CH-7 Early Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development – Understanding Human Development : Exam Guide

Chapter 7 - Early Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development 1. When children are younger, they are more likely to engage in ________ aggression; as they grow older they are more likely to engage in __________ aggression. a. physical; verbal b. verbal; physical c. instrumental; hostile d. instrumental; intentional Answer: a Rationale: This answer aligns with typical developmental patterns. Younger children often lack the verbal skills to express their frustrations, leading to more physical forms of aggression. As they grow older and language skills develop, they are more likely to resort to verbal aggression to express themselves. 2. Compared to children who don’t have imaginary companions, those who do: a. are less sociable b. are more shy c. have more friends d. are less creative Answer: c Rationale: Research suggests that children with imaginary companions tend to have more developed social skills and richer imaginative capacities. Therefore, they are more likely to have more friends. 3. The text describes a study in which young children watched a puppet show in which a puppet was described as either a friend or an acquaintance who gets in trouble. The children responded with more empathy when the person in trouble was __________ and showed a greater willingness to help ________. a. a friend; an acquaintance b. an acquaintance; a friend c. an acquaintance; an acquaintance d. a friend; a friend Answer: d Rationale: This aligns with typical social behavior where individuals are more empathetic and willing to help their friends compared to mere acquaintances. 4. The major way that anxiety is different from fear is that anxiety is: a. much more intense emotionally b. processed in the brain, whereas fear is processed in the spinal cord c. more generalized and vague d. innate, rather than learned Answer: c Rationale: Anxiety is characterized by a more diffuse and generalized feeling of apprehension compared to fear, which is typically a response to a specific threat. 5. As children grow older, they gain a greater ability to empathize. As a consequence, their tendency to behave aggressively: a. first increases, but then decreases b. first decreases, but then increases c. generally decreases d. generally increases Answer: c Rationale: With increased empathy, children become more aware of the consequences of their actions on others, leading to a decrease in aggressive behavior over time. 6. The text reports a study in which female college students interacted with a 6-month-old infant who was either a boy or a girl, and who was dressed as either a boy or a girl. (For example, sometimes a boy was dressed as a boy, sometimes he was dressed as a girl.) Results demonstrate the importance of which of the following factors in the development of gender identity? a. genetic forces, especially those coded on the X and Y chromosomes b. brain development, which proceeds either in a “male” or “female” pattern c. socialization d. androgyny Answer: c Rationale: This study emphasizes the role of socialization in the development of gender identity, as the behavior of the students varied depending on how the infant was perceived based on gender roles. 7. Which of the following statements is the most accurate description of the relationship between socioeconomic status and child maltreatment? a. Children in low-income families are least likely to be abused because these families are most likely to be headed by women. b. Children in high-income families are most likely to be abused, but the abuse is less likely to be reported due to the high social status of the parents. c. Children in low-income families are most likely to be abused because poverty and unemployment involve stress and heighten risk for abuse. d. Children in middle-class homes are most likely to be abused, but the abuse is less likely to be reported because one parent usually covers up the abuse for the other parent. Answer: c Rationale: Research consistently shows that children in low-income families are at a higher risk of experiencing maltreatment due to various stressors associated with poverty. 8. Based on research cited in the text, you would expect that 5-year-old Robby is most likely to fear: a. monsters b. strangers c. falling d. loud noises Answer: a Rationale: Developmental research indicates that fear of imaginary creatures like monsters is common in preschool-aged children. 9. A 6-year-old child says, “I did this REALLY WELL! I am a SMART girl!” These statements best reflect Erik Erikson’s concept of: a. autonomy b. trust c. initiative d. independence Answer: c Rationale: Erikson's concept of initiative refers to the sense of purposefulness and eagerness to try new tasks and master new skills, as demonstrated by the child's pride in their accomplishment. 10. Leo and Mary use firm control with their children but encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family. Their parenting style would best be described as: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: b Rationale: This parenting style aligns with the authoritative approach, which is characterized by setting clear rules and expectations while also being responsive and open to communication with the children. 1. The text reports a study in which parents of Navajo children and parents of white children raised in Montana were asked about what the children were afraid of. The major finding of this study was that? a. children in Montana were much better adjusted than the Navajo children b. Navajo children were much better adjusted than the children in Montana c. children in Montana were afraid of many more things, including imaginary things like supernatural beings d. Navajo children were afraid of many more things, including imaginary things like supernatural beings Answer: d Rationale: The major finding of the study was that Navajo children were afraid of many more things, including imaginary things like supernatural beings. This indicates a higher level of fear or anxiety among Navajo children compared to white children in Montana. 2. Which of the following factors is positively related to being popular in childhood: a. having been the victim of child abuse b. being aggressive c. being “different” from peers in some significant way d. being given lots of opportunities to play with other children Answer: d Rationale: Being given lots of opportunities to play with other children is positively related to being popular in childhood because social interaction and engagement with peers contribute to social skills development and the establishment of friendships, which are characteristics associated with popularity among children. 3. ________ is genetically determined and biological, whereas _______ is culturally based and acquired. a. Sex, gender b. Gender, sex c. Masculinity, femininity d. Femininity, masculinity Answer: a Rationale: Sex is genetically determined and biological, referring to the biological characteristics such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones. Gender, on the other hand, is culturally based and acquired, encompassing the roles, behaviors, and expectations that a society considers appropriate for men and women. 4. A theorist who emphasizes the child's feelings, drives, and developmental conflicts in the study of development would most likely subscribe to which of the following theoretical perspectives? a. social-learning perspective b. cognitive development perspective c. psychoanalytic perspective d. family systems perspective Answer: c Rationale: The psychoanalytic perspective, pioneered by theorists like Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson, focuses on the role of unconscious drives and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and development. It emphasizes the importance of emotions, drives, and developmental conflicts in understanding human behavior and development. 5. Megan sees her mother feeling and looking sad. This in turn makes Megan sad. She is experiencing which phenomenon? a. empathy b. frustration c. assertiveness d. egocentrism Answer: a Rationale: Megan is experiencing empathy, which involves understanding and sharing the feelings of another person. In this scenario, Megan's emotional response to her mother's sadness demonstrates her ability to empathize with her mother's emotional state. 6. According to the views of Erik Erikson, which of the following statements best reflects the developmental crisis for 2-year-old Tommy? a. Who am I? b. I want to do it MYSELF! c. Why NOT? d. I’m SCARED! Answer: b Rationale: According to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, the developmental crisis for a 2-year-old corresponds to the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt. The statement "I want to do it MYSELF!" reflects the struggle for autonomy, which is characteristic of this stage. 7. The various parenting styles that are discussed in the text are distinguished from each other primarily according to the degree that parents exhibit: a. warmth and control b. punishment and reinforcement c. androgen versus gender-role stereotypes d. love and liking Answer: a Rationale: Parenting styles are primarily distinguished according to the degree of warmth and control exhibited by parents. This includes dimensions such as responsiveness, affection, support, as well as demands, discipline, and behavioral control. 8. If Maria’s parents are concerned that her inability to cope with one of her emotions is disrupting her sense of identity, the emotion that is most likely to be involved would be: a. guilt b. anxiety c. shame d. fear Answer: c Rationale: Shame, as an emotion, is closely tied to one's sense of identity and self-worth. If Maria's parents are concerned about her inability to cope with an emotion that disrupts her sense of identity, shame is the most likely emotion involved, as it pertains to feelings of inadequacy or unworthiness. 9. Mike and Molly are playing together. Their play involves each playing alone, without interacting with each other, but both children are in the same room, using toys from the same toy box. This type of play would best be described as: a. associative play b. cooperative play c. parallel play d. onlooker play Answer: c Rationale: Parallel play involves children playing alongside each other without direct interaction or collaboration. In this scenario, Mike and Molly are both engaged in individual play activities while being in the same physical space, which characterizes parallel play. 10. Suppose that 6-year-old Samantha (a girl) is sexually abused. Generalizing from statistics, which of the following people would be most likely to have committed this abuse? a. Samantha’s father b. Samantha’s stepfather c. Samantha’s mother d. a male neighbor who is gay Answer: b Rationale: Generalizing from statistics, the person most likely to have committed sexual abuse against Samantha would be someone known to the family and in a position of trust and authority, such as a stepfather. Stepfathers statistically have a higher incidence of perpetrating sexual abuse compared to other individuals listed. Multiple Choice questions: 1. The period of early childhood is typically assigned to children between the ages of: a. 2 and 6 b. 3 and 7 c. 3 and 8 d. 4 and 6 Answer: a Rationale: Early childhood, also known as the preschool years, typically encompasses the ages of 2 to 6 years old, as children undergo significant developmental milestones during this period such as language acquisition, socialization, and cognitive growth. 2. Which of the following is an INCORRECT pairing of a theorist with the appropriate theoretical perspective? a. Freud: social learning b. Piaget: cognitive development c. Erikson: psychodynamic d. Vygotsky: cognitive-development Answer: a Rationale: Freud is associated with the psychodynamic perspective, not the social learning perspective. 3. A theorist who emphasizes the child's feelings, drives, and developmental conflicts in the study of development would most likely subscribe to which of the following theoretical perspectives? a. social learning perspective b. cognitive-development perspective c. psychoanalytic perspective d. family systems perspective Answer: c Rationale: The psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic) perspective emphasizes the child’s feelings, drives, and developmental conflicts. According to this perspective, young children must learn to cope with powerful emotions, such as anxiety, in socially acceptable ways. 4. Which theoretical perspective emphasizes the link between cognition, behavior, and the environment? a. psychodynamic perspective b. cognitive-development perspective c. social learning perspective (there is a space missing between “social” and “learning” d. family systems perspective Answer: c Rationale: The social learning perspective, often associated with Albert Bandura, emphasizes how individuals learn through observing others' behavior, cognitions, and the environment, suggesting that behavior is influenced by both internal cognitive processes and external stimuli. 5. If you believe that children's thoughts and concepts organize their social behavior, you adhere to the: a. social learning perspective b. cognitive-development perspective c. psychodynamic perspective d. family systems perspective Answer: b Rationale: The cognitive-developmental view emphasizes children’s thoughts and concepts as the organizers of their social behavior. 6. Albert Bandura, who studied how children learn and display aggression, is a theorist who is most closely associated with which theoretical perspective? a. social learning perspective b. cognitive-development perspective c. psychodynamic perspective d. family systems perspective Answer: a Rationale: Albert Bandura's work, particularly his research on observational learning and aggression in children, aligns closely with the social learning perspective, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in shaping behavior. 7. Which of the following theorists is typically associated with a psychoanalytic perspective? a. Lev Vygotsky b. Jean Piaget c. Erik Erikson d. Albert Bandura Answer: c Rationale: Erikson’s view emphasizes how individuals reconcile various developmental conflicts, such as establishing trust and a sense of identity. As such, his focus was on emotional development, which is consistent with a psychoanalytic perspective. 8. Which of the following theorists is typically associated with the cognitive-development perspective? a. Lev Vygotsky b. Sigmund Freud c. Erik Erikson d. Albert Bandura Answer: a Rationale: Vygotsky’s theory was one of cognitive development: he emphasized that much of children’s cognitive growth takes place through guided participation, in what he called the zone of proximal development. 9. A feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source is a definition of: a. anxiety b. emotion regulation c. jealousy d. frustration Answer: a Rationale: Anxiety is characterized by feelings of unease, apprehension, or fear, often without a specific or identifiable cause, distinguishing it from other emotions such as frustration or jealousy. 10. Maria has a feeling of uneasiness, but doesn't know the source of her apprehension. Which of the following terms best describes Maria’s state? a. arousal b. defensiveness c. fear d. anxiety Answer: d Rationale: Anxiety is defined as a generalized emotional state that produces a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that stems from a vague or unknown source. 11. The major way that anxiety is different from fear is that anxiety is: a. much more intense emotionally b. processed in the brain, whereas fear is processed in the spinal cord c. more generalized and vague d. innate, rather than learned Answer: c Rationale: Fear is a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific, identifiable stimulus or situation. For example, a child may fear the dark, or lightning and thunder, or the child may have a phobia (an irrational fear) of big dogs or high places. In contrast, anxiety is a generalized emotional state that produces a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that stems from a vague or unknown source. 12. According to research cited in the text, Navajo parents believe that a child that has no fear is: a. the ideal child b. a foolhardy child c. a typical child d. a joyous child Answer: b Rationale: Navajo parents, according to the research cited, view a child without fear as foolhardy, suggesting that fear is seen as a necessary and adaptive emotion in Navajo culture. 13. In a study of children’s fears, white parents in Montana reported that their children had on average ___ different fears, whereas Navajo parents reported that their children had on average ___ different fears. a. 20; 60 b. 60; 20 c. 22; 4 d. 4; 22 Answer: d Rationale: This study indicates that Navajo children, as reported by their parents, tend to have a higher number of fears on average compared to white children raised in Montana, as reported by their parents. 14. The text reports a study in which parents of Navajo children and parents of white children raised in Montana were asked about what the children were afraid of. The major finding of this study was that: a. children in Montana were much better adjusted than the Navajo children b. Navajo children were much better adjusted than the children in Montana c. children in Montana were afraid of many more things, including imaginary things like supernatural beings d. Navajo children were afraid of many more things, including imaginary things like supernatural beings Answer: d Rationale: The study's major finding suggests that, according to parental reports, Navajo children tend to have a broader range of fears, including imaginary and supernatural beings, compared to white children raised in Montana. 15. The text reports a study in which parents of Navajo children and parents of white children raised in Montana were asked about what the children were afraid of. The major finding of this study suggests that: a. fears are biologically wired into human beings b. fears are present from birth on c. fears are influenced by culture d. fears are seldom seen in children younger than 3 years of age, although anxiety is present from birth Answer: c Rationale: In contemporary Western culture, showing fear is generally frowned upon. In contrast, traditional Navajo parents believe that it is healthy and normal for a child to be afraid. In one study, Navajo parents reported an average of 22 fears in their children, including fears of supernatural beings. In contrast, a group of white parents from rural Montana reported an average of only 4 fears in their children. 16. Suppose that Dan’s parents believe that it is normal and healthy for young children to have many fears. David’s parents, on the other hand, believe that a fearful child is unhealthy and that parents should worry if their child expresses many fears. Generalizing from research cited in the text, you would expect that: a. Dan would express more fears than David b. David would express more fears than Dan c. Dan would be happier than David d. David would be happier than Dan Answer: a Rationale: In a study of Navajo parents and white parents from Montana, Navajo parents reported that their children had on average 22 fears, whereas white parents reported that their children had on average 4 fears. Navajo believe that it is normal and healthy for children to be fearful, whereas the white parents believe children should be brave and not fearful. No differences were reported with respect to children’s happiness. 17. Jersild and Holmes’ classic study of children's fears found that, in comparison to older children, younger children are more likely to be afraid of: a. specific things, such as strangers b. imaginary things, such as monsters c. abstract things, such as prejudice d. general things, such as death Answer: a Rationale: Younger children, according to the study, are more likely to fear specific, tangible things such as strangers, while older children are more likely to fear abstract concepts or imaginary beings. 18. Linda is afraid of spiders, doctors, and snakes. Lauren is afraid of ghosts, of being alone, and of being teased. Generalizing from the results of a classic study described in the text, your best guess is that: a. Linda is a Navajo child and Lauren is a white Midwestern child b. Lauren is a Navajo child and Linda is a white Midwestern child c. Linda is older than Lauren d. Lauren is older than Linda Answer: d Rationale: A classic study of children’s fears (Jersild & Holmes, 1935) found that younger children were most likely to be afraid of specific objects or situations, such as strangers, unfamiliar things, the dark, loud noises, or falling. In contrast, children age 5 or 6 were more likely to fear imaginary or abstract things, such as monsters, robbers, death, being alone, or being ridiculed. 19. In contrast to older children, research would suggest that younger children would be more likely to be afraid of which of the following? a. ghosts b. monsters c. the dark d. death Answer: c Rationale: Jersild and Holms (1935) demonstrated that younger children were most likely to be afraid of specific objects or situations, such as strangers, unfamiliar things, the dark, loud noises, or falling. Older children were more likely to fear imaginary or abstract things, such as monsters, robbers, death, being alone, or being ridiculed. 20. In contrast to younger children, research would suggest that older children would be more likely to be afraid of which of the following? a. death b. the dark c. loud noises d. strangers Answer: a Rationale: Jersild and Holms (1935) demonstrated that younger children were most likely to be afraid of specific objects or situations, such as strangers, unfamiliar things, the dark, loud noises, or falling. Older children were more likely to fear imaginary or abstract things, such as monsters, robbers, death, being alone, or being ridiculed. 