CH-6 Early Childhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development – Understanding Human Development : Exam Guide

Chapter 6 - Early Childhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development 1. Handedness is especially interesting to developmentalists because it is intimately linked to: a. physical size at maturity b. homosexuality c. language lateralization d. intelligence as measured on an IQ test Answer: c Rationale: Language lateralization, the specialization of the left hemisphere of the brain for language processing in most individuals, is closely linked to handedness. Research suggests that most right-handed individuals have left-hemisphere dominance for language, while left-handed individuals may exhibit more variability in language lateralization, making handedness an area of interest for developmentalists studying language development. 2. According to the text, the most dramatic cognitive difference between infants and 2-year-olds is in their use of: a. animism b. reification c. automaticity d. symbolic representation Answer: d Rationale: Symbolic representation refers to the ability to mentally represent objects, events, and concepts with symbols, such as words, gestures, or images. The transition from infancy to toddlerhood is marked by significant advancements in symbolic representation, including the use of words to represent objects and actions, which is a fundamental cognitive milestone during this period. 3. The social and cultural aspects of language use are referred to by the term: a. grammar acquisition b. communication c. pragmatics d. cultural linguistics Answer: c Rationale: Pragmatics refers to the social and cultural aspects of language use, including the rules and conventions for appropriate communication within a particular social context. It encompasses aspects such as turn-taking, politeness, and understanding implicit meaning, which are essential for effective communication in social interactions. 4. Which of the following individuals would be most likely to experience the most severe and permanent disruptions in language abilities following a brain injury? a. an adult whose injury is to the left hemisphere of the brain b. an adult whose injury is to the right hemisphere of the brain c. a child whose injury is to the left hemisphere of the brain d. a child whose injury is to the right hemisphere of the brain Answer: a Rationale: In most individuals, language functions are primarily localized in the left hemisphere of the brain, particularly in areas such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area. Therefore, an injury to the left hemisphere, especially in adults, is more likely to result in severe and permanent disruptions in language abilities compared to an injury to the right hemisphere. 5. A child who climbs to the top of a staircase for the challenge and fun of the activity has what type of motivation? a. intrinsic b. extrinsic c. egocentric d. “out” directed Answer: a Rationale: Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment it provides, rather than for external rewards or incentives. Climbing to the top of a staircase for the challenge and fun of the activity demonstrates intrinsic motivation, as the child is driven by internal factors such as curiosity, mastery, and enjoyment. 6. When a young child learns to help fold laundry and put clothes away, cultural information is being transmitted. According to Vygotsky’s view, this is best considered to be an example of: a. scaffolding b. guided participation c. social referencing d. synchrony Answer: b Rationale: Guided participation refers to the process by which children learn from more knowledgeable individuals within their social and cultural context. When a child learns to fold laundry and put clothes away with the guidance and assistance of a caregiver, cultural information is transmitted through this collaborative activity, supporting the child's cognitive and social development. 7. Which of the following is the best example of overregularization? a. “I am a big, big girl!” b. “No!” c. “I breaked the cup.” d. “I love my momma.” Answer: c Rationale: Overregularization occurs when a child applies grammatical rules too rigidly, resulting in errors such as using regular past tense forms for irregular verbs. In the given options, "I breaked the cup" demonstrates overregularization by applying the regular past tense "-ed" suffix to the irregular verb "break," instead of using the correct irregular form "broke." 8. Suppose that Bob is a typical 3-year-old child. By age 6, you should expect that his height will have increased by about how many inches? a. about 4 inches b. about 6 inches c. about 9 inches d. about12 inches Answer: c Rationale: Between ages 3 and 6, children typically experience a steady growth in height, averaging about 2 to 3 inches per year. Therefore, by age 6, it is reasonable to expect that Bob's height will have increased by approximately 9 inches since age 3. 9. When he was younger, Tommy stacked blocks for the sheer joy of doing so. Now, Tommy only stacks blocks when he is trying to build something or when he is playing a game. The term that best describes Tommy’s development is: a. interaction b. automaticity c. extrinsically motivated behavior d. functional subordination Answer: d Rationale: Functional subordination refers to the process by which an activity that was previously performed for its own sake becomes instrumental in achieving a goal or serving a specific purpose. In this scenario, Tommy's transition from stacking blocks for joy to stacking them for specific purposes or goals reflects functional subordination. 