Chapter 8: B. F. Skinner and Radical Behaviorism Multiple Choice Questions 1. Skinner generalized his personal failure as a writer into a lifelong distrust of the literary method of: A) discussion. B) recitation. C) tabulation. D) observation. Answer: A Rationale: Skinner's distrust of the literary method stemmed from his belief that personal experience and introspection were unreliable methods for understanding behavior. He favored observable, measurable behavior, which aligns more with the scientific method than with discussion or introspection. 2. Skinner is the author of this book, in which is described a utopian community based on behaviorist learning principles: A) In and Out of the Garbage Pail. B) Walden Two. C) Memories, Dreams, Reflections. D) The Ways of Behaviorism. Answer: B Rationale: "Walden Two" is a novel by Skinner that describes a utopian community based on behaviorist principles, showcasing his ideas about the application of behavioral science to improve society. 3. One of the three Baconian principles that heavily influenced Skinner’s work was the idea that “Nature to be commanded must be: A) understood.” B) respected.” C) obeyed.” D) romanced.” Answer: C Rationale: This principle aligns with Skinner's view that behavior is determined by environmental factors and that to control or modify behavior, one must understand and manipulate these environmental influences. 4. At the heart of Skinner’s research is the belief that: A) humans are not essentially different from other animals. B) animals are like ourselves, rather than the reverse. C) humans inherently possess the potential to actualize themselves. D) it is better to generalize to human behavior from pigeons than from rats. Answer: A Rationale: Skinner believed in the principle of parsimony, which suggests that similar behaviors in humans and animals can be explained by similar underlying processes. This belief led him to argue that human behavior is governed by the same principles of reinforcement as animal behavior. 5. Skinner, early on, saw behaviorism as: A) the science of human behavior. B) the philosophy of the science of human behavior. C) a metaphysical framework. D) a theoretical science. Answer: B Rationale: Skinner viewed behaviorism as a philosophy that underlies the scientific study of behavior, emphasizing the importance of observable and measurable behavior over unobservable mental processes. 6. Who was the first to demonstrate that autonomic functions, such as salivation at the approach of food, could be conditioned, so that they could be evoked by stimuli other than food? A) Tolman B) Skinner C) Watson D) Pavlov Answer: D Rationale: Ivan Pavlov was the first to demonstrate classical conditioning, showing that autonomic functions could be conditioned to respond to stimuli other than the original trigger. 7. Another system of thought which also concludes that there is no self is: A) Sufism. B) phenomenology. C) Buddhism. D) psychoanalysis. Answer: C Rationale: Buddhism teaches that the concept of a permanent, unchanging self is an illusion, and instead emphasizes the idea of an ever-changing, interconnected self. 8. Since Skinner worked from observable data alone, his position was essentially: A) theoretical. B) nontheoretical. C) scientific. D) nonscientific. Answer: B Rationale: Skinner's approach to psychology was based on observable behavior and environmental factors, eschewing theoretical constructs like the "mind" or unobservable mental processes. 9. Included in explanatory fictions is the concept of: A) subjugation. B) dependent man. C) humility. D) creativity. Answer: D Rationale: Explanatory fictions are theoretical constructs that are useful for explaining behavior but are not directly observable or measurable. Creativity is necessary for developing and understanding such theoretical constructs. 10. The amount of credit a person receives is related in a curious way to the visibility of what in his or her behavior? A) Causes B) Dignity C) Freedom D) Creativity Answer: A Rationale: Skinner argued that people tend to attribute behavior to internal causes (such as personal characteristics or intentions) when it is visible or public, but to external causes (such as situational factors) when it is not. This phenomenon influences how much credit a person receives for their actions. 11. Extensive research on the variables that affect operant conditioning has led to which one of the following conclusions? A) Conditioning cannot and does not take place without awareness. B) Conditioning is maintained in spite of awareness. C) Conditioning is least most effective when the subject is aware and cooperative. D) Conditioning is most effective when the subject is unconscious. Answer: B Rationale: Research has shown that operant conditioning can still be effective even when the subject is aware of the conditioning process. For example, a person might still be motivated to perform a behavior if they know they will receive a reward for it, even if they are fully aware of the conditioning process at work. 12. What kind of reinforcers are neutral stimuli that become associated with other reinforcers, so that they eventually function as reinforcers? A) Primary reinforcers B) Intermittent reinforcers C) Secondary reinforcers D) Continuous reinforcers Answer: C Rationale: Secondary reinforcers are neutral stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers. For example, money is a secondary reinforcer because it becomes reinforcing through its association with primary reinforcers like food or shelter. 