21. Based on research cited in the text, you would expect that 5-year-old Robby is most likely to fear: a. monsters b. strangers c. falling d. loud noises Answer: a Rationale: A classic study of children’s fears (Jersild & Holmes, 1935) found that younger children were most likely to be afraid of specific objects or situations, such as strangers, unfamiliar things, the dark, loud noises, or falling. In contrast, children age 5 or 6 were more likely to fear imaginary or abstract things, such as monsters, robbers, death, being alone, or being ridiculed. 22. If Betsy is afraid of monsters under her bed at bedtime, what is most likely the best way her parents can help her overcome her fear? a. They should look under the bed with Betsy watching and have her look with them. b. They should assure her that nothing will happen to her and tell her to “be brave.” c. They should ignore her fear and refuse to talk about monsters with her. d. They should mildly punish her when she expresses the fear. Answer: a Rationale: When their fears are mild, children can be gently and sympathetically encouraged to confront and overcome them. Parents can help by demonstrating that there is little to fear. 23. Suppose that 5-year-old Mike’s parents are concerned that he is too fearful. To help him better cope with his fears, Mike’s parents would be advised to do all of the following EXCEPT: a. punish him when he expresses fear b. prevent him from watching violent TV shows c. make sure that he is not being teased by siblings or friends d. make his daily routine more predictable Answer: a Rationale: As the textbook notes, often the best way to help children cope with anxiety is to reduce unnecessary stress in their lives. When children show unusually high levels of tension or have frequent temper tantrums, it is often helpful to simplify their lives by maintaining daily routines; specifying clearly what is expected of them; and helping them anticipate special events, such as visits from friends and relatives. Other helpful strategies include reducing their exposure to parental fighting or violent television programs and protecting them from being teased or tormented by siblings or neighborhood bullies or gangs. 24. Suppose that a 3-year-old begins to ask his mother to check under the bad for wolves every night at bedtime. Generalizing from information presented in the text, the best response from the parent would be: a. to refuse to do this checking, since it will likely lead to the development of a phobia about wolves b. to refuse to do this checking, since it is irrational and might lead to the development of defense mechanisms c. to refuse to do this checking, but instead to tell the child that there is no way a wolf could get into the house d. to check under the bed every night so that the child can better deal with the anxiety he feels about going to bed Answer: d Rationale: When their fears are mild, children can be gently and sympathetically encouraged to confront and overcome them. Parents can help by demonstrating that there is little to fear. 25. The primary goal of a defense mechanism is to: a. reduce aggression b. develop self-regulation c. reduce anxiety d. enhance prosocial behavior Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, parents should understand that children sometimes rely on defense mechanisms, which are the psychodynamic tricks and behaviors used by individuals to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to fear or anxiety. 26. Five-year-old Jenny told her mother, "Kate doesn't like me," when in actuality, Jenny doesn't like Kate. What defense mechanism is Jenny using? a. projection b. reaction formation c. denial d. identification Answer: a Rationale: Projection refers to the process of attributing undesirable thoughts or actions to someone else and, in the process, distorting reality; “She did it, not me” is a projective statement. “He wants to hurt me” may seem more acceptable than “I want to hurt him.” Projection thus sets the stage for a distorted form of self-defense; for example, “If he wants to hurt me, I’d better do it to him first.” 27. Tyler was angry with his baby sister, but he could not hit her, so he went outside and kicked a ball instead. This illustrates the use of the defense mechanism called: a. denial b. regression c. displacement d. projection Answer: c Rationale: Displacement is defined as substituting something or someone else for the real source of anger or fear; for example, a child may be angry with his baby sister, but he cannot hit her. Perhaps he cannot even admit to himself that he wants to hit her, so he torments the family dog or cat instead. 28. After Amy's dog died, she pretended that it was still alive and called out for it by name and pretended to play with it outside. What defense mechanism is Amy using? a. denial b. displacement c. regression d. identification Answer: a Rationale: Denial entails refusing to admit that a situation exists or that an event happened; for example, children may react to an upsetting situation such as the death of a pet by pretending that the pet is still living in the house and sleeping with them at night. 29. Jake was involved in a fight but he cannot remember any of it. This defense mechanism, in which he completely erased the fight from consciousness, is called: a. regression b. displacement c. reaction formation d. repression Answer: d Rationale: Repression is an extreme form of denial in which the person unconsciously erases a frightening event or circumstance from awareness; there is no need to rely on fantasy because the child literally does not consciously remember that the event ever occurred. 30. Seven-year-old Andy reacted to his newborn sister’s birth by sucking his thumb, a behavior he had quit long ago. His way of coping with his anxiety is in the form of what defense mechanism? a. displacement b. identification c. regression d. repression Answer: c Rationale: Regression is defined as returning to an earlier or more infantile form of behavior as a way of coping with a stressful situation; for example, a frustrated 8-year-old suddenly reverts to sucking her thumb and carrying around her blanket, regressing to behaviors that were given up years before. 31. Bridget is very anxious about being independent from her parents. Although she would like to be with them, instead she pushes them away and behaves with exaggerated independence. What defense mechanism is she using? a. displacement b. repression c. projection d. reaction formation Answer: d Rationale: Reaction formation refers to behaving in ways opposite to your inclinations; when children have thoughts or desires that make them anxious, they may react by behaving in a contradictory way. For example, they might like to cling to their parents, but instead they push them away and behave with exaggerated independence and assertiveness. 32. The process of dealing with emotions in socially acceptable ways is called: a. compliance b. emotion regulation c. self-regulation d. prosocial behavior Answer: b Rationale: Emotion regulation refers to the process of managing and expressing emotions in socially acceptable ways, which involves strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, distraction, or suppression to modulate emotional responses. 33. Alex’s parents are working very hard to help him learn to manage his feelings so that they don’t overwhelm him. In particular, they are helping him cope with the anxiety he feels when he is left alone. The term that best describes what Alex’s parents are trying to do is: a. repression b. displacement c. emotion regulation d. rationalization Answer: c Rationale: Emotional development requires that children learn to deal with a wide range of emotions, not just fear and anxiety, in socially acceptable ways—a process called emotion regulation. 34. According to the text, the emotion regulation of which of the following feelings is especially important during early childhood? a. fear b. shame and guilt c. anxiety d. happiness Answer: b Rationale: The text suggests that during early childhood, the emotion regulation of shame and guilt is especially important. This is because the development of a healthy sense of self-esteem and moral understanding relies heavily on the ability to regulate these self-conscious emotions. 35. If Maria’s parents are concerned that her inability to cope with one of her emotions is disrupting her sense of identity, the emotion that is most likely to be involved would be: a. guilt b. anxiety c. shame d. fear Answer: c Rationale: Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self. Guilt, on the other hand, is focus on changing behavior, rather than changing oneself. Anxiety and fear do not have a major impact on the person’s conception of their self. They might lead to the child’s development of shame if the child is embarrassed about being fearful or anxious, but in themselves they do not impact the self concept. 36. According to the text, which of the following would NOT be advised as a means of helping a child cope with stress? a. providing a warm, secure base to help the child become more confident b. preventing the child from retreating to immature behavior by discouraging such things as thumb sucking or cuddling a blanket c. allowing the child to discuss feelings and share fears with others d. providing the child with explanations for the events that are causing stress Answer: b Rationale: Preventing a child from retreating to immature behavior such as thumb sucking or cuddling a blanket would not be advised as a means of helping a child cope with stress. These behaviors are often self-soothing mechanisms for children and should not be discouraged unless they are causing harm. 37. The text reports the results of studies that track children who were still having temper tantrums at age 10 into adulthood. The major finding of these studies was that children who failed to learn to control their temper: a. made a lot more money because they were more aggressive in business settings b. were much less likely to be gay or lesbian c. were much less likely to be divorced because they refused to allow their spouse to express negative emotions d. were more likely to have trouble holding a job Answer: d Rationale: The major finding of the studies was that children who failed to learn to control their temper were more likely to have trouble holding a job in adulthood. This suggests that the inability to regulate emotions and behaviors in childhood can have long-term consequences for functioning in adult roles. 38. Generalizing from research cited in the text, if Tom was 12 years old and was still having frequent temper tantrums, as an adult you would expect that he would be at higher than normal risk for: a. getting divorced b. being elected to public office c. marrying a younger woman d. marrying an older woman Answer: a Rationale: In one longitudinal study, children who were still having temper tantrums at age 10 were tracked into adulthood (Caspi, 1998). The researchers found that these children tended to be unsuccessful as adults as a result of their continuing outbursts of anger. They had difficulty holding jobs, and their marriages often ended in divorce. 39. According to the text, at about what age do children begin to show a fascination with their genital regions of their bodies? a. age 2 b. age 3-4 c. age 5-6 d. age 7-8 Answer: b Rationale: According to the text, children begin to show a fascination with their genital regions of their bodies around the ages of 3-4 years old. This corresponds to the phallic stage of psychosexual development described by Freud. 40. Recently, Janine has become very curious about her genitals and she has begun asking lots of questions about the “differences” between girls and boys. Generalizing from information presented in the text, your best guess is that Janine is about how old? a. 2-3 years old b. 3-4 years old c. 4-5 years old d. 5-6 years old Answer: b Rationale: The text states that fascination with the genital regions usually develops at about age 3 or 4, and that masturbation and curiosity about sex-related topics is common at this age. 41. Parents should expect that their children will develop a curiosity about their bodies and their sex organs, and may begin to masturbate, at about which of the following ages? a. 2-3 years old b. 3-4 years old c. 4-5 years old d. 5-6 years old Answer: b Rationale: The text states that fascination with the genital regions usually develops at about age 3 or 4, and that masturbation and curiosity about sex-related topics is common at this age. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 42. Behavior that is intended to injure defines: a. hostile aggression b. assertive behavior c. antisocial behavior d. instrumental aggression Answer: a Rationale: Hostile aggression is defined as behavior that is intended to injure or harm another individual. This type of aggression is often driven by anger or frustration and is not aimed at achieving any particular goal beyond causing harm. 43. Assertive behavior involves: a. an intent to injure someone b. blocking a goal c. socially inappropriate activity d. standing up for one’s rights Answer: d Rationale: Assertiveness is defined as standing up for one’s rights. For example, a child who tells his teacher that another child has taken one of his possessions is displaying assertive behavior. 44. Stating your rights is an example of: a. prosocial behavior b. aggression c. assertive behavior d. egocentrism Answer: c Rationale: Assertiveness is defined as standing up for one’s rights. For example, a child who tells his teacher that another child has taken one of his possessions is displaying assertive behavior. 45. A child who accidentally hurts another child while playing is exhibiting which type of aggression? a. frustration-aggression b. hostile aggression c. instrumental aggression d. assertiveness Answer: c Rationale: Instrumental aggression is behavior that is not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally. For example, a child who runs to get a toy and accidentally knocks another child down is displaying instrumental aggression. 46. Suppose that James works for several hours trying to put a puzzle together. However, the puzzle is too hard, and finally James tips the table over, sending pieces all over the floor. James’s response is best considered to reflect the concept of: a. instrumental aggression b. modeling c. punishment d. frustration Answer: d Rationale: Frustration, which occurs when goals are blocked, can also give rise to physically aggressive responses. 47. Jaliah wants to play with a certain toy, but every time she tries to reach for it, another child pushes her away. This situation, in which Jaliah’s goal is blocked, would best be considered an example of: a. instrumental aggression b. modeling c. frustration d. assertiveness Answer: c Rationale: Frustration, which occurs when goals are blocked, can also give rise to physically aggressive responses. 48. When children are younger, they are more likely to engage in ________ aggression; as they grow older they are more likely to engage in __________ aggression. a. physical; verbal b. verbal; physical c. instrumental; hostile d. instrumental; intentional Answer: a Rationale: Younger children are more likely to engage in physical aggression, such as hitting or pushing, as they are still developing their verbal and communication skills. As they grow older and their communication abilities improve, they are more likely to engage in verbal aggression, such as name-calling or teasing. 49. As children grow older, they become ____ egocentric and they engage in ____ physical aggression. a. more; more b. less; less c. more; less d. less; more Answer: b Rationale: As children grow older, they typically become less egocentric, meaning they become more aware of others' perspectives and feelings. Consequently, they engage in less physical aggression because they are better able to understand the impact of their actions on others and are more likely to use verbal communication to resolve conflicts. 50. Generalizing from the text, a child who is frequently punished at home is likely to develop a tendency to become: a. more aggressive b. less aggressive c. more egocentric d. envious Answer: a Rationale: Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively—especially if the punishment is harsh and frequent. If children are punished for aggressive acts, they usually avoid those behaviors that lead to punishment—at least in the presence of the person who has punished them. Ironically, however, children who are frequently punished typically become more aggressive. For example, their aggression at home may decrease, but they may become more aggressive at school. 51. In general, when children are physically punished on a regular basis, they usually: a. become much more empathetic to other children who also are physically punished b. become more egocentric c. become less assertive d. become more aggressive themselves Answer: d Rationale: Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively—especially if the punishment is harsh and frequent. If children are punished for aggressive acts, they usually avoid those behaviors that lead to punishment—at least in the presence of the person who has punished them. Ironically, however, children who are frequently punished typically become more aggressive. For example, their aggression at home may decrease, but they may become more aggressive at school. 52. Research suggest that contribute(s) to children’s development of aggression-related behaviors. a. both physical punishment and genetic risk factors b. physical punishment but not genetic risk factors c. genetic risk factors but not physical punishment d. neither physical punishment nor genetic risk factors Answer: a Rationale: Research indicates that both physical punishment and genetic risk factors contribute to children's development of aggression-related behaviors. Physical punishment can model aggressive behavior and lead to the reinforcement of aggressive tendencies, while genetic factors can predispose some children to be more reactive or impulsive, increasing their likelihood of engaging in aggressive behaviors. 53. According to data cited in the text, about how many hours of television are U.S. children likely to watch before they enter formal schooling? a. 1,000 hours b. 2,000 hours c. 4,000 hours d. 6,000 hours Answer: c Rationale: Data cited in the text suggests that U.S. children are likely to watch approximately 4,000 hours of television before they enter formal schooling. This extensive exposure to television during early childhood can significantly influence their development and behavior. 54. According to research cited in the text, the typical young child in the United States spends about how much time per day using screen media, such as TV or the Internet? a. about 30 minutes b. about 1 hour c. about 2 hours d. about 3 ½ hours Answer: c Rationale: As shown in Figure 7-1 on page 192, children between the ages of 0 and 6 spend about 2 hours per day using screen media, roughly the same amount of time that they spend playing outside. 55. In which of the following activities does the typical young child in the United States spend the most time? a. playing outside b. reading or being read to c. listening to music d. using screen media, such as TV Answer: d Rationale: As shown in Figure 7-1 on page 192, U. S. children age 0-6 spend on average 48 minutes reading or being read to, 58 minutes listening to music, 1 hour 51 minutes playing outside, and 1 hour 57 minutes using screen media. 56. According to a recent meta-analysis, what impact does media violence have on children’s aggressiveness? a. a strong negative impact; viewing violent programming makes most children much less violent b. a weak negative impact; viewing violent programming makes some children less violent c. a strong positive impact; viewing violent programming makes most children much more violent d. a weak positive impact; viewing violence makes some children more violent Answer: d Rationale: According to a recent meta-analysis, media violence has a weak positive impact on children's aggressiveness. This means that while exposure to media violence may increase aggression in some children, the effect is not strong or consistent across all individuals. Other factors, such as individual temperament and family environment, also play significant roles in shaping children's behavior. 57. Four-year-old Luke watches his father yell at the TV repairman when he learns his TV cannot be fixed. Luke learns to yell like his father when he gets bad news. The term used to describe Luke’s behavior is: a. instrumental aggression b. modeling c. prosocial behavior d. egocentrism Answer: b Rationale: As noted in the text, adults who use physical punishment to curb a child’s aggression are modeling aggressive behavior. 58. According to the text, what is the purpose of a “V-chip”? a. It provides ratings for parents to use as they consider which TV shows their children should be allowed to watch. b. It can be programmed to block certain TV shows from being shown on the TV. c. It can be installed in a child’s computer so no violent programming can be downloaded. d. It can be installed in a child’s computer so parents can monitor the amount of time the child spends playing games. Answer: b Rationale: The purpose of a "V-chip" is to allow parents to control the content their children watch on television by blocking certain programs based on their content ratings. This empowers parents to restrict access to shows deemed inappropriate for their children's age or maturity level. 