual realization. The other options are not stages of spiritual attainment in Sufism. 4. According to an old Sufi saying, if you take two steps toward God, A) God opens his arms to receive you. B) you take two steps toward your true self. C) God runs to you. D) your heart swells with grace. Answer: C Rationale: This saying illustrates the concept of divine grace in Sufism, where it is believed that God responds to human efforts towards spiritual growth with an even greater outpouring of divine love and mercy. The other options do not convey the same idea of divine response. 5. At this level, the individual displays unbridled selfishness and no sense of morality and compassion: A) the nafs self. B) the inspired self. C) the regretful self. D) the tyrannical self. Answer: D Rationale: The tyrannical self is characterized by selfishness and a lack of moral and compassionate behavior. It represents a lower level of spiritual development in which the ego dominates. The other options describe different stages of the self in Sufism. 6. Behaviors common to the inspired self include A) excessive vanity, self-accusation, and defensiveness. B) wrath, greed, sensual appetites, passion, and envy. C) gratefulness, trusting, and adoring. D) gentleness, compassion, creative acts, and moral action. Answer: D Rationale: The inspired self is characterized by positive behaviors such as gentleness, compassion, creativity, and moral action. These behaviors reflect a higher level of spiritual development. The other options describe behaviors associated with different stages of the self in Sufism. 7. The guidance of a sheikh is particularly important for someone going through this stage: A) the serene self. B) the inspired self. C) the regretful self. D) the tyrannical self. Answer: B Rationale: The inspired self is a stage of spiritual development where guidance from a sheikh, or spiritual guide, is considered important. The sheikh helps the individual navigate this stage and further develop spiritually. The other options describe different stages of the self in Sufism. 8. At this stage, the individual is content not only with his or her lot, but even with the difficulties and trials of life: A) the serene self. B) the inspired self. C) the grateful self. D) the pleased self. Answer: D Rationale: The pleased self is a stage of spiritual development where the individual finds contentment not only in their current situation but also in the face of difficulties and trials. This contentment comes from a deep sense of spiritual fulfillment. The other options describe different stages of the self in Sufism. 9. Without this, spiritual work is impossible: A) patience. B) inspiration. C) foresight. D) strength. Answer: A Rationale: Patience is considered essential for spiritual work in Sufism. It is through patience that one is able to persevere in their spiritual practices and overcome challenges on the spiritual path. The other options are not considered essential for spiritual work in Sufism. 10. The term for a heart empty of attachments to this world, a heart open and ready to be filled with God is A) Divine Will. B) blind faith. C) spiritual poverty. D) willing faith. Answer: C Rationale: Spiritual poverty refers to a state of being where one's heart is empty of attachments to worldly things, allowing it to be open and receptive to God. It is a state of humility and surrender to the divine will. The other options do not capture the same concept of detachment and openness to God. 11. In the Sufi tradition, contemplating or recalling death can be a powerful tool in releasing one from A) work and relationship responsibilities. B) physical health complaints. C) undesirable habits and attitudes. D) negative socialization forces. Answer: C Rationale: Contemplating or recalling death in the Sufi tradition is aimed at reminding individuals of the impermanence of life and the inevitability of death. This contemplation is believed to help release individuals from undesirable habits and attitudes by shifting their focus towards spiritual growth and the afterlife. 12. Specifically, this is encouraged because it allows outer service, as well as inner work, to proceed without impediment: A) psychotherapy. B) good health. C) socializing widely. D) financial success. Answer: B Rationale: Good health is encouraged in Sufism because it allows individuals to engage in outer service, such as helping others, as well as inner work, such as spiritual practices, without physical impediments. It is seen as a facilitator for spiritual growth and service to others. 13. Al-Ghazzali writes that real friendship includes material aid, personal support, and A) the occasional argument. B) constructive criticism. C) advice-giving. D) respect. Answer: D Rationale: Al-Ghazzali emphasizes that real friendship includes not only material aid and personal support but also respect. Respect is seen as an essential component of true friendship, as it fosters understanding, trust, and mutual support. 