13. Lack of knowledge about what causes a given behavior Skinner defined as A) dangerous. B) unscientific. C) ignorance. D) naivety. Answer: C Rationale: Skinner defined lack of knowledge about what causes a given behavior as ignorance. He believed that behavior could be understood and influenced through scientific study and experimentation, rather than through naive or unscientific explanations. 14. Punishment A) enables a person to learn what is the best behavior for a given situation. B) informs one of what to do rather than what not to do. C) selectively reinforces and encourages the punisher. D) can benefit the person receiving the punishment. Answer: C Rationale: Punishment involves the application of an aversive stimulus in response to a behavior, with the goal of decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. While punishment may stop a specific behavior, it does not necessarily teach the person what behavior is preferred in that situation. 15. In Skinner’s system, which is based solely on observable data, the role of the body is A) peripherally significant. B) discussed extensively. C) of secondary importance. D) of primary importance. Answer: D Rationale: In Skinner's system, which is focused on observable behavior and environmental stimuli, the role of the body is considered to be of primary importance. This is because behavior is seen as being directly influenced by the environment, with the body serving as the mechanism through which environmental stimuli are processed and responded to. 16. In Skinner’s system a “repertoire of behavior” was another name for A) emotion. B) knowledge. C) explanatory fictions. D) the will. Answer: B Rationale: In Skinner's system, a "repertoire of behavior" refers to the range of behaviors that an individual has learned and can exhibit in response to different stimuli. This concept emphasizes the importance of learning and experience in shaping behavior, rather than attributing behavior to internal states like emotion or the will. 17. A behavior therapist is primarily interested in A) inner states. B) actual behaviors. C) historical antecedents. D) reinforcing previously unexpressed behaviors. Answer: B Rationale: Behavior therapy is based on the principles of operant conditioning and focuses on observable behaviors rather than on inner states or historical antecedents. The goal of behavior therapy is to modify maladaptive behaviors and reinforce more adaptive behaviors through techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, and modeling. 18. Which of the following is true of behavior therapy? A) Behavior therapy tries to help people to respond to life situations the way they would like to respond. B) The therapist decides on the specific therapy goals. C) The complaints of the client are understood as symptoms of some underlying problem. D) Behavior therapy tries to modify an emotional core of attitudes or feelings within the personality. Answer: A Rationale: Behavior therapy aims to help individuals change their behavior in response to specific situations. The focus is on teaching new behaviors or modifying existing ones to help individuals respond more effectively to life situations. The therapist works collaboratively with the client to set goals and develop strategies for achieving them. 19. Inspired by Skinner, Arthur Staats claims that personality traits, abilities, and attitudes are developed as a result of a long-term, complex process of A) reinforcement. B) training. C) learning. D) knowledge-integration. Answer: C Rationale: Arthur Staats, influenced by Skinner's work, argued that personality traits, abilities, and attitudes are developed through a long-term process of learning. This process involves the acquisition of behaviors through reinforcement and shaping, as well as the influence of environmental factors on behavior. Staats emphasized the importance of learning in shaping personality and behavior, in line with Skinner's principles of operant conditioning. True False Questions 20. Skinner thought his critics displayed the nonscientific and inaccurate ways of thinking that his work attempted to correct. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner believed that many of his critics misunderstood or misrepresented his work, often relying on nonscientific or inaccurate ways of thinking. He argued that his work was based on empirical observation and scientific principles, and that critics who rejected these principles were demonstrating the very misconceptions his work sought to correct. 21. Thorndike proposed the “canon of parsimony,” which states that given two explanations, a scientist should always accept the simpler. Answer: False Rationale: The principle of parsimony, also known as Occam's razor, is attributed to William of Ockham, a medieval philosopher, rather than Edward Thorndike. It states that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected. 