59. Barbie sees another child crying so she walks over and offers the child her cookie. Barbie’s behavior is best thought of as an example of: a. modeling b. egocentrism c. assertiveness d. prosocial behavior Answer: d Rationale: Prosocial behaviors are actions intended to benefit others (Spinrad & Eisenberg, 2009). These actions include comforting, sympathizing, assisting, sharing, cooperating, rescuing, protecting, and defending. Prosocial behavior is not just a set of social skills, however. When fully developed, it is accompanied by feelings of friendship, caring, and warmth—including empathy, which is the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. 60. Lanny sees another child crying and he begins to feel sad too. Lanny’s response is best considered to be an example of: a. prosocial behavior b. empathy c. modeling d. egocentrism Answer: b Rationale: Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. For example, if a child watches a person who is sad and the child consequently also feels sad, the child is experiencing empathy. We are more likely to act generously to others when we understand their feelings and needs. 61. The ability to understand the feelings and points of view of others is called: a. egocentrism b. empathy c. interpersonalism d. conscientiousness Answer: b Rationale: Empathy refers to the capacity to understand and share the feelings of others. It involves recognizing and comprehending the emotions and perspectives of others, which is essential for building healthy relationships and social interactions. 62. Prosocial behavior is behavior that is intended to: a. help young children learn the rules of their culture b. benefit oneself c. benefit others without the anticipation of an external reward d. injure others without regard for the consequences Answer: c Rationale: Prosocial behavior involves actions that are intended to benefit others without expecting any external reward. This type of behavior contributes to positive social dynamics, fostering cooperation, empathy, and altruism within a community. 63. Suppose that Tom was raised in an individualist culture, like that of the United States. Hank was raised in a collectivist culture, like that of Japan. As both children grow older, you would expect that Tom would become ____ competitive and Hank would become ____ competitive. a. more; less b. less; more c. more; more d. less; less Answer: a Rationale: In the United States, competitiveness is highly valued, and U.S. children typically become less cooperative and more competitive as they grow older. For instance, when playing a game that can be won only if the two players cooperate, 4- and 5-year-olds often cooperated. Older children, however, tended to compete with each other; as a result, neither player won (Madsen, 1971). In studies of Mexican children and children raised in Israeli kibbutzim, however, researchers found that older children were more likely to cooperate, presumably because their cultures emphasize group goals more than individual achievement (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1999). 64. Suppose that Patricia watches another child break off half of his cookie and give it to a child who has none. Patricia then breaks off a part of her cookie and gives it to the child also. Patricia’s response is best thought as demonstrating the principle of: a. empathy b. rationalization c. assertiveness d. egocentrism Answer: a Rationale: Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. For example, if a child watches a person who is sad and the child consequently also feels sad, the child is experiencing empathy. We are more likely to act generously to others when we understand their feelings and needs. 65. As Derrek has grown older, he has gained a better understanding of how other children feel. Psychologists would say that Derrek’s development is characterized by a greater sense of: a. empathy b. egocentrism c. prosocial behavior d. assertiveness Answer: a Rationale: Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. For example, if a child watches a person who is sad and the child consequently also feels sad, the child is experiencing empathy. 66. Megan sees her mother feeling and looking sad. This in turn makes Megan sad. She is experiencing which phenomenon? a. empathy b. frustration c. assertiveness d. egocentrism Answer: a Rationale: Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. For example, if a child watches a person who is sad and the child consequently also feels sad, the child is experiencing empathy. 67. Alliya’s mother wants her to be more generous with her toys, so she instructs Alliya to act out how she would behave if another child gave her one of his toys to play with. Alliya’s mother is using the technique called: a. instrumental behavior b. classical conditioning c. role playing d. empathetic understanding Answer: c Rationale: When children role play, they act out how another person might behave. Role playing serves to help children gain a better understanding of another person’s point of view and feelings, thereby encouraging empathy. 68. Role playing encourages the development of: a. instrumental aggression b. empathy c. egocentrism d. frustration Answer: b Rationale: When children are encouraged to put themselves into another child’s situation, which is what role playing involves, they are more likely to understand how the other child would react. This encourages the development of their empathy, which is the ability to understand how another person feels and thinks. Developmental Conflicts 69. According to Erik Erikson, the challenge for 2-year-olds is to develop as sense of: a. autonomy b. trust c. identity d. ego integrity Answer: a Rationale: Erik Erikson proposed that the primary developmental challenge for 2-year-olds is to establish a sense of autonomy. This stage is characterized by children asserting their independence and developing a sense of control over their environment and choices. 70. According to the views of Erik Erikson, which of the following statements best reflects the developmental crisis for 2-year-old Tommy? a. Who am I? b. I want to do it MYSELF! c. Why NOT? d. I’m SCARED! Answer: b Rationale: Erikson saw the central conflict for 2-year-olds as developing a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt. The statement, “I want to do it MYSELF,” represents the 2-year-old’s development of autonomy and independence. 71. According to the views of Erik Erickson, which of the following statements best reflects the negative side of the developmental crisis experienced by typical 2-year-olds? a. I can’t do anything myself without failing. b. I don’t know who I am. c. I am afraid my parents don’t love me. d. I don’t feel like I can depend on anyone but myself. Answer: a Rationale: Erikson saw the central conflict for 2-year-olds as developing a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt. The statement, “I can’t do anything myself without failing,” reflects the feelings of shame and doubt that can result when the child fails to develop a sense of autonomy and independence. 72. The “terrible twos” result because 2-year-old children typically experience a conflict between: a. wanting to trust their caregiver but fearing that the caregiver will let them down b. wanting to be independent but also needing to rely on caregivers for support c. wanting to love and to hate their caregivers at the same time d. wanting others to like them but also wanting to be selfish and have everything their own way Answer: b Rationale: According to Erik Erikson, the challenge for the 2-year-old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt. As noted in the text, this conflict between opposing needs (independence versus reliance on caregivers) often results in children becoming uncooperative and defiant, and temper tantrums become common. 73. According to Erikson, what is the primary developmental conflict of the years from 3 to 6? a. autonomy versus shame and doubt b. trust versus mistrust c. initiative versus guilt d. industry versus inferiority Answer: c Rationale: Erik Erikson identified the primary developmental conflict for children aged 3 to 6 as the conflict between initiative and guilt. During this stage, children explore their environment, take on new tasks, and assert themselves, which can lead to feelings of either accomplishment or guilt depending on their experiences. 74. According to Erik Erikson, most 3-year-olds have developed a sense of autonomy and then can begin to focus on the conflict between: a. initiative versus guilt b. love and empathy c. trust and mistrust d. ego integrity and despair Answer: a Rationale: By the age of 3, according to Erik Erikson, children have typically developed a sense of autonomy. As they mature, they begin to grapple with the conflict between initiative, the desire to take on new challenges and tasks, and guilt, which arises from conflicts between their impulses and societal norms. 75. According to Erik Erikson, the developmental challenge faced by 3- to 6-year olds is one of: a. integrity versus despair b. trust versus mistrust c. autonomy versus shame and doubt d. initiative versus guilt Answer: d Rationale: Erik Erikson proposed that the developmental challenge for children aged 3 to 6 revolves around the conflict between initiative and guilt. This stage is marked by children's growing autonomy and their exploration of new activities and responsibilities, which can lead to feelings of either initiative or guilt depending on their experiences. 76. Which of the words below best captures the developmental challenge for the typical 3- to 6-year-old child? a. competence b. autonomy c. trust d. love Answer: a Rationale: Erikson saw the developmental challenge of early childhood to be the reconciliation of initiative versus guilt. Thus, children in this stage focus on developing a sense of their own mastery and competence. 77. The internal guide that alerts us when we violate moral rules or standards is called: a. conscience b. conscious c. ego d. id Answer: a Rationale: The conscience is an internal mechanism that serves as a moral guide, alerting individuals when their actions violate ethical principles or societal norms. It helps regulate behavior by promoting actions that align with one's moral values and discouraging actions that are deemed immoral or unethical. 78. When people’s behavior violates the moral standards they believe in, this triggers their _________ to make them feel ___________. a. ego; empathetic b. conscience; guilty c. id; responsible d. autonomous self; incompetent Answer: b Rationale: According to Erikson, for children between the ages of 3 and 6, guilt is triggered by the child’s newly emerging conscience, which is an internal guide that matches the child’s behavior to accepted moral standards. 79. A 6-year-old child says, “I did this REALLY WELL! I am a SMART girl!” These statements best reflect Erik Erikson’s concept of: a. autonomy b. trust c. initiative d. independence Answer: c Rationale: According to Erikson’s theory, initiative versus guilt refers to 3- to 6-year-old children’s primary developmental conflict, which focuses on the development of mastery and competence. According to this theory, the key to healthy development in young children is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt. 80. Jeanette misbehaves a lot because she has no real sense of the difference between right and wrong behavior. Psychologists would say that she has failed to develop: a. autonomy b. a conscience c. initiative d. empathy Answer: b Rationale: According to Erikson, for children between the ages of 3 and 6, guilt is triggered by the child’s newly emerging conscience, which is an internal guide that matches the child’s behavior to accepted moral standards. 81. According to Erikson, the healthiest development results from which of the following situations? a. strong feelings of initiative with no feelings of guilt b. strong feelings of initiative with small and occasional feelings of guilt c. a balance between feelings of initiative and guilt d. few feelings of initiative so that guilt will not be triggered Answer: c Rationale: Erikson believed that a balance between initiative and guilt was best for development. Excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative, but parents who do not correct their child’s bad behavior lead them to develop unrealistic expectations and a clear sense of appropriate behavior. 82. Ronnie’s favorite statement is “I can do it MYSELF!” Lanny’s favorite statement is “I can do it WELL!” Based on only this information you should infer that Ronnie is about __ years old and Lanny is about __ years old. a. 4; 6 b. 6; 4 c. 4; 2 d. 2; 4 Answer: d Rationale: Two-year-olds focus on developing a sense of autonomy or independence, whereas 3- to 6-year-olds focus on developing a sense of initiative or competence. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence 83. If a child were compared to an adult, the adult’s work would correspond with the child’s: a. caregivers b. temper tantrums c. play d. sleep Answer: c Rationale: The text states that play is the work of 84. The dramatic play that children around the age of 4 begin to engage in is referred to as what? a. parallel play b. theatrical c. social pretend play d. dynamic play Answer: c Rationale: Beginning about age 4, children begin to engage in a form of dramatic play referred to as social pretend play, which involves imagination and the sharing of fantasies in accordance with agreed-upon rules. 85. Mike and Molly are playing together. Their play involves each playing alone, without interacting with each other, but both children are in the same room, using toys from the same toy box. This type of play would best be described as: a. associative play b. cooperative play c. parallel play d. onlooker play Answer: c Rationale: Parallel play is defined by children playing alongside each other but they do not interact. 86. Sally and Beth are playing together, both taking toys from the same toy box. Sometimes they hand different toys back and forth to each other, but they don’t coordinate their activities. Their play would best be called: a. associative play b. cooperative play c. solitary play d. onlooker play Answer: a Rationale: Associative play occurs when children share materials but do not coordinate their activities. 87. Bob and Mark are “playing astronauts.” They interact with each other, sharing both toys and a story line that describes a scenario in which their space ship is trying to land on the moon. This type of play is best described as: a. associative play b. cooperative play c. parallel play d. onlooker play Answer: b Rationale: Cooperative play occurs when children engage in a single activity together. 88. Which of the following types of play is the last to emerge in childhood? a. onlooker play b. associative play c. solitary play d. cooperative play Answer: d Rationale: Cooperative play emerges at about age 6 or 7, making it the last type of play to develop. Onlooker play emerges at about age 3; associate play at about age 5, and solitary play is typical of 2-year-old children. 89. Miriam has just begun to use her imagination when she is playing with her playmates. Now she is able to imagine that she is baking cookies, or driving a fire truck, and her play reflects her ability to take on these roles. This type of play is called _____________ and it usually begins at about age ___. a. social pretend play; 4 b.parallel play; 6 c. associative play; 3 d. onlooker play; 5 Answer: a Rationale: Beginning about age 4, children begin to engage in a form of dramatic play referred to as social pretend play, which involves imagination and the sharing of fantasies in accordance with agreed-upon rules. 90. According to the text, about what percent of young children have at least one imaginary companion? a. about 10% b. about one-fourth c. about half d. about two-thirds Answer: d Rationale: The text cites research that indicates that as many as 65% of young children have imaginary companions. 91. Compared to children who don’t have imaginary companions, those who do: a. are less sociable b. are more shy c. have more friends d. are less creative Answer: c Rationale: Research indicates that children with imaginary companions tend to have more friends than those without. Imaginary companions can provide children with a source of social interaction and companionship, which can contribute to the development of their social skills and networks. 92. If you were the parent of a 4-year-old, and your child began to talk to her “imaginary friend,” whom she described as a boy who was a clown and who had red hair, which of the following responses should you make? a. You should probably have her evaluated by a psychologist for an early-onset mental disorder. b. You should take her to your family doctor, to have her evaluated for a vitamin deficiency. c. You should encourage her to continue to play with her “friend.” d. You should discourage her from playing with her friends, and continue to tell her that he does not really exist. Answer: c Rationale: Having imaginary friends in childhood is associated with positive personality characteristics, so the parent should encourage the child to have such a friend. 93. Which of the following outcomes is associated with having an imaginary friend in childhood? a. having a higher incidence of mental disorders in adolescence and adulthood b. being very shy and not very sociable with other children c. having a harder time mastering symbolic representation and lacking creativity d. participating more in family activities Answer: d Rationale: Having an imaginary friend in childhood is associated with positive outcomes such as increased participation in family activities. Imaginary friends can serve as companions during solitary activities and contribute to a child's imaginative play, potentially fostering closer family relationships. 94. If your child invented an imaginary companion that he talked to, played with, and slept with, how should you react? a. You should punish the child when he mentioned his “friend.” b. You should encourage the child to play with his “friend.” c. You should refuse to acknowledge the friend and ignore your child when the “friend” was mentioned. d. You should take your child to a doctor for a health evaluation. Answer: b Rationale: Positive outcomes are associated with having an imaginary friend during childhood, so a parent should encourage a child to have such a friend. 95. If you observed a society that was at war with neighboring tribes, you would expect to find that children in this society would engage in which of the following types of play? a. They would not play at all. b. They would most likely play at “war” games, perhaps involving spear-throwing or hiding. c. They would most likely invent games, such as playing house that would distract them from thinking about the war. d. They would probably play only with their parents, and not with other children. Answer: b Rationale: Children’s games usually reflect the most important aspects of the culture in which they are raised. If the child’s society is at war, the games selected will most likely reflect this “war” theme. 96. The ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers is referred to as: a. emotional regulation b. social competence c. empathy d. role satisfaction Answer: b Rationale: Social competence encompasses the ability to effectively interact with others, including initiating and maintaining reciprocal relationships with peers. It involves skills such as communication, cooperation, and conflict resolution, which are essential for forming and maintaining friendships. 97. Bonnie is described as a child who makes friends easily, who is popular with her peers, who has satisfying relationships with the adults in her life, and who is socially skilled. Psychologists would use which of the following terms to describe her: a. egocentric b. empathetic c. autonomous d. socially competent Answer: d Rationale: Social competence is the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers, can make and maintain friendships more easily, and can have satisfying relationships with adults. 98. Which of the following aspects of social competence seems especially important to its development? a. emotional regulation b. social knowledge c. social skills d. social disposition Answer: a Rationale: Emotional regulation is crucial for the development of social competence because it enables individuals to manage their emotions effectively in social situations. By regulating their emotions, individuals can respond appropriately to others, maintain positive relationships, and navigate social interactions successfully. 99. Which of the following factors is positively related to being popular in childhood? a. having been the victim of child abuse b. being aggressive c. being “different” from peers in some significant way d. being given lots of opportunities to play with other children Answer: d Rationale: Being given lots of opportunities to play with other children is positively related to being popular in childhood. Social interactions during play allow children to develop social skills, form friendships, and establish positive relationships with peers, contributing to their popularity. 100. Which of the following is NOT one of the characteristics of popular children in kindergarten? a. shows helpful behavior b. is responsive to other children’s suggestions c. is aggressive d. is content playing alongside others Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, unpopular, rejected children often are either more aggressive or more withdrawn. 