10. Laura and Ted like to play “house,” a game they invented in which Laura pretends to be the “mother” and Ted the “father.” In this game, Laura cooks the food on a pretend stove and Ted takes out the pretend garbage. The ability to play this game relies most directly on which cognitive ability? a. egocentrism b. conservation c. reversibility d. symbolic representation Answer: d Rationale: Symbolic representation refers to the ability to mentally represent objects, actions, and concepts with symbols, such as pretending that a block represents a car or that a stick is a sword. Playing "house" involves using symbolic representation to pretend to be roles (mother, father) and engage in pretend activities (cooking, cleaning), making symbolic representation the cognitive ability most directly relied upon in this game. 1. The process by which soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone is called: a. calcification b. grafting c. cartilogenesis d. ossification Answer: d Rationale: Ossification is the correct term for the process by which soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone. This process is essential for skeletal development and bone formation throughout the body. 2. A child who believes that objects and people in their thoughts and dreams are real is displaying what? a. animism b. reification c. egocentrism d. paranormal cognition Answer: b Rationale: Reification is the term used to describe the cognitive phenomenon where a child believes that objects and people in their thoughts and dreams are real. It is a characteristic feature of early childhood thinking and reflects the child's developing understanding of the distinction between reality and fantasy. 3. Research presented in the text suggests that playing with which of the following types of toys appears to encourage the language development the most? a. with dolls b. with trucks c. with blocks d. with guns Answer: a Rationale: Research indicates that playing with dolls tends to encourage language development the most among young children. Doll play often involves pretend scenarios, storytelling, and social interaction, which provide opportunities for language-rich experiences and vocabulary expansion. 4. Suppose you examine an ultrasound image of a fetus, who is sucking her left thumb. Generalizing from research presented in the text, what is the probability that this fetus will be left-handed at age 15? a. about 50% b. about 67% c. about 85% d. about 100% Answer: b Rationale: Research suggests that there is an increased likelihood of left-handedness in individuals who exhibited behaviors such as thumb sucking in utero. While the probability varies, it is estimated to be around 67%. 5. Generalizing from research presented in the text, which of the following memory strategies would most likely lead a young child to the best recall of a group of common household items: a. remembering that the items are all stored in the same place (e.g., in the junk drawer) b. remembering that the items all begin with the same letter (e.g., the letter “b”) c. remembering that the items are all about the same size (e.g., all the size of a baseball) d. remembering that the items are all used for the same purpose (e.g., that they are all containers that hold things) Answer: a Rationale: Research suggests that organizing items based on their spatial location (such as remembering they are all stored in the same place) tends to lead to better recall, especially for young children. This strategy leverages spatial memory and association, which can enhance retrieval. 6. Generalizing from research conclusions presented in the text, if given the choice, would you recommend that children be raised in a bilingual environment? a. Yes b. No, because this will limit the size of their vocabulary c. No, because this will delay their learning to talk d. No, because this will make them more likely to develop reading problems Answer: a Rationale: Research suggests that being raised in a bilingual environment can offer numerous cognitive and linguistic benefits, including enhanced executive function, greater cognitive flexibility, and improved metalinguistic awareness. Therefore, it is generally recommended to raise children in bilingual environments. 7. Generalizing from research presented in the text, if a 4-year-old was observed speaking to a 2-year-old, what kind of speech would the 4-year-old be most likely to use: a. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his mother b. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his older brother c. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his preschool teacher d. a simpler version of his normal speech Answer: d Rationale: When interacting with younger children, older children tend to adjust their speech to be simpler and more comprehensible. This phenomenon, known as child-directed speech or "motherese," facilitates communication and comprehension for the younger child. 8. Dr. Jacobs is describing a process by which neurons become insulated so that they can conduct neural impulses more efficiently. The process he is describing would be called: a. lateralization b. myelination c. ossification d. automation Answer: b Rationale: The process described by Dr. Jacobs, in which neurons become insulated to conduct neural impulses more efficiently, is called myelination. Myelin sheaths are formed around axons, increasing the speed and efficiency of neural transmission. 