22. Skinner developed his theory from close observation of college freshmen. Answer: False Rationale: Skinner's theory of operant conditioning and behaviorism was not developed solely from observations of college freshmen. Instead, it was based on a wide range of empirical research and experimentation with animals and humans of various ages and backgrounds. 23. Skinner believed it is behavior alone which can be studied. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner believed that the focus of scientific study should be on observable behavior, rather than on unobservable mental processes or states. He argued that behavior could be studied objectively and that attempts to study internal mental states were often subjective and unscientific. 24. Skinner argued that if you base your definition of the self on observable behavior, it is necessary to discuss the self, or the personality. Answer: False Rationale: Skinner rejected the notion of an enduring self or personality that exists independently of behavior. He argued that the self and personality are not useful concepts in a scientific analysis of behavior, as they cannot be directly observed or measured. 25. Each individual response is based solely on prior experiences and genetic history. Answer: True Rationale: According to Skinner, behavior is determined by a combination of genetic factors and prior experiences. He believed that all behavior, including complex human behavior, could be understood as the result of these influences. 26. For Skinner, the doctrine of free will as an inner causal agent is an explanatory fiction. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner rejected the idea of free will as an inner causal agent that influences behavior. He argued that the concept of free will was an explanatory fiction, a term he used to describe unobservable entities or processes that are invoked to explain behavior but have no basis in empirical observation. 27. Explanatory fictions are those terms used by behaviorists to describe behavior. Answer: False Rationale: Explanatory fictions are not terms used by behaviorists to describe behavior. Instead, they are terms used to describe unobservable entities or processes that are sometimes invoked to explain behavior but have no empirical basis, according to Skinner. 28. Creativity is yet another metaphysical label for something people do not understand. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner viewed creativity as a complex behavior that could be understood through the principles of operant conditioning. He argued that creativity was not a mysterious or metaphysical phenomenon, but rather a product of environmental influences and prior experiences. 29. Skinner’s investigation of freedom has drawn more criticism than any other aspect of his work. Answer: False Rationale: While Skinner's views on freedom and determinism have been criticized, they are not necessarily the most criticized aspect of his work. His rejection of the role of consciousness and introspection in psychology, as well as his radical behaviorist approach, have also been subjects of significant criticism. 30. Skinner would say that people have been conditioned to believe in the existence of “self.” Answer: True Rationale: Skinner argued that the concept of the self is a learned behavior, shaped by reinforcement and environmental influences. He believed that people are conditioned to believe in the existence of a self through their interactions with others and their experiences in the world. 31. A better understanding of the patterns that change behaviors or keep them stable is one of Skinner’s major contributions. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner's work focused on understanding how behaviors are shaped and maintained by their consequences. He developed the principles of operant conditioning, which explain how behaviors are influenced by reinforcement and punishment, leading to a better understanding of the patterns that change behaviors or keep them stable. 32. Operant behaviors are behaviors that occur reflexively. Answer: False Rationale: Operant behaviors are behaviors that are influenced by their consequences. Unlike reflexive behaviors, which are automatic responses to stimuli, operant behaviors are purposeful and are shaped by reinforcement and punishment. 33. Skinner maintains that it is possible to explain the occurrence of any behavior if one has sufficient knowledge of the prior reinforcers. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner believed that all behavior could be understood as the result of prior reinforcement. By studying the history of reinforcement for a particular behavior, one could explain why that behavior occurs. 34. Continuous reinforcement will produce more stable behavior. Answer: False Rationale: Continuous reinforcement, where every instance of a behavior is reinforced, can actually lead to less stable behavior. Once the reinforcement is removed, the behavior is more likely to extinguish. Intermittent reinforcement, where the behavior is only reinforced occasionally, tends to produce more stable behavior. 35. Skinner is interested in the prediction of behavior. Answer: False Rationale: Skinner was more interested in the control and manipulation of behavior through reinforcement and punishment than in simply predicting behavior. While prediction is often a goal of behavior analysis, Skinner's work went beyond prediction to include strategies for changing and maintaining behavior. 