14. Free will is A) assumed to be part of human nature. B) described as a fundamental law of nature. C) analogous to nafs. D) only exhibited by advanced Sufis. Answer: A Rationale: In Sufism, free will is assumed to be part of human nature. It is believed that humans have the capacity to make choices and decisions, which are essential for spiritual growth and development. Free will is seen as a gift from God, allowing individuals to choose their path in life. 15. The practices of Sufism are like spiritual medicine, and the sheikh A) is a spiritual physician. B) applies the spiritual gauze. C) does his or her rounds, but is very busy. D) blows the whistle like a spiritual coach. Answer: A Rationale: The sheikh in Sufism is often likened to a spiritual physician who guides and supports individuals in their spiritual practices. The practices of Sufism are seen as spiritual medicine that can help heal and transform the individual, with the sheikh providing guidance and support along the way. 16. Research on drumming, like that involved in dhikrullah, has been shown to induce theta wave activity, positive mood states, and A) improved work performance. B) relief from marital strife. C) creativity in the solving of life problems. D) positive immune responses. Answer: D Rationale: Research has shown that drumming, similar to the rhythmic practices involved in dhikrullah (remembrance of God), can induce theta wave activity in the brain, leading to positive mood states and potentially boosting the immune system. This suggests that such practices may have beneficial effects on both mental and physical well-being. True False Questions 17. The term Sufi has several root meanings in Arabic, including “brother” and “companion.” Answer: False Rationale: The term "Sufi" does not mean "brother" or "companion" in Arabic. It is derived from the word "suf," which means wool, referring to the simple woolen garments worn by early Sufis as a symbol of their asceticism. 18. The task of Sufism is to transmit the useful knowledge that can help us to understand ourselves, our personality, and its limitations, and to experience the divine spark that lies within us. Answer: True Rationale: One of the main goals of Sufism is self-knowledge and the realization of the divine spark within each individual. Sufism seeks to transmit knowledge and practices that facilitate this understanding and experience. 19. Basic to Sufi practice is the cardinal truth of self-knowledge, as knowledge of self ripens into knowledge of God. Answer: True Rationale: Self-knowledge is considered fundamental in Sufism, as it is believed that knowledge of the self leads to knowledge of God. By understanding one's own nature and limitations, individuals can progress on the path to spiritual realization. 20. Historians date the appearance of Sufism to around the seventh century BC. Answer: False Rationale: Sufism is believed to have emerged in the early centuries of Islam, around the 7th century AD, not BC. It developed as a mystical and ascetic movement within Islam, influenced by various spiritual traditions. 21. Sufis are expected to treat each other as brothers and sisters—to open their homes, their hearts, and their purses to each other. Answer: True Rationale: Brotherhood and sisterhood are important concepts in Sufism, emphasizing the idea of treating fellow Sufis with love, compassion, and generosity. Sufis are encouraged to support each other spiritually, emotionally, and materially. 22. Rumi described the intellect as the only force that could transcend the bounds of reason, the distinctions of knowledge, and the isolation of normal consciousness. Answer: False Rationale: Rumi, a prominent Sufi poet and mystic, emphasized the limitations of the intellect in understanding the divine. He often spoke of transcending reason through love and spiritual experience, suggesting that the intellect alone is insufficient for understanding deeper truths. 23. Prayer is practice of remembrance, as is meditation, spiritual chanting, and spiritual study. Answer: True Rationale: In Sufism, various practices are considered forms of remembrance (dhikr) of God. Prayer, meditation, chanting of sacred phrases, and spiritual study are all seen as ways to cultivate a deeper connection with the divine. 24. All nafs are products of the superego. Answer: False Rationale: In Sufism, "nafs" refers to the ego or the lower self, which is considered distinct from the superego. The nafs is seen as the source of desires and worldly attachments, which must be overcome in order to attain spiritual enlightenment. 25. At the level of the inspired self, the individual is totally free of the power of desires and ego. Answer: False Rationale: The inspired self (nafs al-mulhamah) in Sufism is a stage of spiritual development where the individual is inspired to virtuous deeds and moral actions. However, this does not mean that the individual is totally free from desires and ego, as these are seen as inherent aspects of human nature that must be managed and transcended. 26. Individuals who accept difficulties with the same sense of equanimity with which they accept benefits may be said to have attained the level of the serene self. Answer: True Rationale: The serene self (nafs al-mutma'inna) is a stage of spiritual development in Sufism characterized by a sense of inner peace and contentment. Individuals at this stage are able to accept both difficulties and benefits with equanimity, as they have transcended attachment to worldly outcomes. 27. Ibn ‘Arabi describes the self-pleasing to God stage as “union of self and soul.” Answer: True Rationale: Ibn 'Arabi, a renowned Sufi mystic and philosopher, describes the stage of self-pleasing to God (rida) as the union of the self (nafs) and the soul (ruh) in complete submission to the divine will. This stage represents a deep spiritual realization and acceptance of one's place in the divine plan. 28. Although stages of personal development have been described, there is no single, linear pattern typical of the actual experience of a Sufi student. Answer: True Rationale: Sufi teachings acknowledge that the spiritual journey is highly individualized, and the experiences of Sufi students can vary widely. While there are general stages of development described in Sufism, the actual experience of a Sufi student may not follow a linear pattern and can be influenced by various factors. 