9. At first, Mike has to concentrate very hard when typing, thinking where each letter on the keyboard is. However, after practicing a great deal, he now types without even thinking about how his fingers are moving. The concept that best describes Mike’s development is: a. automaticity b. lateralization c. functional subordination d. readiness Answer: a Rationale: Mike's development, where he types without conscious effort after extensive practice, is best described by the concept of automaticity. Automaticity refers to the ability to perform a task without conscious attention or effort, often as a result of repeated practice and procedural learning. 10. Dr. Larsen states that he likes to give his students just enough “hints” so that they can figure out how to solve a difficult problem with a minimum of guidance. Dr. Larsen’s approach best demonstrates the concept of: a. automaticity b. symbolic representation c. conservation d. scaffolding Answer: d Rationale: Dr. Larsen's approach of providing just enough hints for students to solve a difficult problem with minimal guidance exemplifies the concept of scaffolding. Scaffolding involves providing temporary support or assistance to learners to help them accomplish tasks or solve problems beyond their current abilities. By gradually reducing support as students gain understanding and proficiency, scaffolding promotes independent learning and skill development. Multiple Choice questions: Physical Development 1. Early childhood is the span of time from: a. birth to 2 years b. 2 to 6 years c. 1 to 7 years d. 3 to 8 years Answer: b Rationale: Early childhood typically refers to the period of development from around 2 to 6 years of age. During this time, children experience significant cognitive, social, and emotional growth, marked by milestones such as language development, self-regulation, and the development of social skills. 2. Between the ages of 2 and 6 years, a child is in which period of childhood? a. early childhood b. early toddlerhood c. late childhood d. late toddlerhood Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, the period of early childhood spans the ages of 2 to 6 years. 3. During the period of early childhood, the typical child would grow an average of per year. a. one-half inch b. 1 inch c. 2 inches d. 3 inches Answer: d Rationale: During early childhood, children typically experience rapid physical growth. On average, children grow approximately 2 inches per year during this period. This growth rate varies among individuals but generally reflects the significant changes in height and body proportions characteristic of early childhood. 4. Suppose that Bob is a typical 3-year-old child. By age 6, you should expect that his height will have increased by about how many inches? a. about 4 inches b. about 6 inches c. about 9 inches d. about12 inches Answer: c Rationale: Children grow about 3 inches per year during early childhood, so over 3 years (from age 3 to age 6), Bob should grow about 9 inches. 5. Leon is in his preschool years. If he is typical how much weight would you expect him to gain each year he is in preschool? a. 1 pound b. 2½ pounds c. 4½ pounds d. 6 pounds Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text., during early childhood, young children typically gain an average of 4 pounds 12 ounces (2 kilograms), and they grow almost 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) taller, each year. 6. The process by which soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone is called: a. calcification b. grafting c. cartilogenesis d. ossification Answer: d Rationale: Ossification is the process by which soft tissue or cartilage is gradually replaced by bone tissue. This process is essential for the development and growth of the skeletal system, as cartilage structures are gradually transformed into bones through the deposition of minerals such as calcium and phosphate. 7. Ossification refers to the process by which: a. baby teeth are replaced by permanent teeth b. children grow rapidly, usually experiencing growing pains c. soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone d. baby hair falls out and is replaced by adult-like hair Answer: c Rationale: Ossification specifically refers to the process of transforming soft tissue or cartilage into bone tissue. It is a crucial process in skeletal development, as cartilage structures gradually ossify and become solid bone structures over time. 8. Dr. Bemus is describing how bones develop and harden during the period of early childhood. The process he is describing is called: a. lateralization b. myelination c. osteoporosis d. ossification Answer: d Rationale: Throughout the early childhood period, bones develop and harden through ossification, in which soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone. 9. Mary notices that her 3-year-old seems to have difficulty when he tries to stop running. When coming to a quick stop, he often tips forward, nearly falling on his face. From a developmental perspective, this boy’s difficulty most likely stems from having: a. a higher center of gravity than an older child would have b. weaker leg muscles than an older child would have c. poorer peripheral vision than an older child would have d. an underdeveloped inner ear, which will develop more fully by age 6 Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, young children carry a greater proportion of their weight in their upper body than do adults, which gives them a higher center of gravity. Being top-heavy makes it more difficult to control body movements. In early childhood, children lose their balance more easily and have difficulty coming to a quick stop without tipping forward. They also have difficulty catching a large ball without falling backward. 