101. Generalizing from research reported in the text, you would expect that a shy child would be most likely to also be popular if that child were being raised in which of the following countries? a. China b. the United States c. England d. Canada Answer: a Rationale: The text cites a study in which shy and quiet Chinese Canadian children and European Canadian children were compared. The shy and quiet children’s development was more strongly linked to positive responses among children in the Chinese culture than the European culture. Collectivist cultures view shyness and quietness as more positive traits than do individualist cultures, such as those in Europe and other Western cultures. Understanding Self and Others 102. Mr. Smith describes his niece as a child who has learned to incorporate her family’s values and moral standards, as well as those embraced by her society, into her self-concept and understanding of herself. The best term that could be used to describe the niece’s ability is: a. empathy b. role playing c. social competence d. internalization Answer: d Rationale: Internalization refers to the process of incorporating the values and moral standards of one’s society into one’s self-concept, or understanding of oneself. 103. The process by which one incorporates the moral standards and values of one’s society into one’s self-concept or understanding is called; a. generalization b. ingestion c. internalization d. sensitization Answer: c Rationale: Internalization is the process through which individuals adopt the moral standards and values of their society as part of their own self-concept or understanding. It involves integrating societal norms and values into one's belief system and guiding principles for behavior. 104. According to the text, which of the following is likely to be a first step in the internalization of social rules? a. saying "no" to oneself while continuing to violate a rule b. saying "no" to oneself to stop violation of a rule c. regulating one's own behavior and controlling impulses d. regulating the behavior of others with one's verbalizations Answer: a Rationale: In learning internalization of social rules, children initially may simply imitate verbal patterns: A 2-year-old says “No, no, no!” as she marks on the wall with crayons. She continues doing what she wants to do; however, at the same time, she shows the beginnings of self-restraint by telling herself that she should not be doing it. 105. The text describes a study in which young children watched a puppet show in which a puppet was described as either a friend or an acquaintance who gets in trouble. The children responded with more empathy when the person in trouble was __________ and showed a greater willingness to help ________. a. a friend; an acquaintance b. an acquaintance; a friend c. an acquaintance; an acquaintance d. a friend; a friend Answer: d Rationale: The study showed that children responded with more empathy and a greater willingness to help when the person in trouble was described as a friend rather than an acquaintance. This highlights the importance of personal relationships in influencing empathetic responses and helping behavior. 106. The cognitive “theories” that children construct about themselves to help them understand how they should behave are called: a. personal scripts b. social maps c. gender roles d. social self-concepts Answer: a Rationale: Personal scripts are cognitive frameworks or mental representations that children construct to guide their understanding of how they should behave in various situations. These scripts incorporate societal expectations, personal experiences, and cultural norms to inform children's behaviors and decision-making processes. 107. Judy believes that being a “girl” means that a person wears pink clothing, doesn’t get dirty, plays with dolls but not with trucks, and tries to be like her mother but not her father. Judy’s belief system and knowledge about what a “girl” is would best be considered an example of what psychologists would call: a. gender identity b. an androgynous personality c. a gender-typed personality d. gender-based social competence Answer: a Rationale: Gender identity refers to our conceptualization of what it means to be male or female. 108. Little Jeffrey has a firm understanding that he is a boy, that he will never be a girl, and that he will grow up to be a man, not a woman. Jeffrey’s understanding best reflects the concept of: a. sex b. gender role c. androgyny d. gender identity Answer: d Rationale: Gender identity refers to our conceptualization of what it means to be male or female. 109. ________ is genetically determined and biological, whereas _______ is culturally based and acquired. a. Sex, gender b. Gender, sex c. Masculinity, femininity d. Femininity, masculinity Answer: a Rationale: Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, such as reproductive anatomy and chromosomes, which are determined genetically. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. These gender roles are culturally constructed and acquired through socialization. 110. Jason states, “Boys should play with trucks and guns because they are the ones who have to take care of their families.” Jason’s statement reflects his understanding of: a. gender roles b. androgyny c. sex differences d. self-concept Answer: a Rationale: Gender roles reflect cultural definitions and expectations about being male or female. 111. Research cited in the text suggests that gender differences in the United States appear to be: a. widening b. shrinking c. changing focus so that gender differences are thought to be more important d. staying the same Answer: b Rationale: The research cited in the text indicates that gender differences in the United States are shrinking, meaning that over time, there has been a reduction in disparities between males and females in various domains such as education, employment, and social roles. 112. Tommy believes that both men and woman can have masculine traits such as aggressiveness and both can have feminine traits such as compassion. Tommy’s belief reflects the core idea of the concept called: a. empathy b. socialization c. enculturation d. androgyny Answer: d Rationale: Androgyny refers to the view that all people, whether male or female, are capable of developing a wide range of traits. This view suggests that feminine and masculine are not opposite ends of a single dimension; instead, they are viewed as two separate dimensions, which means that it is possible for a person to be high or low on either or both. 113. The view that both men and women are capable of developing a wide range of traits – both masculine and feminine – is the idea reflected by the term: a. empathy b. socialization c. gender identity d. androgyny Answer: d Rationale: Androgyny refers to the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics within an individual. This concept suggests that individuals, regardless of their biological sex, can exhibit a diverse range of traits, behaviors, and attributes traditionally associated with both masculinity and femininity. 114. Young children typically see “feminine” and “masculine” as two distinct and mutually exclusive categories. This situation is in direct conflict with the basic idea of: a. gender identity b. gender-role stereotyping c. androgyny d. self-socialization Answer: c Rationale: Androgyny refers to the view that all people, whether male or female, are capable of developing a wide range of traits. This view suggests that feminine and masculine are not opposite ends of a single dimension; instead, they are viewed as two separate dimensions, which means that it is possible for a person to be high or low on either or both. 115. Many people believe that girls are more social and less achievement-oriented than boys, despite research that suggests this is not true. The belief in gender-specific differences is usually referred to as: a. gender identity b. gender role development c. gender stereotyping d. sexual identity Answer: c Rationale: Gender role stereotypes refer to rigid and fixed ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior. 116. James knows that he is a boy, but he is unsure about whether or not he will grow up to be a father or a mother. His confusion suggests that he has not yet developed: a. self-socialization b. a gender-role stereotype c. androgyny d. gender constancy Answer: d Rationale: Gender constancy refers to the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance. 117. By what age can a child typically answer the question, "Are you a boy or a girl": a. 2½ b. 3½ c. 4½ d. 5½ Answer: a Rationale: Typically, by the age of 2½, children start to develop a basic understanding of gender identity and can usually answer simple questions about their own gender. 118. At what age do children typically acquire gender constancy? a. between 2 and 4 years of age b. between 3 and 5 years of age c. between 4 and 6 years of age d. between 5 and 7 years of age Answer: d Rationale: Children typically acquire gender constancy between the ages of 5 and 7 years old. Gender constancy is the understanding that gender is stable and consistent over time, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or behavior. 119. A child’s concept of gender is called: a. gender role b. gender scheme c. gender constancy d. sexual identity Answer: b Rationale: A child's concept of gender is called a "gender scheme." This refers to the cognitive framework that organizes and guides their understanding of gender roles, stereotypes, and expectations within their culture. 120. The view that children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender describes the process called: a. self-socialization b. gender reflection c. gender stereotyping d. gender constancy Answer: a Rationale: Self-socialization refers to the process by which children actively seek out and internalize the values, norms, and behaviors associated with their gender identity. This process is driven by the child's intrinsic motivation to conform to societal expectations regarding gender roles. 121. The text reports a study in which female college students interacted with a 6-month-old infant who was either a boy or a girl, and who was dressed as either a boy or a girl. (For example, sometimes a boy was dressed as a boy, sometimes he was dressed as a girl.) Results showed that the college students were more likely to treat a baby as a boy when: a. the child was a boy, regardless of how he was dressed b. the child was a girl, regardless of how she was dressed c. the child was dressed as a boy, regardless of the child’s real sex d. the child was dressed as a girl, regardless of the child’s real sex Answer: c Rationale: This study demonstrates that individuals tend to attribute gender based on external cues such as clothing. The college students were more likely to treat the baby as a boy when the baby was dressed in male attire, regardless of the baby's actual biological sex. 122. The text reports a study in which female college students interacted with a 6-month-old infant who was either a boy or a girl, and who was dressed as either a boy or a girl. (For example, sometimes a boy was dressed as a boy, sometimes he was dressed as a girl.) Results demonstrate the importance of which of the following factors in the development of gender identity? a. genetic forces, especially those coded on the X and Y chromosomes b. brain development, which proceeds either in a “male” or “female” pattern c. socialization d. androgyny Answer: c Rationale: As children progressively become more capable of understanding what it means to be a girl or a boy, their ideas about culturally appropriate behavior for females and males become clearer, they become socialized. In the study by Smith and Lloyd (1978) described in this question, the college students treated the baby differently depending upon the child’s assumed sex, conveying signals as to what is culturally appropriate male behavior and culturally appropriate female behavior. 123. According to the text, which parent is more important in establishing how children’s ideas about gender develop? a. Fathers are usually more important. b. Mothers are usually more important. c. Fathers and mothers are usually equally important. d. Neither fathers nor mothers are very important since ideas about gender are biologically programmed and do not depend on learning or socialization to any great degree. Answer: a Rationale: Research suggests that fathers play a significant role in shaping children's ideas about gender. Fathers often provide different socialization experiences compared to mothers, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of gender roles and expectations. Family Dynamics 124. The amount of affection and approval Mike gives to his son is a good example of the concept called parental: a. control b. referencing c. affect d. warmth Answer: d Rationale: Parental warmth refers to the amount of affection and approval the parents display. Warm, nurturing parents smile at their children frequently and give praise and encouragement. They limit criticism, punishment, and signs of disapproval. 125. The various parenting styles that are discussed in the text are distinguished from each other primarily according to the degree that parents exhibit: a. warmth and control b. punishment and reinforcement c. androgen versus gender-role stereotypes d. love and liking Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, two dimensions of parenting that are especially important in characterizing parenting styles are control and warmth. Parental control refers to how restrictive the parents are. Parental warmth refers to the amount of affection and approval the parents display. 126. In her original work, Diana Baumrind identified three of the following types of parenting styles. Which style was added later to Baumrind’s original three styles? a. permissive parenting b. authoritative parenting c. authoritarian parenting d. indifferent parenting Answer: d Rationale: Diana Baumrind initially identified three parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. The fourth style, indifferent parenting, was added later to describe a neglectful or uninvolved approach to parenting. 127. Karen's parents have adopted the authoritative parenting style, which means that they show a. high control and high warmth b. high control and low warmth c. low control and high warmth d. low control and low warmth Answer: a Rationale: Authoritative parents are those who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control. They encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family. 128. A pattern of parenting in which parents are not interested in their role as parents or in their children is called: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: d Rationale: Indifferent parenting reflects a lack of interest or investment in parenting responsibilities or in the well-being of children. This style is characterized by neglect and apathy towards parenting duties and the needs of the child. 129. Permissive parents show: a. high control and high warmth b. high control and low warmth c. low control and high warmth d. low control and low warmth Answer: c Rationale: Permissive parents exhibit warmth and affection towards their children but lack control and discipline. They may be nurturing and responsive to their children's emotional needs but are lenient in enforcing rules and boundaries. 130. Parents who are low in control and also low in warmth are referred to as: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: d Rationale: Indifferent parents are characterized by both low control (lack of rules, discipline) and low warmth (lack of emotional support, affection) towards their children. 131. Children who are withdrawn, fearful, moody, and lack independence tend to have parents who are: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: c Rationale: Authoritarian parents are rigid and demanding, often enforcing strict rules without much warmth or responsiveness. Children raised in such environments may exhibit traits like withdrawal, fearfulness, moodiness, and lack of independence due to the restrictive and punitive nature of the parenting style. 132. Which parenting style has been found to produce the most self-confident children? a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: b Rationale: Children raised with authoritative parenting have been found to be the best adjusted—most self-reliant, self-controlled, and socially competent. These children have better school performance and higher self-esteem. 133. Leo and Mary use firm control with their children but encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family. Their parenting style would best be described as: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: b Rationale: Authoritative parents are those who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control. They encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family. 134. Martha wanted to stay up late to watch a television program on a school night. Her parents asked her what her reasons were, what the show was about, and whether it would prevent her from getting enough sleep for school the next day. Martha’s parents’ style of parenting would best be described as: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: b Rationale: Authoritative parents are those who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control. They encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family. 135. When Ted asked his parents if he could skip a family dinner even though it was a family rule to always be present, they refused, saying "A rule is a rule." Ted’s parents’ response demonstrates a parenting approach best described as: a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: c Rationale: Authoritarian parents are those parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules. In families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision-making process. 136. Jackie's parents are controlling and adhere rigidly to rules without explaining their reasons. Baumrind most likely would classify Jackie's parents as: a. indifferent b. authoritarian c. permissive d. authoritative Answer: b Rationale: Authoritarian parents are those parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules. In families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision-making process. 137. Children who are self-reliant, self-controlled, and socially competent have parents who have most likely adopted what parenting style? a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: b Rationale: Children raised with authoritative parenting have been found to be the best adjusted—most self-reliant, self-controlled, and socially competent. These children have better school performance and higher self-esteem. 138. Which parenting style generally produces the worst outcome in children? a. permissive b. authoritative c. authoritarian d. indifferent Answer: d Rationale: The worst outcome is often found in children of indifferent parents. When hostility and lack of warmth accompany permissiveness, children tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior. 139. Which of the following is not part of the most productive disciplinary technique? a. setting rules that are fairly enforced b. establishing a caring environment c. giving children freedom from punishment d. keeping two-way communication open Answer: c Rationale: Regardless of culture, the most productive disciplinary technique usually involves setting reasonable rules that are enforced fairly; establishing a warm, caring, and consistent environment; and keeping two-way communication as open as possible—a recipe for creating an authoritative style of parenting. 140. According to a study described in the text, when parents were able to teach their children how to cope emotionally, their children had all of the following EXCEPT: a. longer attention spans b. faster heart rates c. higher scores on reading tests d. fewer behavioral problems Answer: b Rationale: Teaching children emotional coping skills is associated with numerous positive outcomes including longer attention spans, higher academic achievement (such as reading test scores), and reduced behavioral problems. However, faster heart rates would not typically be an expected outcome of learning emotional coping skills. 141. Janet’s parents have clear expectations for all family members that dinner will be eaten in the dining room, with no TV on, and it will begin with a prayer. Everyone in the family understands how dinners will occur, and everyone seems to enjoy this routine. Therefore, it would best be considered an example of the concept of: a. prosocial behavior b. social competence c. rationalization of goals d. shared goals Answer: d Rationale: Shared goals involve a common understanding of how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be. The result is a harmonious atmosphere in which decisions are reached without much struggle for control. 142. According to the text, if a family does not have a set of shared goals, which of the following is likely to result? a. Every decision must be negotiated. b. Parents will become increasingly authoritarian. c. Parents will become increasingly permissive. d. Discipline will suffer and child will become unruly. Answer: a Rationale: Without shared family goals, decision-making becomes more challenging as each member may have conflicting objectives, necessitating negotiation for every decision. 143. In families where there are several children, the typical finding is that the personalities of the various children are ___________ and environmental effects on children are _________________. a. very much alike; very much the same for all children b. very much alike; very different for each child in the family c. quite different from each other; very much the same for all children d. quite different from each other; very different for each child in the family Answer: d Rationale: In families with multiple children, it's common for each child to have a distinct personality, influenced by both genetic factors and unique experiences within the family environment. 