36. “Extinction” occurs when there is no longer any consequence following a behavior that had been previously reinforced. Answer: True Rationale: Extinction is the process by which a behavior that had been previously reinforced no longer produces the reinforcing consequence. When a behavior is no longer reinforced, it is likely to decrease in frequency and eventually extinguish. 37. Precise descriptions of behavior help to make accurate predictions of future behaviors and improve the analysis of the reinforcements that led to the behavior. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner emphasized the importance of precise descriptions of behavior in behavior analysis. These descriptions help to identify the specific conditions under which behavior occurs, making it easier to predict future behaviors and analyze the reinforcements that influence them. 38. Rather than blame and punish deviant behavior, Skinner suggested that a far more useful approach is to establish a situation in which a new, competing, and more beneficial behavior can be learned and reinforced. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner believed that behavior could be changed through reinforcement and punishment. Instead of focusing on blame and punishment for deviant behavior, Skinner advocated for creating environments that support the learning of new, more beneficial behaviors. 39. “Verbal community” was Skinner’s definition for the people who respond to the body language of others in the same community. Answer: False Rationale: Skinner used the term "verbal community" to refer to the group of people who shape and reinforce the verbal behavior of an individual. It includes those who respond to and reinforce the individual's use of language. 40. According to Skinner, a woman’s identity is unique and different from a man’s identity only insofar as the contingencies responsible for women and men’s behaviors differ. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner believed that differences in behavior between men and women could be attributed to differences in the contingencies of reinforcement they experience. He argued that these differences in reinforcement history shape the behaviors that are characteristic of each gender, leading to differences in identity and behavior. 41. One definition that Skinner gives for knowledge is the probability of skilled behavior. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner viewed knowledge as the probability of engaging in a particular behavior in a given situation. He believed that knowledge could be understood in terms of the likelihood of exhibiting skilled behavior based on past experiences and reinforcement history. 42. Some critics have argued that Skinner’s work concentrates too much on the person and too little on the environment. Answer: False Rationale: Skinner's work in behaviorism actually emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping behavior. He believed that behavior is determined by the interactions between individuals and their environment, with the environment providing the stimuli and reinforcement that influence behavior. 43. Derived from his animal experiments, the development of programmed learning was Skinner’s most distinctive achievement. Answer: True Rationale: Skinner's work with animal experiments, particularly with pigeons and rats, led to the development of programmed learning. Programmed learning is a method of teaching that uses carefully designed sequences of instruction and reinforcement to guide students through material at their own pace, with the goal of improving learning efficiency. Essay Questions 44. Consider Skinner’s statement: “There is no place in a scientific analysis of behavior for a mind or self.” Do you agree or disagree with Skinner’s supposition? Use examples from the text. Answer: Skinner's statement reflects his belief that behavior can be understood and explained solely through observable events and their relationship to the environment, without the need to invoke internal mental states such as the mind or self. While some may agree with Skinner's approach, arguing that it provides a more objective and scientifically rigorous framework for understanding behavior, others may disagree, suggesting that it oversimplifies the complexity of human experience and cognition. For example, cognitive psychologists argue that mental processes such as memory, perception, and attention play a crucial role in shaping behavior, and that these processes cannot be fully understood or explained solely through external observations. 