10. Dr. Jacobs is describing a process by which neurons become insulated so that they can conduct neural impulses more efficiently. The process he is describing would be called: a. lateralization b. myelination c. ossification d. automation Answer: b Rationale: Maturation of the brain and the central nervous system includes myelination, which is the formation of sheathing cells that insulate the neurons and make transmission of neural impulses much more efficient. 11. The formation of sheathing cells to insulate neurons is called : a. myelination b. ossification c. assimilation d. lateralization Answer: a Rationale: Myelination is the process by which sheathing cells, called myelin, form around nerve fibers (axons) to insulate and protect them. This process enhances the speed and efficiency of neural transmission, facilitating communication within the nervous system. Myelination is particularly active during early childhood and adolescence. 12. Which of the following systems is the first to become myelinated during development? a. the system involved with vision b. the system controlling complex motor coordination c. the system involving in controlling hand-eye coordination d. the system involved in memory and attention span Answer: a Rationale: The visual system is one of the first to undergo myelination during development. This early myelination supports the development of visual acuity, depth perception, and other visual functions essential for navigating and interacting with the environment. 13. The ability of the brain to adapt during childhood is referred to as: a. lateralization b. myelination c. plasticity d. elasticity Answer: c Rationale: Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to adapt and reorganize its structure and function in response to experiences, environmental influences, and learning. During childhood, the brain exhibits high levels of plasticity, allowing for the formation of new neural connections, synaptic pruning, and the refinement of neural circuits in response to various stimuli and experiences. 14. Brain lateralization refers to which of the following? a. The brain develops sequentially, with development proceeding from back to front. b. The brain develops sequentially, with development proceeding from bottom to top. c. The brain develops so that different skills are performed by the left and right hemispheres. d. The brain undergoes neural pruning, as well as growth, during infancy. Answer: c Rationale: Lateralization refers to the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere. 15. Which of the following individuals would be most likely to experience the most severe and permanent disruptions in language abilities following a brain injury? a. an adult whose injury is to the left hemisphere of the brain b. an adult whose injury is to the right hemisphere of the brain c. a child whose injury is to the left hemisphere of the brain d. a child whose injury is to the right hemisphere of the brain Answer: a Rationale: For most people, and for nearly all right-handed people, language is heavily lateralized in the left hemisphere. Consequently, damage to this region of the brain often results in a severe and sometimes complete inability to speak or understand language, especially if the damage occurs in adulthood, when the brain has lost most of its plasticity. 16. For most people (and nearly all right-handed people), language is heavily lateralized in which hemisphere of the brain? a. right b. left c. longitudinal d. lateral Answer: b Rationale: For most individuals, language functions are heavily lateralized in the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere is typically dominant for language processing, including tasks such as speech production, comprehension, and reading. 17. If you were to use a brain imaging device to observe the brain activity of children as they were drawing and putting puzzles together, you would expect to see the most neural activity in which region of the brain? a. in the right hemisphere b. in the left hemisphere c. in both left and right hemispheres, in roughly equal amounts d. in neither the left nor right hemisphere, since visual tasks are coordinated by the cerebellum Answer: a Rationale: The left hemisphere generally is lateralized for skills that involve logical and sequential operations, such as writing, scientific reasoning, and quantitative logic. For most people, the right hemisphere is lateralized for spatial processing and for the more artistic and creative kinds of thought. Because drawing requires artistic and creative thought and putting puzzles together requires social processing, the correct answer is the right hemisphere. 18. According to the text, about what percent of the population is left-handed? a. 1% b. 5% c. 10% d. 25% Answer: c Rationale: According to research studies, approximately 10% of the population is left-handed. Left-handedness is less common than right-handedness but is still present in a significant minority of individuals. 19. According to the text, about what percent of the population is right-handed? a. 10% b. 50% c. 90% d. 75% Answer: c Rationale: Right-handedness is the dominant hand preference in the majority of the population. Approximately 90% of individuals are right-handed, making it the most common hand preference worldwide. 20. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Younger children are more likely to be right-handed than older children. b. Women are more likely to be right-handed than men. c. Men are more likely to be right-handed than women. d. About equal numbers of 2-year-olds are right- versus left-handed. Answer: b 21. Suppose you examine an ultrasound image of a fetus, who is sucking her right thumb. Generalizing from research presented in the text, what is the probability that this fetus will be right-handed at age 15? a. about 50% b. about 67% c. about 85 % d. about 100% Answer: d Rationale: Research has shown that handedness may develop very early. Using ultrasound, fetuses were observed sucking their thumbs, and they were 8 times more likely to be sucking the thumb on their right hand (Hepper, Wells, & Lynch, 2005). When these fetuses were followed to ages 10 to 12 years, all 60 of the “right-thumb” fetuses were right-handed. 22. Suppose you examine an ultrasound image of a fetus, who is sucking her left thumb. Generalizing from research presented in the text, what is the probability that this fetus will be left-handed at age 15? a. about 50% b. about 67% c. about 85 % d. about 100% Answer: b Rationale: Research has shown that handedness may develop very early. Using ultrasound, fetuses were observed sucking their thumbs, and they were 8 times more likely to be sucking the thumb on their right hand (Hepper, Wells, & Lynch, 2005). When these fetuses were followed to ages 10 to 12 years, of the 15 “left-thumb” fetuses, 5 had become right-handed. 23. Research suggests that a person’s preference for right- versus left-handedness develops at about what age? a. prenatally b. at about 1 year of age c. at about 2 ½ years of age d. at about 4 years of age, as the child is learning to draw Answer: a Rationale: Research has shown that handedness may develop prenatally. Using ultrasound, fetuses were observed sucking their thumbs, and they were 8 times more likely to be sucking the thumb on their right hand (Hepper, Wells, & Lynch, 2005). When these fetuses were followed to ages 10 to 12 years, all 60 of the “right-thumb” fetuses were right-handed, but of the 15 “left-thumb” fetuses, 5 had become right-handed. Thus, early hand preferences seem more predictive for later development among right-handers. 24. For people who are right-handed, language functions are generally found in _____ hemisphere(s) of the brain; for people who are left-handed, language functions are generally found in _____ hemisphere(s) of the brain. a. the right; the left b. the left; the right c. both; the left d. the left; both Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. For people who are right-handed, language functions are generally found in the left hemisphere of the brain, while for people who are left-handed, language functions can be more evenly distributed across both hemispheres. 25. If Joshua is left-handed, your best guess would be that his language abilities are localized in which part of his brain? a. the left hemisphere b. the right hemisphere c. both the left and right hemisphere d. in neither the left nor the right hemisphere Answer: c Rationale: For the 10% or so of the population who are left-handed, language is often shared by the two sides of the brain. This finding suggests that the brains of left-handed people may be less lateralized, in general, than the brains of right-handed people. 26. If Mary Ann is right-handed, your best guess would be that her language abilities are localized in which part of her brain? a. the left hemisphere b. the right hemisphere c. both the left and right hemisphere d. in neither the left nor the right hemisphere Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, for the large majority of right-handed people, language is highly localized in areas of the left hemisphere. 27. Handedness is especially interesting to developmentalists because it is intimately linked to: a. physical size at maturity b. homosexuality c. language lateralization d. intelligence as measured on an IQ test Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. Handedness is interesting to developmentalists because it is intimately linked to language lateralization, or the dominance of one hemisphere of the brain for language processing. 28. Suppose that you can place a child with developmental disabilities into one of four programs. Which of these would you choose because it would likely produce the best outcome for the child? a. a program that begins in infancy and focuses broadly, addressing both cognitive and health-related needs b. a program that begins at age 4 and focuses broadly, addressing both cognitive and health-related needs c. a program that begins in infancy and focuses narrowly and directly on cognitive development d. a program that begins at age 4 and focuses narrowly and directly on cognitive development Answer: a Rationale: Other things being equal, those educational programs and intervention projects that enroll high-risk children in early infancy generally have a much greater impact than those that are begun later in life (Walker, 2011). Of course, the quality of the program also matters. Day-care programs that emphasize a comprehensive approach and therefore address broad issues—such as nutritional needs, other health needs, social development, cognitive development, family functioning, as well as child functioning—are more likely to produce positive results (NICHD, 2009). 29. Dr. Lansing emphasizes that just as the environment influences the child’s development, the child also acts on the environment, changing it. The concept that best describes this two-way interchange is: a. lateralization b. egocentrism c. interaction d. pragmatics Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the textbook, it is important to emphasize that brain development and other aspects of development interact; that is, they influence each other and, in turn, are influenced by each other. Likewise, the various aspects of a child’s development act on the environment and vise versa. Motor Skills Development 30. Which of the following is the best example of a gross motor skill? a. writing b. handling a fork and spoon c. drawing d. running Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the textbook, gross motor skills include skills such as running, hopping, and throwing. 