144. Which of the following statements regarding the effects of birth order on children is generally true? a. Oldest children tend to be more anxious than younger children. b. Middle children tend to be less competent than either oldest or youngest children. c. Youngest children tend to be underachievers. d. Oldest children tend to have higher IQs. Answer: d Rationale: Research suggests that on average, oldest children tend to have slightly higher IQs compared to their younger siblings. This phenomenon is often attributed to factors such as greater parental attention and expectations placed on the oldest child. 145. Suppose you are studying the relationship between IQ and being a first born child. If you looked at two different groups – children born to middle-class families in the suburbs of Chicago and children raised in a communal setting in South America – which of the following differences would you expect to find? a. The benefits of being first born would be greater in the suburban setting. b. The benefits of being first born would be greater in the communal setting. c. The disadvantages of being first born would be greater in the suburban setting. d. The disadvantages of being first born would be greater in the communal setting. Answer: a Rationale: Any effects in intellectual ability or achievement associated with being a firstborn child are most likely associated with the child’s role in the family. Simply put, the firstborn child benefits from all of the parent’s attention, whereas subsequent children must share. This explanation is supported by cross-cultural research (Murray, et al., 2008). The firstborn child in a U.S. family usually is at least temporarily the only child in the home and has his or her own room and possessions, with liberal access to parents for conversation and games. In contrast, firstborn children in agriculture-based cultures, such as those studied in Kenya (LeVine, 1990), often involve communal living quarters, with the child living with older children from other families who function much like older siblings. As a result, the benefits associated with being firstborn are markedly less. 146. According to research presented in the text, the more children there are in the family, the ____ their IQs tend to be and the _____ are their chances from graduating from high school. a. higher; greater b. higher; lower c. lower; greater d. lower; lower Answer: d Rationale: Studies have indicated a negative correlation between family size and children's IQ, with larger families being associated with slightly lower IQ scores on average. Additionally, larger families have been linked to decreased educational attainment, leading to lower chances of high school graduation. 147. What relationship appears to exist between strong public support for child care and the impact that large families have on IQ? a. When support for child care is strong, the negative effect of growing up in a large family is lessened. b. When support for child care is strong, the positive effect of growing up in a large family is every greater. c. When support for child care is strong, large family size has no effect on IQ. d. There is no relationship between child care support and the impact of large family size on IQ. Answer: a Rationale: Strong public support for child care can mitigate some of the negative effects associated with growing up in large families, potentially lessening the impact on children's IQ by providing additional resources and opportunities for intellectual stimulation and development. 148. According to data presented in the text, which form of child maltreatment is most common in the United States? a. sexual abuse b. child neglect c. physical abuse d. emotional abuse Answer: b Rationale: Child neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment in the United States, as indicated by data presented in the text. Neglect involves failing to provide for a child's basic needs, such as food, shelter, clothing, and medical care. 149. In general, which of the following groups is the most likely to maltreat children? a. fathers b. mothers c. brothers d. non-family members such as teachers and neighbors Answer: b Rationale: According to the text, mothers are statistically more likely than fathers or other family members to maltreat children. This finding is based on empirical data and research in the field of child maltreatment. 150. According to data collected by the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, about what percent of all cases of child maltreatment involved abuse by the child’s parent or parents? a. about 35% b. about 51% c. about 67% d. about 81% Answer: d Rationale: Data collected by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services indicate that approximately 81% of all cases of child maltreatment involve abuse by the child's parent or parents. This underscores the importance of addressing parental factors in preventing child abuse and neglect. 151. Statistically, _______ children are more likely to be abused and _______ children are likely to sustain more serious injuries when abuse does occur. a. older; older b. older; younger c. younger; older d. younger; younger Answer: d Rationale: Statistically, younger children are more likely to be abused, and younger children are also likely to sustain more serious injuries when abuse does occur. This highlights the vulnerability of younger children and the need for targeted interventions to protect them. 152. Statistically speaking, the sexual abuse of a girl is most likely to be committed by the girl's: a. father b. mother c. stepfather d. brother Answer: c Rationale: Statistically, sexual abuse of a girl is most likely to be committed by the girl's stepfather. This finding underscores the importance of recognizing and addressing familial risk factors in cases of child sexual abuse. 153. Suppose that 6-year-old Samantha (a girl) is sexually abused. Generalizing from statistics, which of the following people would be most likely to have committed this abuse? a. Samantha’s father b. Samantha’s stepfather c. Samantha’s mother d. a male neighbor who is gay Answer: b Rationale: Although research shows that 95% of sexual abuse is committed by men, when little girls are involved, the child’s biological father usually does not commit the abuse. Stepfathers are 5 times more likely to abuse female children than are biological fathers. 154. As a child, Tanya was forced to witness her father beating up her brother. This form of psychological abuse would best be considered as an example of: a. degradation b. terrorization c. exploitation d. rejection Answer: b Rationale: Terrorization is a form of psychological child maltreatment in which a child is forced to witness the abuse of a loved one or is threatened with personal abuse. 155. Suppose that 5-year-old Randy tries to be affectionate with his mother, but she responds with coldness and she ignores him. If the mother’s behavior is serious enough to be considered child maltreatment, what type of psychological abuse is this? a. degradation b. terrorization c. rejection d. denial of emotional responsiveness Answer: d Rationale: Denial of emotional responsiveness is a form of psychological child maltreatment in which there is a passive withholding of affection that involves behaviors such as coldness or failing to respond to the child’s attempts to communicate. 156. When Stacey asked her mother, "What's 2 plus 2?" her mother replied, "Four, you dummy!" This is an example of what form of psychological abuse? a. degradation b. terrorization c. isolation d. exploitation Answer: a Rationale: Degradation is a form of psychological child maltreatment that involves humiliating children in public or calling them names like “Dummy.” As a result, children’s self-esteem is lowered by frequent assaults on their dignity or intelligence. 157. When Charlie and his brother started arguing in a grocery store, their father shouted at them, "If you don't behave, I'll break every bone in your body!" This is best considered to be an example of what form of psychological abuse? a. degradation b. terrorization c. isolation d. exploitation Answer: b Rationale: Terrorization is a form of psychological child maltreatment in which a child is forced to witness the abuse of a loved one or is threatened with personal abuse. 158. Rejection, degradation, and terrorization are examples of which of the following types of child maltreatment? a. physical abuse b. sexual abuse c. psychological abuse d. child neglect Answer: c Rationale: Rejection, degradation, and terrorization are examples of psychological abuse, which involves harming a child's mental and emotional well-being through non-physical means. This form of maltreatment can have long-lasting effects on a child's development and psychological health. 159. According to research presented in the text, when children who were abused in their first 5 years were followed to age 21, they were more likely than nonabused children to experience all of the following EXCEPT: a. abused children were at greater risk for juvenile delinquency b. abused children married at later ages and had fewer children of their own c. abused children were more likely to drop out of school d. abused children were more likely to have problems holding a job Answer: b Rationale: According to research presented in the text, when children who were abused in their first 5 years were followed to age 21, they were more likely than nonabused children to experience various negative outcomes such as juvenile delinquency, dropping out of school, and having problems holding a job. However, they were not more likely to marry at later ages and have fewer children of their own. 160. Suppose that Frank was abused as a small child. Generalizing from research presented in the text, you would expect that consequently he would be: a. less likely to become a juvenile delinquent b. more likely to drop out of school c. less likely to become a teenage parent d. more likely to hold one job for his entire career Answer: b Rationale: When followed to age 21, children who were physically abused in their first 5 years were at greater risk for arrest, juvenile delinquency, and dropping out of school and were more likely to become a teenage parent and have difficulty holding a job (Lansford et al., 2007). These findings pertain to both abused boys and abused girls. 161. Which of the following theorists would be most likely to provide the most useful perspective on understanding child maltreatment? a. Dr. Jones, who advocates a psychoanalytic approach b. Dr. Abdulla, who advocates an ecological approach c. Dr. Marcia, who advocates a biological approach d. Dr. Julstrom, who advocates a cognitive-development approach Answer: b Rationale: The ecological approach is an especially useful model in understanding child maltreatment because it recognizes the complex and multi-faceted nature of this social phenomenon. 162. According to information presented in the text, about what percent of abusive parents were abused themselves as children? a. nearly 100% b. about 90% c. about 75% d. less than half Answer: d Rationale: Contrary to popular belief, not all abusive parents were abused themselves as children. According to the text, less than half of abusive parents were abused themselves during childhood, indicating that there are other factors contributing to the cycle of abuse. 163. Generalizing from information presented in the text, which of the following children would be the least likely to be abused? a. Tommy, who is an infant b. Robbie, who is a toddler c. Jamie, who has a physical disability d. Sammy, who is 12 years old Answer: d Rationale: Infants and young children are at higher risk for abuse than are older children. Children with physical disabilities, difficult temperaments, or mental disorders are also at higher risk for abuse. 164. Which of the following statements is the most accurate description of the relationship between socioeconomic status and child maltreatment? a. Children in low-income families are least likely to be abused because these families are most likely to be headed by women. b. Children in high-income families are most likely to be abused, but the abuse is less likely to be reported due to the high social status of the parents. c. Children in low-income families are most likely to be abused because poverty and unemployment involve stress and heighten risk for abuse. d. Children in middle-class homes are most likely to be abused, but the abuse is less likely to be reported because one parent usually covers up the abuse for the other parent. Answer: c Rationale: While physical abuse is found at all socioeconomic levels, it is more likely to occur in poverty-stricken homes. This may be partly because abuse in middle-class homes is less likely to come to the attention of authorities. It is also true, however, that general family stresses, such as those associated with poverty, increase the risk of child abuse. Unemployment, for example, is another risk factor. In addition to creating financial problems, unemployment lowers the parent’s social status and self-esteem. An unemployed parent may try to compensate by wielding authority at home through physical domination. 165. According to statistics presented in the text, which of the following statements is the most accurate summary of how the prevalence of child abuse has changed over the past decade or two? a. Child abuse is much more common now than in the mid-1990s. b. Child abuse is slightly more common now than in the mid-1990s. c. The prevalence of child abuse has not changed significantly since the mid-1990s. d. Child abuse is much less common now than in the mid-1990s. Answer: d Rationale: In recent years, various forms of child maltreatment have shown a dramatic decline in the United States. Compared to the peak in 1993, by 2004 there were 20% fewer cases of abuse and neglect reported; during the same period, statistics suggest a 40 to 70% decline in cases of physical and sexual abuse (Finkelhor & Jones, 2006; Jones, Finkelhor, & Halter, 2006). 166. According to statistics presented in the text, compared to child abuse rates in 1993, in 2004 there were ________ of abuse and neglect reported and _______ of physical and sexual abuse reported. a. 20% fewer cases; about 50% more cases b. 20% more cases; about 50% more cases c. 20% fewer cases; about 50% fewer cases d. 20% more cases; about 50% fewer cases Answer: c Rationale: According to statistics presented in the text, compared to child abuse rates in 1993, in 2004 there were 20% fewer cases of abuse and neglect reported, and about 50% fewer cases of physical and sexual abuse reported. This suggests a decrease in reported instances of child maltreatment during that time period. 167. The text suggests three reasons for why rates of child maltreatment have changed over the past two decades. Which of the following is NOT one of these reasons? a. a stronger national economy b. increased availability and use of drug treatments for mental illness c. the No Child Left Behind federal program to strengthen schools d. increased and more effective efforts to prevent child abuse Answer: c Rationale: The No Child Left Behind federal program to strengthen schools is not listed as one of the reasons for changes in rates of child maltreatment over the past two decades, as suggested in the text. The other options, including a stronger national economy, increased availability and use of drug treatments for mental illness, and increased and more effective efforts to prevent child abuse, are mentioned as potential factors influencing these rates. Changing Perspectives: Electronic Media: Is It Changing the Way That Children Grow Up? 168. According to research cited in the text, about what percent of U. S. children under age 6 have a TV in their bedroom? a. 6% b. 12% c. 24% d. 33% Answer: d Rationale: Studies have shown that approximately 33% of children under the age of 6 in the United States have a television in their bedroom. This prevalence of TVs in bedrooms can impact children's media consumption habits and potentially influence various aspects of their development. 169. Which of the following health conditions appears to be most closely associated with children’s TV viewing habits? a. asthma b. obesity c. depression d. anxiety disorders Answer: b Rationale: Obesity is the health condition most closely associated with children's TV viewing habits. Excessive screen time, particularly television watching, has been linked to a sedentary lifestyle and poor dietary habits, both of which are significant contributors to childhood obesity. 170. To say that “brain plasticity is high in childhood” means that: a. brain development is modified by the environmental experiences the child has b. the brain undergoes a “growth spurt” in the number of neurons the develop during childhood c. the brain is very vulnerable and easily damaged during childhood d. children have to work very hard to learn new things during this developmental period Answer: a Rationale: Brain development is rapid in early childhood and plasticity is high, meaning that the brain wires itself partly in response to environmental experiences. 171. According to the view suggested by the idea behind “iBrain,” parents should be concerned about their children’s TV viewing because: a. watching TV can cause the visual part of the brain to shrink b. heavy media use might change the course of brain development so children have diminished social skills c. children may become so sophisticated about technology that they will not be able to learn to read d. children may become so interested in technology that they won’t want to engage in physical activity, which is important for brain development Answer: b Rationale: Brain development is rapid in early childhood and plasticity is high, meaning that the brain wires itself partly in response to environmental experiences. If young children spend more time on technology-related tasks and less time interacting with other people in playtime and through other social activities, this may shift the way the brain develops in early childhood, creating what neuroscientist Gary Small calls the “iBrain.” Current Issues: One Pathway to Social Competence 172. Ralph comes from a home in which there is no television, in which the only toys are guns, and in which conversation about “modern” topics such as news, fashion, and media is discouraged. If Ralph experiences difficulty in developing social competence as the result of his upbringing, this problem would most likely be described as a lack of: a. social knowledge b. social disposition c. emotion regulation d. empathy Answer: a Rationale: Socially competent children have a better understanding of social knowledge: They are aware of the behaviors that are considered appropriate and inappropriate. 173. According to research by Susan Denham and her colleagues, which of the following appears to be the most important factor in the development of social competence? a. social knowledge b. empathy c. emotional competence d. social skills Answer: c Rationale: Susan Denham and her colleagues' research suggests that emotional competence is the most important factor in the development of social competence. Emotional competence encompasses the ability to understand, regulate, and express emotions appropriately, which lays the foundation for successful social interactions and relationships. True-False questions: Coping With Feelings and Emotions 174. A child who experiences a continuous sense of apprehension for no particular reason is experiencing the emotion that researchers label as fear. Answer: False Rationale: Fear is a state of arousal caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation. Anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness that has a vague or unknown source. Thus, this example would be labeled anxiety rather than fear. 175. Culture plays an important role in shaping children’s fears. When adults view fear as a natural and healthy state, children express a much smaller number of fears. Answer: False Rationale: A study of Navajo parents, who view fearful children as healthy children, and white parents from Montana, who emphasize braveness as a positive value, demonstrated that when fear is seen as normal and healthy, children are more likely to express fear. Parents of Navajo children reported 22 fears on average, whereas the while parents from Montana reported that their children had on average only 4 fears. 176. One of the most effective methods of helping a child cope with anxiety is to reduce the unnecessary stress in his life. Answer: True Rationale: Excessive stress can exacerbate anxiety in children. By minimizing unnecessary stressors in a child's life, caregivers can create a calmer environment that supports the child's ability to cope with anxiety more effectively. 177. Little Roxie really hates her baby brother, but she copes by being extraordinarily loving and kind to him. This is an example of the defense mechanism called rationalization. Answer: False Rationale: This example involves the defense mechanism of reaction formation, in which the child behaves in a way opposite to what their feelings would suggest. Rationalization involves making up reasonable, but false, explanations or excuses for one’s actions or feelings. 178. Contemporary developmentalists believe guilt is a more painful and intense emotion than shame. Answer: False Rationale: Shame is more painful and intense than guilt because shame involves a negative reflection on the self and challenges one’s basic identity. Guilt focuses on behavior that can be changed, and therefore is less damaging. 179. Around the age of 5, children usually develop a fascination with their genital regions. Answer: False Rationale: Children typically develop a fascination with their genital regions at about 3 to 4 years of age (during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, according to Freud). Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 180. When a person does not intend to hurt another, but an injury results anyway, this would be considered an example of assertiveness. Answer: False Rationale: This is an example of instrumental aggression. Assertiveness involves standing up for one’s rights. 181. A good way of describing what modeling is would be to think of it as copying someone else’s behavior. Answer: True Rationale: Modeling involves observing and imitating the behavior of others. It's akin to copying someone else's behavior, as individuals, especially children, learn by observing the actions of role models and significant others in their environment. 182. U.S. children under the age of 6 spend on average more time using screen media than in any other activity except sleeping. Answer: True Rationale: Research has shown that screen media consumption among young children in the United States has increased significantly in recent years, with many spending a considerable amount of time watching TV shows, playing video games, or using digital devices. This trend highlights the pervasive influence of screen media in the lives of young children. 183. Generally speaking, parents should feel comfortable allowing even young children to watch cartoons on television because they contain little violence or stereotyped images. Answer: False Rationale: Cartoons typically are very violent. They also often contain stereotyped images. Parents may choose to allow children to watch cartoons, but they should not do so because they believe that cartoons contain little violence. 184. The term empathy refers to a person’s interest in helping other people. Answer: False Rationale: Although empathy is likely to be linked to helping behavior, empathy is defined as the ability to understand the feelings and perspectives of others. It is not directly tied to helping others. A person can understand another person’s feelings but choose not to help them. 185. Prosocial behavior is seen in people in every culture and country in the world, thereby suggesting that it involves an innate, biological mechanism. Answer: True Rationale: The universality of prosocial behavior across diverse cultures and societies suggests that it may be rooted in innate biological mechanisms rather than solely learned through socialization. This aligns with evolutionary theories that propose the existence of altruistic tendencies as adaptive strategies for human cooperation and survival. 186. Studies have shown that when children watch an adult perform a generous act, they are more likely to be generous as the result. This is a good example of role playing. Answer: False Rationale: This example is one that demonstrates modeling, rather than role playing. Role playing involves acting out a scene in which the child pretends to be another person. Both modeling and role playing can contribute to the child’s development of empathy. Developmental Conflicts 187. Two developmental conflicts occur during early childhood. The first involves the need to become autonomous and independent from parents and the second involves the need to develop initiative and a sense of competence. Answer: True Rationale: Early childhood, according to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, is characterized by the developmental conflict between autonomy versus shame and doubt (independence from parents) and initiative versus guilt (development of initiative and competence). These conflicts are integral to the psychosocial development of children during this stage. 188. When a child’s conscience is violated, feelings of guilt result. Answer: True Rationale: According to social learning theory and moral development theories, when a child's actions violate their internalized standards or moral principles (conscience), they may experience feelings of guilt as a result of their perceived wrongdoing. 189. Children who are not allowed to develop a sense of initiative often become passive and in many cases fall behind in school because they assume that they will not be successful there. Answer: True Rationale: Erik Erikson's theory suggests that if children are unable to develop a sense of initiative during early childhood, they may become passive and lack confidence in their abilities. This can affect their academic performance as they may not feel motivated to engage in learning activities or take on challenges in school. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence 190. Play is a primary means for practicing the values, behaviors, and roles of society. Answer: True Rationale: Play is not only a form of recreation but also a crucial aspect of socialization and learning during childhood. Through play, children explore and internalize societal norms, roles, and values, developing essential social and cognitive skills necessary for functioning in society. 191. Between the ages of about 2 and 6, children first engage in associative play, then parallel play, then cooperative play, and finally solitary play. Answer: False Rationale: The correct sequence of play development is: solitary play (age 2), onlooker play (age 3), parallel play (age 4), associative play (age 5), and cooperative play (age 6). 192. Very few children develop imaginary companions, and when a child does, the parents should be concerned. Answer: False Rationale: Research indicates that about 65% of young children have imaginary companions and that these companions are associated with positive developmental outcomes and adjustment. 193. Unpopular children are likely to be more aggressive or more withdrawn than popular children. Answer: True Rationale: Research suggests that unpopular children may exhibit behavioral problems such as aggression or withdrawal due to social difficulties and rejection by peers. These children may experience peer victimization, leading to emotional and behavioral challenges. 194. Children who are shy or quiet are more likely to be popular if their culture values these traits. Answer: True Rationale: Cultural norms and values influence the social acceptability of certain traits and behaviors. In cultures where shyness or quietness is valued or seen as a sign of politeness or humility, children exhibiting these traits may be more likely to be perceived positively and thus become popular among peers. Understanding Self and Others 195. According to the text, the process by which children learn to incorporate the values and moral standards of their society into their understanding of themselves is called rationalization. Answer: False Rationale: This process is called internalization. Rationalization involves making up good, but false, reasons to explain one’s behavior and it is a defense mechanism. 196. If a person is referring to the biology of a person, the appropriate term to use would be “gender” whereas if the reference is to the person’s conceptual understanding, the term that should be used is “sex.” Answer: False Rationale: Sex is the term used to refer to biologically based distinctions, and gender is the term to use when the reference is to the person’s conceptual understanding. 197. On average, when born, males tend to be slightly longer and heavier, but females have slightly more mature skeletons. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. It reflects well-established biological differences between males and females at birth. While males tend to be slightly longer and heavier, females typically have more mature skeletal development. 198. Research indicates that many stereotyped gender roles (such as boys being more achievement-oriented, or girls being more social) do exist. Answer: False Rationale: Although some gender differences do exist, in general these are few and unimportant, especially considering that even when such average differences do occur, many individuals do not conform to the typical expectations. (For example, even though boys do outperform girls on mathematics ability tests on average, there are many girls who outperform many boys.) 199. If one accepts an androgynous view of sexuality, this means that one sees homosexuality as a normal gender preference. Answer: False Rationale: Androgyny refers to the idea that all people, males and females, possess both masculine and feminine personality traits. The concept of androgeny is not directly related to issues regarding homosexuality. 200. Children generally learn first that they are a “boy” or a “girl” and only later learn that their gender is stable and will not change as they grow older. Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true according to developmental psychology. Children typically first identify their gender based on physical characteristics and societal cues. It's only later, usually around age 3-4, that they grasp the concept of gender stability, understanding that their gender will remain constant over time. Family Dynamics 201. According to Diana Baumrind’s classification of parenting styles, authoritarian parents are high on both warmth and control. Answer: False Rationale: Authoritative parents are high on both warmth and control, but authoritarian parents are high on control but low on warmth. 202. Generally speaking, children with indifferent parents typically experience worse outcomes than do children with parents that adopt other parenting styles. Answer: True Rationale: True. Indifferent parenting, characterized by low warmth and low control, can lead to negative outcomes for children, including emotional and behavioral problems, poor academic performance, and difficulties in social relationships. Other parenting styles, such as authoritative or authoritarian, tend to provide more support and structure, resulting in better outcomes for children. 203. The parenting style characterized by high warms but low control is the permissive style. Answer: True Rationale: True. The permissive parenting style is indeed characterized by high warmth or responsiveness but low control or demands. Permissive parents are lenient and indulgent, often allowing their children to make their own decisions without much guidance or discipline. 204. Research generally shows that children raised in the same family have similar personalities because the family environment is very much the same for every child. Answer: False Rationale: Siblings raised in the same family usually have unique personalities. One reason for this is that each child experiences family life is quite different ways, and environmental effects are largely specific to each child. 205. On average, first born children tend to have slightly higher IQs than children born later in the family. Answer: True Rationale: True. Research suggests that first-born children tend to have slightly higher IQ scores on average compared to their younger siblings. This phenomenon has been attributed to factors such as more individualized attention from parents and higher expectations for academic achievement. 206. Of the various forms that child maltreatment can take, child neglect is the most common. Answer: True Rationale: Neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment, affecting about 78% of children who are maltreated. . 207. Although mothers are most often the person involved in child maltreatment, when abuse is defined as physical abuse, fathers are more often the perpetrator. Answer: True Rationale: True. While mothers are more commonly involved in overall child maltreatment cases, when abuse is specifically defined as physical abuse, fathers are more frequently identified as the perpetrators. This highlights the gendered nature of different forms of child abuse. 108. Young children who are maltreated by their caregivers are more likely to be rejected by their peers. Answer: True Rationale: True. Children who experience maltreatment, such as abuse or neglect, often exhibit behavioral and emotional problems that can lead to social difficulties and peer rejection. Maltreated children may struggle with forming healthy relationships and may exhibit aggressive or withdrawn behaviors, which can contribute to peer rejection. 209. Reported cases of child abuse have been increasing dramatically in the United States during the past two decades. Answer: False Rationale: Compared to 1993 statistics, by 2004 there were 20% fewer cases of child abuse and neglect reported, and a 40-70% decline in reported cases of physical and sexual abuse. Between 2006 and 2010, the child victimization rate fell 20%. Short Answer questions: Coping With Feelings and Emotions 210. In what ways are fear and anxiety alike? In what ways are these two concepts different from each other? Answer: Fear and anxiety are both emotions that involve feelings of apprehension, unease, or distress. They can both arise in response to perceived threats or dangers. However, fear is typically a response to a specific, immediate threat, while anxiety is more diffuse and often involves anticipation of future threats or uncertainties. 211. What is the overall goal for all of the defense mechanisms? Choose one of the defense mechanisms noted in the text and explain how this defense mechanism addresses that goal. Answer: The overall goal of defense mechanisms is to protect the individual from experiencing anxiety or distress by unconsciously distorting reality or managing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses. One example is repression. Repression works by pushing unwanted or distressing thoughts or memories out of conscious awareness. By doing so, it helps the individual avoid experiencing the anxiety associated with those thoughts or memories. 212. Explain what rationalization is and give an example of it. Answer: Rationalization is a defense mechanism where individuals justify or explain their behaviors, thoughts, or feelings in a logical or reasonable manner, even if the real reasons are unconscious or irrational. An example of rationalization is when a student fails an exam and blames it on the difficulty of the questions rather than acknowledging their lack of preparation or effort. 213. In your own words, explain the difference between the defense mechanisms of regression and withdrawal. Answer: Regression and withdrawal are both defense mechanisms, but they involve different responses to stress or anxiety. Regression involves reverting to earlier, more childlike behaviors or coping mechanisms in response to stress. For example, an adult may start sucking their thumb during a stressful situation. Withdrawal, on the other hand, involves removing oneself from a situation or avoiding it altogether as a means of coping with stress. An example of withdrawal is avoiding social gatherings or isolating oneself when feeling overwhelmed. 214. What do guilt and shame have in common? How are they different from each other? Answer: Guilt and shame are both self-conscious emotions that involve negative evaluations of oneself in relation to standards or norms. They both involve feelings of remorse or regret for perceived wrongdoing. However, guilt is typically focused on specific behaviors or actions, where the individual feels responsible for causing harm or violating moral or social norms. In contrast, shame is more global and relates to the individual's sense of self-worth or identity, often stemming from a perception of inadequacy or unworthiness as a person. 215. Define the terms hostile aggression, instrumental aggression, and assertiveness and give an example of each. Answer: Hostile aggression is behavior that is intended to harm or injure someone, often motivated by anger or hostility. An example of hostile aggression would be a child hitting another child out of anger during a disagreement over a toy. Instrumental aggression, on the other hand, is aggression that is used as a means to achieve a goal other than causing harm, such as obtaining a desired object or asserting dominance. An example of instrumental aggression could be a child pushing another child aside to be first in line for a game. Assertiveness refers to the ability to express one's needs, opinions, and feelings in a direct and respectful manner, without violating the rights of others. An example of assertiveness would be a child calmly and confidently telling a peer that they need a turn with a toy without resorting to aggression or manipulation. 216. Suggest three reasons why parents should consider limiting the time their children spend using or watching electronic media. Answer: 1. Excessive screen time can have negative effects on physical health, such as contributing to sedentary behavior and obesity. Limiting electronic media use encourages children to engage in more active pursuits like outdoor play or sports, promoting healthier lifestyles. 2. Overexposure to electronic media, especially content with violent or inappropriate themes, can have detrimental effects on children's cognitive and emotional development. Limiting screen time allows parents to control the quality and content of media their children consume, promoting positive influences and reducing exposure to harmful content. 3. Excessive screen time can interfere with important aspects of child development, such as social skills, communication, and academic performance. Limiting electronic media use encourages children to engage in activities that promote social interaction, creativity, and intellectual stimulation, fostering holistic development. 217. Define the term “prosocial behavior” and give an example of it. Answer: Prosocial behavior refers to voluntary actions that are intended to benefit others or society as a whole, without any expectation of personal gain or reward. An example of prosocial behavior would be a child helping a classmate who has dropped their books, without being prompted or expecting anything in return. This behavior demonstrates empathy, kindness, and a concern for the well-being of others. Developmental Conflicts 218. Explain the developmental conflict Erik Erikson believed was central for 2-year-olds to solve and give an example of how a child could resolve this conflict in a positive way. Then give a second example of how a child could resolve this conflict in a negative way. Answer: Erik Erikson proposed that the central developmental conflict for 2-year-olds is the struggle between autonomy and shame/doubt. In a positive resolution, a child might assert their independence by attempting to dress themselves, even if they struggle or make mistakes, showing a growing sense of autonomy. However, in a negative resolution, a child might feel overwhelmed by their failures in dressing themselves and become overly dependent on caregivers, leading to feelings of shame and doubt regarding their abilities. 219. Explain the developmental conflict Erik Erikson believes was central for a 4-year-old to solve and give an example of how a child could resolve this conflict in a positive way. Then give a second example of how a child could resolve this conflict in a negative way. Answer: Erik Erikson identified the primary developmental conflict for 4-year-olds as the conflict between initiative and guilt. In a positive resolution, a child might take the initiative to start a new project or activity, such as helping a sibling with a chore, demonstrating a proactive approach to challenges. Conversely, in a negative resolution, a child might feel guilty for attempting something new and retreat from exploring new experiences, fearing failure and criticism. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence 220. If a parent asked you for advice about how to deal with a young child who created an imaginary companion, what advice would you give, based on the text’s discussion of this situation? Answer: Encourage and foster the child's imaginative play with their imaginary companion, as it can be a normal and healthy aspect of childhood development. Provide opportunities for the child to engage in pretend play with their companion, as it can enhance their creativity, social skills, and emotional expression. However, if the child's imaginary play begins to interfere with their daily functioning or becomes distressing, it may be beneficial to consult with a child psychologist or counselor for further guidance. 221. Provide two examples that demonstrate how children’s play is reflective of culture. Answer: In some cultures, children's play may involve traditional games or activities that have been passed down through generations, reflecting cultural values, customs, and beliefs. For example, children in Japan might engage in the game of kendama, a traditional toy that requires skill and coordination, reflecting aspects of Japanese culture such as discipline and perseverance. Similarly, in Indigenous cultures, children may participate in storytelling through play, incorporating elements of their cultural heritage and oral traditions into imaginative scenarios and games. 222. Define the term “social competence” and give an example of how the development of social competence in childhood enhances development. Answer: Social competence refers to the ability to effectively navigate social interactions, maintain positive relationships, and adapt to various social contexts. For example, a socially competent child may demonstrate empathy by understanding and responding to the emotions of others, which can foster positive relationships and contribute to emotional development. Additionally, social competence enables children to collaborate with peers, solve conflicts constructively, and communicate effectively, enhancing their social and emotional well-being as well as their academic success. Understanding Self and Others 223. Define the term “internalization” and give an example of how children learn to internalize the values and moral standards of their society. Answer: Internalization refers to the process through which individuals adopt the moral standards and values of their society as part of their own self-concept or understanding. For example, children learn to internalize societal values such as honesty by observing how their caregivers and peers react to honesty or dishonesty. As they receive praise for telling the truth and see negative consequences for lying, they begin to internalize the value of honesty and incorporate it into their behavior and belief system. 