45. What did Skinner mean when he said “The danger of the misuse of power is possibly greater than ever”? In Skinner’s eyes, how was this situation to be remedied? Answer: Skinner was concerned about the potential misuse of power, particularly in the context of behavior modification techniques. He believed that as technology advanced and our ability to influence behavior increased, there was a greater risk that this power could be used in unethical or harmful ways. To remedy this situation, Skinner advocated for the responsible and ethical use of behavior modification techniques, emphasizing the importance of using these techniques to promote positive behavior change and improve people's lives, rather than to control or manipulate them against their will. 46. Skinner believed that people’s determination to think in “fictions” prevents them from being in touch with the actual, vital, concrete world. Offer some arguments either in favor or against this position. Answer: Arguments in favor of Skinner's position might suggest that people often rely on mental constructs or "fictions" to explain or interpret the world around them, which can sometimes lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of reality. For example, beliefs in superstitions or myths might lead people to make decisions based on false assumptions rather than objective evidence. On the other hand, arguments against Skinner's position might argue that mental constructs such as beliefs, values, and emotions are an integral part of human experience and identity, and that they can provide meaning and purpose in life. These constructs may not always align perfectly with objective reality, but they can still serve important psychological and social functions. 47. Discuss the moral and ethical implications of the use of behavior modification on human subjects. Answer: The use of behavior modification techniques on human subjects raises several moral and ethical concerns. One of the primary concerns is the issue of consent. Individuals subjected to behavior modification should have the capacity to understand the implications of the treatment and give informed consent. Without proper consent, there is a risk of violating the individual's autonomy and right to self-determination. Another ethical consideration is the potential for coercion. If behavior modification is used to compel individuals to act against their will or in a way that goes against their values, it raises questions about the ethicality of the intervention. Additionally, the use of behavior modification to manipulate behavior for the benefit of others, such as in advertising or political campaigns, raises concerns about the manipulation of individuals for ulterior motives. There is also a risk of unintended consequences. Behavior modification techniques can have unpredictable effects on individuals, and there is a potential for harm, including psychological harm, if not implemented carefully. Moreover, the long-term effects of behavior modification are not always well understood, raising questions about the potential for lasting harm. Furthermore, the use of behavior modification raises broader ethical questions about the nature of human freedom and agency. Some argue that behavior modification techniques can undermine individuals' ability to make autonomous choices and can lead to a reductionist view of human behavior. In conclusion, while behavior modification techniques can be effective in changing behavior, they must be used with caution and in accordance with ethical principles. It is essential to ensure that individuals are treated with respect and dignity and that their autonomy and well-being are safeguarded. Short Answer Questions 48. Many psychologists, including Skinner, assumed that humans are essentially no different from other ___________. Answer: animals 49. Skinner said “I may say that the only differences I expect to see revealed between the behavior of rat and man lie in the field of ___________ behavior.” Answer: verbal 50. The schedule of reinforcement has been shown to be as important as the ___________ itself. Answer: reinforcement 51. Skinner believed that current difficulties in understanding, predicting, and controlling ___________ behaviors could be reduced by observing behavioral patterns. Answer: emotional 52. Research has shown that children with ___________ perform best under a high level of reinforcers, and under continuous and immediate reinforcement. Answer: AD/HD 53. Arthur Staats developed the popular childrearing procedure of giving a child a ___________ ___________, which Staats felt both avoids punishment and eliminates undesired behaviors by changing the individual’s environment. Answer: “time out” Matching Questions 54. Personality A. “Excellent examples of fictional causes to which we commonly attribute behavior” 55. Emotions B. The process of shaping and maintaining a particular behavior by its consequences 56. Growth C. Related to physical needs and survival 57. Primary reinforcers D. Anything that an organism can be observed doing 58. Rewarding behavior E. A collection of behavior patterns 59. Punishment F. Ability to minimize adversive conditions and increase the beneficial control of our environment 60. Functional analysis G. More effective than aversive control in learning new behavior 61. Operant conditioning H. Examination of cause and effect relationships 62. Reinforcer I. Major impediment to effective learning 63. Behavior J. Any stimulus that follows a response and increases or maintains the probability of that response Answers: 54) E 55) A 56) F 57) C 58) G 59) I 60) H 61) B 62) J 63) D Test Bank for Personality and Personal Growth Robert Frager, James Fadiman 9780205953752, 9780205254781
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