31. A child who is running and kicking a soccer ball is making use of what set of skills? a. intuitive skills b. animism skills c. fine motor skills d. gross motor skills Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the textbook, gross motor skills include skills such as running, hopping, and throwing. 32. The ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them is called a. telepathy b. automaticity c. self-efficacy d. ossification Answer: b Rationale: Option b is correct. The ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them is called automaticity, reflecting the process of motor skills becoming highly practiced and ingrained. 33. At first, Mike has to concentrate very hard when typing, thinking where each letter on the keyboard is. However, after practicing a great deal, he now types without even thinking about how his fingers are moving. The concept that best describes Mike’s development is: a. automaticity b. lateralization c. functional subordination d. readiness Answer: a Rationale: Automaticity refers to the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them. 34. According to the text, at what age do children’s overall activity levels peak? a. about age 1 b. about age 2 ½ c. about age 4 d. about age 6 Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. According to the text, children's overall activity levels tend to peak around the age of 2 ½, reflecting their increasing mobility and exploration during the toddler years. 35. Generalizing from information in the text about the age at which children’s activity levels peak, which of the following children would you expect to be most active? a. Fred, who is 1 year old b. Tom, who is 2 ½ years old c. Nelson, who is 4 years old d. Bennett, who is 6 years old Answer: b Rationale: According to the text, children’s activity levels peak at age 2 or 3. 36. Which of the following children would you expect to have the highest activity level and consequently the hardest time sitting still? a. Judy (a girl) who is 3 years old b. Janice (a girl) who is 6 years old c. Renaldo (a boy) who is 3 years old d. Jose (a boy) who is 6 years old Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, children’s activity levels peak at age 2 or 3, but activity level declines earlier for girls than boys. 37. When he was younger, Tommy stacked blocks for the sheer joy of doing so. Now, Tommy only stacks blocks when he is trying to build something or when he is playing a game. The term that best describes Tommy’s development is: a. interaction b. automaticity c. extrinsically motivated behavior d. functional subordination Answer: d Rationale: Functional subordination is the integration of a number of separate, simple actions or schemas into a more complex pattern of behavior. Actions that are initially performed for their own sake later become integrated into more complex, purposeful skills. For example, when a child first learns to hop, hopping is an end in itself; later, hopping becomes part of a dance or game as it is functionally subordinated to more complex sports skills. 38. Skipping would best be considered an example of which type of motor skill: a. fine motor skill b. gross motor skill c. intrinsic motor skill d. extrinsic motor skill Answer: b Rationale: Gross motor skills involve movements of the major muscles of the body in activities such as running and jumping. Skipping is a similar skill. Fine motor skills are those that require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb. The terms intrinsic and extrinsic refer to motivation, not to motor skills. 39. Lateefah can vary the rhythm of her running, skip awkwardly, and jump. However, she cannot tie her shoes or completely dress herself. If her motor development is typical for children her age, how old would she be? a. 2 years old b. 3 years old c. 4 years old d. 5 years old Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, by age 4, children can vary the rhythm of their running. Many 4-year-olds can skip, although awkwardly, and they can execute a running jump or a standing broad jump. A 3- to 4-year-old child can fasten and unfasten items of clothing and independently serve food, although children of this age sometimes make a mess while doing so. 40. Cutting with scissors would best be considered an example of which type of motor skill? a. fine motor skill b. gross motor skill c. intrinsic motor skill d. extrinsic motor skill Answer: a Rationale: Fine motor skills are those that require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb. These are the skills involved in cutting with scissors. The terms intrinsic and extrinsic refer to motivation, not to motor skills. Gross motor skills involve movements of the major muscles of the body in activities such as running and jumping. 41. When William is handed a cracker, he extends both of his hands to receive it. If his motor development is typical for children his age, how old would he be: a. 2 years old b. 3 years old c. 4 years old d. 5 years old Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the textbook, toddlers also tend to use both arms (or legs) when only one is necessary. When handed a cookie, for example, a 2-year-old is likely to extend both hands. 