224. How can the way a child is treated by other children become incorporated in that child’s personal script? Provide an example to demonstrate your answer. Answer: The way a child is treated by other children can become incorporated into that child's personal script through observational learning and social experiences. For example, if a child consistently receives positive feedback and acceptance from peers for being helpful and cooperative during group activities, they may internalize the belief that being helpful and cooperative is valued. Consequently, this belief becomes part of their personal script, guiding their future behavior in similar social situations. 225. How have the terms sex and gender come to be used in psychology? Answer: In psychology, the term "sex" refers to biological differences between males and females, including anatomical, physiological, and genetic factors. On the other hand, "gender" refers to the social, cultural, and psychological attributes, behaviors, and roles that society considers appropriate for men and women. While sex is typically binary (male or female), gender is more fluid and can encompass a range of identities beyond traditional male and female roles. 226. Do gender differences exist between boys and girls? If so, are such differences larger or smaller than most people have thought? Answer: Yes, gender differences do exist between boys and girls, but they are often smaller than many people assume. While there may be some biological differences between males and females, such as hormonal influences, most of the observed gender differences arise from socialization and cultural factors. These differences can vary widely across different cultures and societies, and they are not necessarily innate or fixed. 227. How can the concept of androgyny be used to explain how boys and girls differ from each other? Answer: The concept of androgyny suggests that individuals can possess both masculine and feminine traits or characteristics, regardless of their biological sex. When applied to boys and girls, it highlights the variability and flexibility of gender roles and behaviors. Rather than adhering strictly to traditional stereotypes of masculinity and femininity, children may exhibit a combination of traits from both categories, leading to greater diversity in behavior and expression. 228. What is meant by the term “gender constancy” and how is this trait acquired in childhood? Answer: Gender constancy refers to the understanding that one's gender identity remains consistent over time and across different situations, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or behavior. This trait is acquired in childhood through a process of cognitive development. Children typically achieve gender constancy around the age of 6 or 7, as they come to understand that gender is a stable characteristic that is not influenced by external factors such as clothing or toy preferences. Family Dynamics 229. Compare and contrast authoritative parenting and authoritarian parenting. Answer: Authoritative parenting and authoritarian parenting are two distinct styles of parenting with differing approaches and outcomes: • Authoritative parenting is characterized by high levels of warmth and responsiveness from parents, combined with clear and consistent rules and expectations. Parents using this style encourage independence and autonomy in their children while also providing guidance and support. Communication is open, and discipline is typically fair and rational. • Authoritarian parenting, on the other hand, is marked by strict rules and high expectations with little room for flexibility or negotiation. Parents employing this style often use punishment as a means of control rather than explanation or reasoning. Communication tends to be one-way, from parent to child, with limited opportunities for dialogue or expression of opinions. The key difference lies in the approach to discipline and communication. While authoritative parents emphasize reasoning and understanding, authoritarian parents focus more on obedience and compliance through the use of punishments. 230. Suggest 3 things that parents can do to establish effective rules of discipline for their children. Suggest 2 things that parents should not do to establish discipline. Answer: To establish effective rules of discipline for their children, parents can: 1. Be clear and consistent: Clearly communicate expectations and consequences for behavior. Consistency in enforcing rules helps children understand what is expected of them. 2. Use positive reinforcement: Acknowledge and reward desired behaviors to encourage repetition. Positive reinforcement can be in the form of praise, privileges, or small rewards. 3. Involve children in rule-setting: Encourage children to participate in establishing family rules, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility. On the other hand, parents should avoid: 1. Using physical punishment: Physical punishment can lead to negative outcomes and can harm the parent-child relationship. 2. Being overly harsh or punitive: Harsh disciplinary measures can cause fear and resentment in children, undermining their trust and self-esteem. 231. Why is the negotiation of shared goals between parents and children a helpful means of promoting healthy development for children? Answer: Negotiating shared goals between parents and children promotes healthy development by fostering collaboration, autonomy, and a sense of ownership over one's actions and decisions. When parents involve children in setting goals, it encourages communication, problem-solving skills, and mutual respect. Children are more likely to adhere to rules and expectations when they have had a say in creating them, leading to a greater sense of motivation and responsibility. 232. Why do first-born children have, on average, higher IQs than children born later in a family? Suggest two possible reasons. Answer: First-born children often have higher IQs than later-born siblings due to two possible reasons: 1. Differential parental investment: Parents may invest more time, attention, and resources in the first-born child, providing greater stimulation and intellectual engagement during critical periods of development. 2. Role modeling and teaching: First-born children may benefit from acting as "teachers" to their younger siblings, reinforcing their own learning and understanding of concepts. Teaching others requires a deeper level of comprehension and can contribute to cognitive development. 233. Identify the key difference between child abuse and child neglect. Answer: The key difference between child abuse and child neglect lies in the nature of the harm inflicted: • Child abuse involves intentional acts of harm or mistreatment, such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, inflicted by a caregiver or authority figure. • Child neglect, on the other hand, involves failure to provide for a child's basic needs, such as food, shelter, clothing, medical care, education, or supervision, due to a caregiver's inability or refusal to do so. 234. Identify 4 different ways in which parents can psychologically abuse their children, and define each by giving an example. Answer: Psychological abuse by parents can take various forms, including: 1. Verbal abuse: Using harsh, demeaning, or belittling language towards a child, such as calling them names or constantly criticizing their abilities (e.g., "You're worthless"). 2. Emotional manipulation: Guilt-tripping, gaslighting, or using emotional blackmail to control a child's behavior or emotions, undermining their sense of self-worth and autonomy (e.g., "If you loved me, you would do what I say"). 3. Isolation: Preventing a child from forming relationships or socializing with peers, limiting their access to support networks and opportunities for growth and development (e.g., forbidding them from attending social events or seeing friends). 4. Neglecting emotional needs: Ignoring or dismissing a child's feelings, needs, or experiences, failing to provide emotional support or validation, which can lead to feelings of neglect and inadequacy (e.g., ignoring a child's cries for attention or dismissing their fears). 235. Why are ecological models often the most useful theories to explain the causes of child abuse? Answer: Ecological models are often the most useful theories for explaining the causes of child abuse because they recognize that child abuse results from complex interactions between individual, familial, societal, and environmental factors. These models emphasize the importance of considering multiple levels of influence, including the child's immediate environment (microsystem), family dynamics (mesosystem), community resources and support (exosystem), and broader cultural and societal norms (macrosystem). By examining these interconnected factors, ecological models provide a comprehensive understanding of the risk factors and protective factors associated with child abuse, helping to inform prevention and intervention efforts at multiple levels. Essay questions: Coping With Feelings and Emotions 236. Describe how a typical 2-year-old’s expression of emotion differs from that of a typical 6-year-old child. Answer: A typical 2-year-old's expression of emotion tends to be more immediate, intense, and often uncontrolled compared to that of a 6-year-old child. Two-year-olds may exhibit emotions like joy, frustration, or anger very openly, with little inhibition or ability to regulate their reactions. In contrast, a 6-year-old child has developed greater emotional regulation skills and may express emotions more subtly or selectively, depending on social context and learned norms. 237. Suppose that Nancy is a child who is very fearful and Brittany is a child who is very anxious. Would it be easier to help Nancy overcome her fears or to help Brittany overcome her anxiety, do you think? Explain your Answer: Answer: It might be easier to help Nancy overcome her fears compared to helping Brittany overcome her anxiety. Fear is often a response to a specific perceived threat or stimulus and can be addressed through gradual exposure and reassurance techniques. However, anxiety tends to be more pervasive and generalized, rooted in worries and apprehensions that may not have a clear trigger. Treating anxiety often requires cognitive-behavioral interventions and may take longer to address due to its complex nature. 238. How do history and culture affect what children fear? Cite examples from the text to support your answer. Answer: History and culture play significant roles in shaping what children fear by influencing societal norms, beliefs, and exposure to certain experiences. For example, in cultures where certain animals are revered or feared due to religious or folklore beliefs, children may develop fears of those animals even without direct negative experiences. Similarly, historical events such as wars or natural disasters can imprint fears onto subsequent generations. For instance, children growing up in post-9/11 America may have heightened fears related to terrorism due to media coverage and societal discussions about the event. Additionally, cultural practices surrounding child-rearing, such as parental attitudes towards risk-taking or exposure to specific media content, can influence the development of fears in children. 239. Explain why shame is usually considered to be a more negative emotion than guilt. Answer: Shame is typically considered a more negative emotion than guilt because it involves a global negative evaluation of the self, whereas guilt focuses on the specific behavior. When experiencing shame, individuals often feel inherently flawed or unworthy as a person, leading to a deeper sense of humiliation and worthlessness. In contrast, guilt arises from a recognition of having done something wrong, prompting individuals to take responsibility for their actions and make amends without necessarily questioning their overall self-worth. 240. Why is learning to control emotions such an important developmental event in early childhood? Answer: Learning to control emotions is crucial in early childhood development because it lays the foundation for social and emotional competence later in life. By developing emotional regulation skills, children can effectively manage their feelings, cope with stressors, and navigate social interactions more successfully. This ability not only fosters resilience but also promotes positive relationships, academic achievement, and overall well-being throughout childhood and into adulthood. 241. Considering a 3-year-old’s natural curiosity about the genital region, suggest how a parent’s response to a child’s masturbation might affect that child’s development of initiative versus guilt. Answer: A parent's response to a child's masturbation at the age of 3 can significantly influence the child's development of initiative versus guilt. If a parent responds to the behavior with understanding, reassurance, and age-appropriate information, it can foster the child's sense of initiative by validating their curiosity and promoting a healthy attitude towards their body. Conversely, if the parent responds with shame, criticism, or punishment, it may lead the child to feel guilty or ashamed of their natural exploration, potentially hindering their initiative and self-confidence. Therefore, a supportive and non-judgmental approach from parents is essential in navigating this aspect of a child's development. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 242. How is frustration linked to aggressive behavior in childhood? Answer: Frustration can be linked to aggressive behavior in childhood as it often serves as a trigger for aggression. When children encounter obstacles or are unable to achieve their goals, they may experience frustration, which can lead to feelings of anger and hostility. In response to these feelings, children may lash out physically or verbally, manifesting their aggression. 243. Describe how modeling can contribute to a child’s development of aggressive behavior and how it can be used to help a child control aggressive urges. Answer: Modeling can contribute to a child's development of aggressive behavior by providing them with examples of aggression in their environment. Children often imitate the behaviors they observe in others, including aggressive actions they witness from parents, siblings, peers, or media figures. However, modeling can also be used positively to help a child control aggressive urges by providing them with alternative, non-aggressive ways of expressing their emotions. Adults and peers who model effective conflict resolution strategies or emotional regulation techniques can teach children how to manage their aggressive impulses in a constructive manner. 244. Why is punishment an inadvisable method of limiting a child’s aggressive behavior? Answer: Punishment is an inadvisable method of limiting a child's aggressive behavior for several reasons. Firstly, punishment tends to focus on suppressing behavior rather than teaching alternative, more appropriate responses. It does not address the underlying causes of aggression or teach children how to manage their emotions effectively. Additionally, punishment can lead to resentment, fear, and a breakdown of trust between the child and the caregiver or authority figure administering the punishment. This can further exacerbate aggressive behavior and may result in a cycle of escalating aggression and punishment. Instead, strategies that focus on positive reinforcement, teaching conflict resolution skills, and addressing underlying emotional needs are more effective in promoting long-term behavior change and reducing aggression in children. 245. Why would younger children be especially vulnerable to violent images and themes in the media? Answer: Younger children are particularly vulnerable to violent images and themes in the media due to their limited cognitive abilities to distinguish between reality and fantasy. Their brains are still developing, and they have yet to fully grasp concepts like consequence and empathy. Exposure to violence can desensitize them to its effects and lead to increased aggression or fear. Moreover, children often lack the coping mechanisms and emotional maturity to process and understand violent content, which can result in nightmares, anxiety, or other negative psychological effects. 246. Do TV shows, movies, and other media have a negative or positive impact on the development of today’s generation of young children? Support your answer with evidence from research studies on this topic. Answer: Research on the impact of TV shows, movies, and other media on young children's development yields mixed results. While some studies suggest that educational programming can have positive effects on cognitive and social development, excessive screen time and exposure to violent or inappropriate content have been associated with negative outcomes. For instance, a longitudinal study published in JAMA Pediatrics in 2019 found that higher levels of screen time among toddlers were associated with delays in development at age three. Similarly, a meta-analysis published in Psychological Bulletin in 2010 concluded that exposure to violent media is linked to increased aggression among children. Therefore, the impact of media on young children's development depends on the type and amount of content consumed, as well as individual factors such as parental involvement and socio-economic status. 247. Explain why many parents are concerned about the kinds of programming offered on television and in video games. What would they likely object to? How is the media industry responding? Is the media industry doing enough, do you think? Answer: Many parents are concerned about the kinds of programming offered on television and in video games due to the potential negative impact on their children's behavior and development. They are likely to object to violent, sexually explicit, or age-inappropriate content that could desensitize, traumatize, or influence their children negatively. The media industry has responded to these concerns through various measures such as content ratings, parental controls, and the development of more educational and age-appropriate programming. However, critics argue that these efforts are insufficient, as children still have easy access to inappropriate content, and the effectiveness of content ratings is debatable. Therefore, while the media industry has taken steps to address parental concerns, more rigorous regulation and enforcement may be necessary to ensure the protection of children from harmful media influences. 248. How does culture influence the development of prosocial behavior? Provide an example to support your answer. Answer: Culture plays a significant role in shaping prosocial behavior, which refers to actions intended to benefit others. Cultural norms, values, and socialization practices all contribute to how individuals perceive and engage in prosocial behavior. For example, in collectivist cultures where interdependence and group harmony are emphasized, individuals may be more inclined to engage in prosocial behaviors such as sharing resources or cooperating with others for the greater good of the community. In contrast, individualistic cultures may prioritize personal achievement and autonomy, leading to different expressions of prosocial behavior, such as helping others in ways that promote individual success or advancement. 249. Explain how role-playing can help young children develop empathy. Answer: Role-playing provides young children with opportunities to take on different perspectives and imagine themselves in various situations, including those involving emotions and social interactions. By pretending to be someone else or acting out scenarios, children can practice understanding and empathizing with the feelings and experiences of others. For example, in a role-playing scenario where one child portrays a character who is sad because they lost their toy, and another child acts as a comforting friend, the participants can learn to recognize emotions, express empathy, and consider how their actions impact others' feelings. Through repeated experiences with role-playing, children can develop a deeper understanding of empathy and apply it in real-life interactions. Developmental Conflicts 250. Describe the two central developmental conflicts that young children must resolve in early childhood. Answer: In early childhood, children typically face two central developmental conflicts as described by Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory. The first conflict is autonomy versus shame and doubt, which occurs during the toddler years. Children in this stage are learning to assert their independence and autonomy by exploring their environment, making choices, and asserting their will. Successful resolution of this conflict involves caregivers providing support and encouragement for the child's emerging sense of autonomy while also setting appropriate limits and boundaries. The second conflict is initiative versus guilt, which occurs during the preschool years. Children in this stage are eager to take on new challenges, initiate activities, and assert themselves in social interactions. Successful resolution of this conflict involves caregivers fostering a sense of initiative and curiosity in children while also helping them develop a conscience and a sense of responsibility for their actions. 