29. It is the sincerity of intention that counts; whether one’s actions succeed or not is God’s will. Answer: True Rationale: In Sufism, the sincerity of intention (niyyah) is considered paramount in one's actions. Success or failure is believed to be in God's hands, and what ultimately matters is the purity and sincerity of one's intentions. 30. In a famous hadith, Muhammad teaches, “An hour of prayer is worth a year of contemplation.” Answer: False Rationale: There is no such hadith attributed to Muhammad in Islamic tradition. While the importance of prayer (salat) and contemplation (tadabbur) are emphasized in Islam, this specific statement is not found in the hadith literature. 31. The first step in overcoming heedlessness is to learn to become aware of it. Answer: True Rationale: Heedlessness (ghaflah) is seen as a state of spiritual unawareness or neglectfulness. In Sufism, the first step in overcoming heedlessness is to become aware of it, acknowledging one's spiritual state and the need for greater mindfulness and presence. 32. Ibn ‘Arabi taught an approach to caring for one’s body that is similar to that of Buddhism. Answer: True Rationale: Ibn 'Arabi emphasized the importance of caring for the body as a means to spiritual well-being, a concept that is similar to certain Buddhist teachings. Both traditions emphasize the holistic nature of the human being, recognizing the interconnectedness of body, mind, and spirit. 33. Divine will is described as a fundamental law of nature. Answer: True Rationale: In Sufism, divine will (al-irada) is considered a fundamental aspect of the universe, governing all aspects of creation. It is seen as a law of nature that guides the unfolding of events according to God's plan. 34. The outside help of a teacher is helpful, but unnecessary, to transcend boundaries and achieve real transformation. Answer: False Rationale: In Sufism, the guidance and help of a teacher (sheikh or murshid) are considered essential for spiritual growth and transformation. While personal effort and sincerity are important, the guidance of a teacher is seen as crucial in navigating the spiritual path and transcending inner obstacles. 35. Research shows that chanting or “vocal meditation”—involved in dhikrullah—seems to activate natural healing processes. Answer: True Rationale: Studies have shown that practices like chanting, which are part of dhikrullah (remembrance of God), can have positive effects on mental and physical health. Chanting has been linked to reduced stress, improved mood, and activation of the body's natural healing processes. 36. Translations of Ibn ‘Arabi continue to be the most popular poetry in English. Answer: False Rationale: While the works of Ibn 'Arabi are highly regarded in Sufi and Islamic literature, they are not the most popular poetry in English. Other poets and writers have gained more popularity in Englishspeaking audiences. Essay Questions 37. Discuss the concept of knowledge from the Sufi perspective. Compare empirical knowledge with useful or real knowledge. Answer: From the Sufi perspective, knowledge is not merely the accumulation of facts or information but rather a deeper understanding that leads to spiritual insight and transformation. Sufis distinguish between different types of knowledge, including empirical knowledge and what they consider to be useful or real knowledge. Empirical knowledge, in the Sufi view, is limited to the realm of the senses and the intellect. It is based on observation, experience, and rational thought. While empirical knowledge has its value in practical matters and the material world, Sufis believe it is limited in its ability to lead to true understanding of the self and the divine. On the other hand, useful or real knowledge, according to Sufism, transcends the limitations of empirical knowledge. It is knowledge that comes from direct spiritual experience and insight, often obtained through practices such as meditation, contemplation, and remembrance of God (dhikr). This knowledge is considered to be transformative, leading to a deeper understanding of the self, the universe, and the divine. Sufis emphasize the importance of inner knowledge, or knowledge of the heart, which is gained through spiritual practices and leads to a deeper understanding of the true nature of reality. This knowledge is believed to be more reliable and enduring than empirical knowledge, which is often subject to change and interpretation. In summary, Sufism views knowledge as a means to spiritual growth and enlightenment, with real knowledge being the key to understanding the deeper truths of existence beyond the limitations of empirical observation. 38. Although Sufism prescribes no single path, the most common disciplines include devotion, service, remembrance, and community. Choose one path and outline the basic features. Answer: One of the most common paths in Sufism is the path of remembrance, known as dhikr. Dhikr involves the repeated recitation of the names of God or sacred phrases, such as "la ilaha illallah" (there is no god but God) or "Allahu akbar" (God is the greatest). The practice of dhikr is central to many Sufi traditions and is believed to be a means of purifying the heart and drawing closer to God. The basic features of the path of remembrance include: 1. Regular practice: Practitioners of dhikr engage in regular, often daily, practice of reciting sacred phrases or names of God. This practice is typically done with focus and concentration, often in a quiet and contemplative setting. 