42. Maria can tie her own shoes. What type of skill is this? a. fine motor skill b. gross motor skill c. adaptive motor skill d. functional motor skill Answer: a Rationale: Fine motor skills often require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb, all of which are required of tying one’s shoes. 43. According to the text, at about what age, on average, do most children learn to tie their own shoe laces? a. age 2-3 b. age 3-4 c. age 4-5 d. age 5-6 Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. On average, most children learn to tie their own shoe laces around the age of 5-6, although individual variation exists in the timing of this skill acquisition. 44. Which of the following behaviors would likely be the hardest for a young child to perform and consequently the last to develop? a. reaching with their preferred hand b. running c. tying shoe laces on tennis shoes d. hanging from a bar by both hands Answer: c Rationale: Six-year-olds who wear shoes with laces usually can tie them, although many still find it difficult and may ask for help instead. One-handed reaching and running skills tend to be present by age 4, and children as young as age 2 can hang from a bar with both hands. 45. Mr. Williams argues that there is no use trying to teach a 3-year-old to read because children of this age have not yet developed neural structures adequate for this task. Instead, he says that children will learn to read much faster and with less effort when they are 5 years old. His argument is based on the concept of: a. practice b. functional subordination c. automaticity d. readiness Answer: d Rationale: Learning any new skill—whether motor or cognitive—is easiest if the child is ready to learn. Readiness implies that a certain level of maturation has been achieved and that the necessary prerequisite skills are in place so that the child can profit from training 46. According to information presented in the text, what is the best indication of when a child has reached the point of optimal readiness? a. when the child has acquired gross motor skills needed for the task b. when the child develops extrinsic motivation c. when the child begins to imitate simple skills involved in the task d. when the child demonstrates functional subordination of the skills involved Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. The best indication of when a child has reached the point of optimal readiness is when the child begins to imitate simple skills involved in the task, indicating their readiness to learn and engage in more complex actions. 47. Elizabeth spends a lot of time sitting at the piano, picking out melodies by trial and error. Her parents decide that they should probably provide her with piano lessons. Elizabeth’s behavior is best considered an example of which of the following developmental concepts? a. readiness b. lateralization c. egocentrism d. functional subordination Answer: a Rationale: Learning any new skill—whether motor or cognitive—is easiest if the child is ready to learn. Readiness implies that a certain level of maturation has been achieved and that the necessary prerequisite skills are in place so that the child can profit from training. 48. A child who climbs to the top of a staircase for the challenge and fun of the activity has what type of motivation? a. intrinsic b. extrinsic c. egocentric d. “out” directed Answer: a Rationale: Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward. 49. Roberto is “motivated” to practice the piano because his parents pay him $5 for every half-hour he plays. This type of motivation would best be considered as: a. intrinsic motivation b. extrinsic motivation c. egocentric motivation d. functional subordination Answer: b Rationale: Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events. 50. Martha plays with a basketball and makes baskets to receive praise from her father. This best reflects what type of motivation: a. responsive motivation b. directive motivation c. intrinsic motivation d. extrinsic motivation Answer: d Rationale: Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events. 51. Jeff loves to practice the piano. His parents never need to tell him to practice or offer rewards for him to play. Jeff’s behavior is best considered an example of: a. automaticity b. functional subordination c. intrinsic motivation d. extrinsic motivation Answer: c Rationale: Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward. Cognitive Development 52. According to Piaget, when children encounter something familiar, they ________ it; when they encounter something new, they ___________ it. a. accommodate; animate b. animate; assimilate c. assimilate; accommodate d. symbolize; animate Answer: c Rationale: According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, when children encounter something familiar, they assimilate it into their existing cognitive structures or schemas. When they encounter something new or unfamiliar, they accommodate their schemas to incorporate the new information or experience. 53. The use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts is the definition of: a. symbolic representation b. concrete operations c. egocentrism d. reification Answer: a Rationale: Symbolic representation refers to the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts. It is a key cognitive ability that emerges during early childhood and plays a crucial role in symbolic play, language development, and abstract thinking. 