251. Distinguish between shame and guilt and explain why the development of competence helps a young child deal with these negative emotions. Answer: Shame and guilt are two distinct emotions, albeit both negative. Shame typically arises when a person feels bad about themselves as a whole, often in response to a perceived failure or inadequacy. It's a self-focused emotion where individuals feel that they are inherently flawed or deficient. On the other hand, guilt is more focused on a specific behavior or action. It emerges when someone believes they have done something wrong or violated a moral or social standard, leading to feelings of remorse or regret. The development of competence in young children plays a crucial role in managing these negative emotions. As children gain skills and competencies in various domains, such as cognitive, social, and physical, they become more capable of meeting challenges and achieving success. This competence acts as a buffer against feelings of shame because children can attribute their failures or shortcomings to specific factors rather than seeing themselves as fundamentally inadequate. Moreover, competence fosters a sense of agency and control, enabling children to take responsibility for their actions and address feelings of guilt constructively. By understanding their abilities and limitations, children can develop healthier coping mechanisms and a more resilient sense of self-esteem, which can mitigate the impact of shame and guilt. 252. Describe how play develops, beginning with solitary play and ending with cooperative play. How does the development of play reflect the broader development of cognitive skills in early childhood? Be sure to include in your answer a discussion of egocentrism and of empathy. Answer: Play evolves significantly throughout early childhood, progressing from solitary activities to more complex forms of cooperative play. Initially, infants engage in solitary play, where they explore objects and their surroundings independently, often through sensorimotor activities like mouthing objects or shaking toys. As children enter toddlerhood, they engage in parallel play, where they play alongside others without direct interaction. This stage reflects a growing awareness of others but limited social interaction skills. With further development, children progress to associative play, where they start to interact more directly with peers, though their play remains loosely structured and lacks shared goals. Finally, cooperative play emerges, characterized by organized activities with shared rules and goals, requiring collaboration and negotiation among participants. The development of play mirrors broader cognitive development in early childhood. For instance, as children progress from solitary to cooperative play, they demonstrate advancements in their ability to engage in symbolic thought, understand social roles, and regulate their behavior according to social norms. Additionally, egocentrism, a hallmark of early childhood cognitive development, influences play behavior. Young children may struggle to consider others' perspectives, leading to conflicts and difficulties in cooperative play. However, as egocentrism diminishes and empathy develops, children become more adept at understanding others' feelings and perspectives, facilitating smoother social interactions and more sophisticated forms of play. 253. Does having an imaginary companion bode well or ill for normal development in early childhood? Cite research evidence to support your answer. Answer: Having an imaginary companion in early childhood can actually be beneficial for normal development. Research suggests that imaginary companions are quite common among young children and can serve various developmental functions. For instance, having an imaginary friend can provide children with a safe outlet for exploring their emotions, practicing social skills, and coping with stress or loneliness. Studies have shown that children with imaginary companions tend to demonstrate advanced social understanding and creativity compared to those without. They often engage in complex pretend play scenarios with their companions, which can enhance their cognitive and emotional development. Moreover, having an imaginary friend is not indicative of underlying psychological issues but rather reflects a child's active imagination and creative capacities. However, it's essential to consider individual differences and context when assessing the impact of imaginary companions on development. While for most children, having an imaginary companion is a normal and healthy part of imaginative play, in some cases, persistent and extreme engagement with an imaginary friend could be a sign of underlying emotional or social difficulties. Therefore, it's crucial for parents and caregivers to observe and support children's imaginative play while also monitoring their overall well-being. 254. What is social competence? In what ways is social competence related to children’s popularity among other children? Answer: Social competence refers to the ability to effectively navigate social interactions and relationships, demonstrating appropriate social skills, communication, and interpersonal behavior. Children who are socially competent are often more adept at forming friendships, resolving conflicts, and cooperating with others, which can contribute to their popularity among peers. Peers are more likely to be drawn to individuals who display positive social behaviors and can engage in mutually rewarding interactions. Understanding Self and Others 255. Describe how the process of internalization helps the young child develop greater social competence. Answer: Internalization is the process by which children adopt societal norms, values, and expectations into their own belief systems and behavior. Through internalization, children learn social rules and standards, which guide their interactions with others. As children internalize social norms and expectations, they develop a deeper understanding of appropriate social behaviors and are better equipped to navigate social situations effectively. This process contributes to the development of greater social competence as children learn how to interact with others in socially acceptable ways. 256. How does the development of a personal script help young children develop their self-concept? Answer: A personal script is a mental framework or narrative that individuals use to organize and interpret their experiences. As young children develop personal scripts, they begin to create a coherent narrative of their own actions, thoughts, and feelings, which contributes to the formation of their self-concept. Personal scripts help children make sense of their experiences and understand their own identities by providing a framework for interpreting their behaviors and interactions with others. This process allows children to develop a more nuanced understanding of themselves and their place in the world, contributing to the development of their self-concept. 257. How does the development of gender schemes and the development of gender constancy demonstrate different points in cognitive development? Answer: The development of gender schemes and gender constancy represents different stages in cognitive development, particularly according to Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Gender schemes, which involve the categorization of objects, behaviors, and characteristics as masculine or feminine, demonstrate the early stages of cognitive development, particularly in the preoperational stage. During this stage, children begin to categorize the world around them based on observable features but may not fully understand the underlying concepts. On the other hand, the development of gender constancy represents a more advanced stage of cognitive development, typically occurring in Piaget's concrete operational stage. Gender constancy is the understanding that one's gender remains consistent over time, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or behavior. This understanding demonstrates a deeper level of cognitive abstraction and the ability to grasp concepts of identity stability and permanence. 258. How do children come to understand the concept of gender? As part of your answer, discuss the development of gender identity, gender constancy, and gender schemes. Answer: Children come to understand the concept of gender through a multifaceted process involving the development of gender identity, gender constancy, and gender schemes. Gender identity refers to an individual's internal sense of their own gender, whether they identify as male, female, or non-binary. This typically begins to emerge in early childhood as children become aware of their own gender and start to label themselves accordingly. Gender constancy, as proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, is the understanding that one's gender remains stable and consistent over time, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or behavior. This typically develops around the ages of 5-7 as children acquire a deeper understanding of gender roles and stereotypes. Gender schemes involve the categorization of objects, behaviors, and characteristics as masculine or feminine. This categorization helps children organize their understanding of gender and guides their interactions with the world around them. Gender schemes begin to develop in early childhood and become increasingly complex as children mature and internalize societal norms and expectations related to gender. 259. How does an understanding of the concept of androgyny help explain findings regarding the gender differences that exist between boys and girls? Answer: An understanding of the concept of androgyny helps explain findings regarding the gender differences that exist between boys and girls by highlighting the flexibility and variability of gender roles and characteristics. Androgyny refers to the possession of both masculine and feminine traits or qualities within a single individual. In terms of gender development, androgyny suggests that individuals are not strictly confined to traditional gender roles or stereotypes but can exhibit a diverse range of behaviors and characteristics that may not align with societal expectations based on their gender. This perspective challenges the notion of rigid gender differences and emphasizes the importance of recognizing and accepting gender diversity. By acknowledging androgyny, researchers and psychologists can better understand and interpret findings related to gender differences, recognizing that individuals may express a combination of masculine and feminine traits regardless of their biological sex. This perspective promotes inclusivity and acceptance of diverse gender identities and expressions, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of gender development and behavior. 260. The text describes a study in which college girls cared for male or female children that were either dressed in gender-appropriate or gender-inappropriate clothing. What were the results of this study? What do the results suggest about how culture affects how children learn appropriate gender roles? Answer: The study revealed that the college girls treated the children differently based on their gender and the appropriateness of their clothing. They tended to engage in more nurturing behaviors towards children dressed in gender-appropriate clothing, regardless of the child's actual gender. This suggests that culture plays a significant role in shaping how children learn appropriate gender roles, as individuals may unconsciously reinforce gender stereotypes through their interactions with children based on societal norms regarding gender expression. Family Dynamics 261. Define and give an example of parental warmth and of parental control. Then describe how each of the four parenting styles proposed by Diana Baumrind reflects the levels of warmth and control that parents use with their children. Answer: Parental warmth refers to the degree of emotional support, affection, and responsiveness that parents demonstrate towards their children. An example of parental warmth is when a parent offers comforting hugs and verbal expressions of love to their child after a difficult day at school. Parental control, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which parents establish rules, set expectations, and enforce discipline with their children. For instance, a parent exercising control might implement a consistent bedtime routine and enforce consequences for not following household rules. Diana Baumrind proposed four parenting styles based on combinations of warmth and control: 1. Authoritative parenting: This style is characterized by high levels of warmth and control. Authoritative parents are nurturing and responsive to their children's needs while also setting clear rules and expectations. They encourage independence and decision-making while providing guidance and support. 2. Authoritarian parenting: This style involves high control but low warmth. Authoritarian parents enforce strict rules and discipline without much consideration for their children's emotions or autonomy. They prioritize obedience and conformity over nurturing relationships. 3. Permissive parenting: Permissive parents exhibit high warmth but low control. They are affectionate and indulgent towards their children but may struggle to establish consistent boundaries or enforce rules. Children of permissive parents may lack discipline and self-control. 4. Neglectful/uninvolved parenting: This style entails low levels of both warmth and control. Neglectful parents are emotionally detached and uninvolved in their children's lives, often neglecting their needs and failing to provide adequate support or supervision. 262. Using Diana Baumrind’s view of four parenting styles, discuss which of these styles lead to the healthiest adjustments for children. Which styles lead to negative outcomes for children? Answer: According to Diana Baumrind, authoritative parenting tends to lead to the healthiest adjustments for children. This parenting style combines high levels of warmth and control, fostering a supportive and nurturing environment while also setting clear expectations and boundaries. Children raised by authoritative parents often exhibit greater self-esteem, emotional regulation, and social competence. Conversely, authoritarian and neglectful/uninvolved parenting styles tend to lead to negative outcomes for children. Authoritarian parenting, characterized by high control and low warmth, can result in children with lower self-esteem, higher levels of anxiety, and difficulties in forming positive relationships due to the lack of emotional support and autonomy. Neglectful/uninvolved parenting, which involves low levels of both warmth and control, can lead to similar negative outcomes as children may experience feelings of abandonment, neglect, and emotional instability without the necessary support and guidance from their parents. 263. How does an authoritative parenting style contribute to the development of prosocial behavior in children? Answer: An authoritative parenting style fosters the development of prosocial behavior in children by providing a supportive and nurturing environment while also setting clear expectations and boundaries. Authoritative parents encourage their children to express empathy, kindness, and concern for others through consistent modeling of such behaviors and by reinforcing prosocial actions. By promoting open communication, warmth, and responsiveness, authoritative parents cultivate an atmosphere where children feel valued and respected, which encourages the internalization of prosocial values and behaviors. 264. Why do authoritative parenting behaviors usually produce the best outcomes for child development? Answer: Authoritative parenting behaviors typically produce the best outcomes for child development because they strike a balance between warmth and control. Authoritative parents establish clear rules and expectations for their children while also providing warmth, support, and responsiveness to their needs. This approach fosters autonomy, self-discipline, and self-esteem in children, as they learn to make responsible decisions within a supportive framework. Moreover, authoritative parenting promotes positive parent-child relationships characterized by mutual respect and open communication, which contribute to various aspects of children's development, including academic achievement, social competence, and emotional well-being. 265. How can having shared goals within a family facilitate the development of social competence among children? Answer: Having shared goals within a family can facilitate the development of social competence among children by promoting cooperation, teamwork, and mutual understanding. When families set and pursue common objectives together, such as engaging in regular family activities, volunteering, or supporting each other's endeavors, children learn valuable social skills and interpersonal dynamics. They develop the ability to communicate effectively, negotiate differences, and collaborate with others toward a common purpose. Additionally, shared goals foster a sense of belonging and connectedness within the family unit, which strengthens familial bonds and provides children with a supportive environment in which to learn and grow socially. 266. Discuss two reasons why brothers and sisters raised in the same family often have quite different personalities. Answer: Brothers and sisters raised in the same family can have quite different personalities due to: 1. Differences in temperament: Each child is born with a unique temperament, which influences their behavioral tendencies, emotional reactions, and adaptability. Even within the same family, siblings may inherit different temperamental traits from their parents or develop distinct coping mechanisms in response to environmental stimuli, resulting in variations in personality. 2. Individual experiences and socialization: Despite sharing the same family environment, siblings may have divergent experiences and interactions outside the family, such as friendships, school environments, and extracurricular activities. These individual experiences can shape personality development by exposing children to different social influences, role models, and opportunities for growth, leading to variations in personality traits, interests, and values among siblings. 267. Define three different types of child maltreatment and present research about who is most likely to be the abuser in each of these three cases. Answer: Three different types of child maltreatment are: 1. Physical abuse: Physical abuse involves the intentional infliction of physical harm or injury upon a child by a caregiver or authority figure. Research indicates that in cases of physical abuse, the abuser is most likely to be a parent or a close family member, such as a stepparent or guardian. Factors such as parental stress, substance abuse, and a history of childhood trauma increase the risk of perpetrating physical abuse. 2. Emotional abuse: Emotional abuse encompasses behaviors that undermine a child's emotional well-being, such as verbal attacks, rejection, isolation, or threats of harm. Studies suggest that emotional abuse is often perpetrated by parents or caregivers who struggle with unresolved psychological issues, such as narcissism, depression, or personality disorders. Additionally, dysfunctional family dynamics and poor parental coping skills contribute to the likelihood of emotional abuse. 3. Neglect: Neglect involves the failure to meet a child's basic needs for survival, growth, and development, including food, shelter, clothing, medical care, education, and supervision. Research indicates that neglect is most commonly perpetrated by parents or primary caregivers who struggle with poverty, substance abuse, mental illness, or social isolation. Lack of parental knowledge, support, and resources exacerbate the risk of neglectful behaviors. 268. Discuss the likely effects that child abuse would have on the child’s development of the ability to successfully regulate emotions? Answer: Child abuse can have profound and long-lasting effects on a child's development of the ability to successfully regulate emotions. Some likely effects include: 1. Dysregulation of emotions: Child abuse disrupts the development of healthy emotional regulation skills, leading to difficulties in identifying, expressing, and managing emotions effectively. Children who experience abuse may struggle with intense and overwhelming emotions, such as anger, fear, sadness, or shame, which can manifest in behavioral problems, mood disorders, or self-destructive behaviors. 2. Impaired interpersonal relationships: Child abuse undermines the formation of secure attachments and trust in others, impairing the child's ability to form healthy interpersonal relationships. Children who have experienced abuse may struggle with issues of intimacy, empathy, and communication, leading to difficulties in forming and maintaining close relationships with peers, family members, and romantic partners. 3. Psychological trauma: Child abuse can result in psychological trauma, characterized by persistent feelings of fear, helplessness, and vulnerability. Trauma disrupts the child's sense of safety and security, triggering emotional arousal and reactivity, and impairing the ability to regulate emotions in response to stressors or triggers. Without proper intervention and support, children who have experienced abuse may develop maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as avoidance, dissociation, or aggression, further exacerbating emotional dysregulation. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079