2. Intention and sincerity: Dhikr is not merely a mechanical repetition of words but is done with the intention of remembering and praising God. Sufis believe that the sincerity of intention is crucial in the practice of dhikr. 3. Group practice: While dhikr can be done individually, it is often practiced in a group setting led by a teacher or spiritual guide. Group dhikr is believed to amplify the spiritual benefits of the practice and foster a sense of community among practitioners. 4. Spiritual benefits: Practitioners of dhikr believe that the practice can lead to spiritual purification, increased awareness of the divine presence, and a deepening of one's spiritual connection to God. Dhikr is also believed to help overcome egoism and worldly attachments. 5. Integration into daily life: Sufis seek to integrate the practice of dhikr into their daily lives, using it as a means of mindfulness and spiritual contemplation in all activities. Dhikr is seen as a way to maintain a constant awareness of the divine presence in every moment. 39. Discuss what Sufis mean when they say one’s task is “to wake up enough to be aware of one’s predicament.” Answer: In Sufism, the idea of waking up or becoming aware of one's predicament refers to the process of self-realization and spiritual awakening. Sufis believe that humans are often unaware of their true nature and the purpose of their existence, which they see as a state of spiritual sleep or unawareness. The task of a Sufi is to awaken from this state of spiritual sleep and become aware of their predicament, which includes the realization of their separation from God and the suffering that arises from this separation. This awakening is seen as the first step on the spiritual path, leading to a deeper understanding of the self, the universe, and the divine. Sufis use various spiritual practices, such as meditation, prayer, and remembrance of God, to help them awaken from this spiritual sleep and become more aware of their predicament. The goal is to achieve a state of spiritual enlightenment where one is fully aware of their true nature and the divine presence within them. Overall, the concept of waking up in Sufism represents the journey from spiritual unawareness to awareness, from ignorance to knowledge, and from separation to union with the divine. 40. Describe the Sufi teacher-student relationship. How are teachers and students viewed, respectively? What are their roles? Answer: The Sufi teacher-student relationship is central to Sufi practice and is characterized by mutual respect, trust, and guidance. In Sufism, the teacher, often referred to as a sheikh or murshid, plays a crucial role in guiding the student (murid) on the spiritual path. Teachers are viewed with great respect and reverence in Sufism, seen as spiritual guides who have traveled the path to enlightenment and can help others on their journey. They are seen as embodiments of spiritual wisdom and insight, and their guidance is considered essential for spiritual growth and development. Students, on the other hand, are viewed as seekers of truth and wisdom, eager to learn and grow spiritually. They are expected to approach their teacher with humility, sincerity, and an open heart, willing to learn and follow the guidance offered to them. The roles of teachers and students in the Sufi tradition are complementary. Teachers provide guidance, instruction, and spiritual practices to help students progress on the spiritual path. Students, in turn, are expected to be receptive to the teachings of their teacher, to follow their guidance, and to strive for spiritual growth and realization. Overall, the Sufi teacher-student relationship is characterized by a deep bond of trust and respect, with the teacher serving as a spiritual guide and mentor, and the student as a seeker of spiritual truth and enlightenment. Short Answer Questions 41. Sufism is about inner effects of practice and subtle, esoteric truths, while Islam focuses on the outer, or ___________ set of practices. Answer: exoteric 42. The “nafs” is a living process, rather than a ___________ structure in the psyche. Answer: static 43. The regretful self-stage resembles Freud’s concept of ___________. Answer: superego 44. In Sufism, ___________ comes from knowing that all things, pleasant or unpleasant, come from God. Answer: satisfaction 45. The so-called whirling of the ___________ is a widely known, Sufi “fine-tuning” of the body and mind. Answer: dervishes 46. The developed ___________, as exemplified by Jelaladin Rumi, integrates the heart and the head. Answer: intellect Matching Questions 47. Sufism A. Reintegration as the universal self, or the activation of one’s totality 48. Koran B. The inability to pay attention and live in the present 49. Dhikrullah C. Holy book of Islam 50. Heedlessness 51. Islam D. The mystical core of Islam E. The first step each seeker takes on the spiritual path 52. Certainty F. Culmination of love 53. Fana G. Lower self 54. Initial awakening H. “Remembrance of God” 55. Nafs I. Meaning peace or submission, religious system begun by the Prophet Mohammed 56. Baqa Answers: 47) D 48) C 49) H J. Disintegration of one’s narrow self-concept, social self, and limited intellect 50) B 51) I 52) F 53) J 54) E 55) G 56) A Test Bank for Personality and Personal Growth Robert Frager, James Fadiman 9780205953752, 9780205254781