54. Preoperational children are concerned with the here and now and with physical things they can represent easily. This means that their thinking is: a. concrete b. intuitive c. abstract d. formal Answer: a Rationale: One limitation of preoperational thinking is that it is concrete: the preoperational child has the tendency to think in terms of what can be directly experienced. 55. When 4-year-old Kayla is asked if she has a brother, she says, "Yes." When she is asked if her brother has a sister, she says, "No." Kayla’s response is best considered an example of: a. centration b. irreversibility c. egocentricity d. animism Answer: b Rationale: Children at the preoperational stage of cognitive development show irreversibility: an inability to think backwards, or to see how an event can be reversed. 56. What is Piaget's second stage of cognitive development? a. sensorimotor b. concrete operational c. formal operational d. preoperational Answer: d Rationale: The order of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations. 57. Piaget’s preoperational period extends from: a. birth to age 2 b. age 2 to 7 c. age 8 to 12 d. age 13 to 18 Answer: b Rationale: Piaget's preoperational period, according to his theory of cognitive development, spans from approximately age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children begin to develop symbolic thinking, language skills, and imaginative play. They also demonstrate egocentrism, where they struggle to understand viewpoints other than their own. This stage precedes the concrete operational stage, which typically starts around age 7. 58. Which of the following children would most likely exhibit the logic that characterizes Piaget’s preoperational period? a. Amy, who is 18 months old b. Lindsay, who is 4 years old c. Jane, who is 8 years old d. Martha, who is 14 years old Answer: b Rationale: Piaget’s preoperational period is generally thought to characterize the thinking of children between the ages of 2 and 7. 59. Which of Piaget’s developmental periods is divided into the preconceptual stage and the intuitive stage? a. sensorimotor period b. concrete operational period c. formal operational period d. preoperational period Answer: d Rationale: The preoperational period, as identified by Piaget, is divided into the preconceptual stage (ages 2-4) and the intuitive stage (ages 4-7). During the preoperational stage, children begin to develop symbolic representation and language skills but still lack the ability to perform operations, such as conservation and logical reasoning, which are characteristic of the concrete operational stage. 60. Kayla hugged her doll because she said that her doll was "crying." Her belief that her doll is alive illustrates the concept of: a. animism b. egocentrism c. artificialism d. centration Answer: a Rationale: Animism is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which all things that move are assumed to be alive and have human characteristics. Rationale: Reification refers to the tendency to treat abstract concepts or mental representations as if they were concrete objects or real entities. A child who believes that objects and people in their thoughts and dreams are real is displaying reification, as they are attributing reality to abstract mental constructs. 61. Jackie believes that her Teddy bears are really alive and that they can talk to her. This characteristic of her thought is best considered to be an example of Piaget’s concept of: a. egocentrism b. reification c. accommodation d. adaptation Answer: b Rationale: Reification is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child believes that people and objects in stories and dreams are real. 62. Robbie has a dream about a robot that hides under his bed and might eat him alive while he sleeps. Even though his father explains over and over that robots are not real, Robbie is still afraid and insists the robot might be real. Robbie’s thinking is best considered an example of: a. reification b. assimilation c. accommodation d. egocentrism Answer: a Rationale: Reification is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child believes that people and objects in stories and dreams are real. 63. A child who believes that objects and people in their thoughts and dreams are real is displaying what? a. animism b. reification c. egocentrism d. paranormal cognition Answer: b Rationale: Option b is correct. Reification refers to the tendency to treat abstract concepts or mental constructs as if they were tangible, real entities. In this case, the child is attributing reality to objects and people in their thoughts and dreams, demonstrating reification. 64. Molly is watching TV. She doesn’t understand that a child standing behind the TV set cannot see what is on the screen, because she assumes that the other child sees the same thing she does. Molly’s thinking is best considered an example of: a. reification b. animism c. symbolic representation d. egocentrism Answer: d Rationale: Egocentrism is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child views everything from a personal point of view rather than objectively. 65. Mr. Phillips assumes that everyone thinks about politics the same way he does. When people disagree with his views, he thinks they are just trying to make him angry. Even though he is an adult, Mr. Phillips’s thinking still is hampered by which of the following? a. symbolic representation b. animism c. egocentrism d. automaticity Answer: c Rationale: Egocentrism is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child views everything from a personal point of view rather than objectively. 66. Four-year-old Rose views everything in relation to herself. Her failure to understand another person’s perspective is best thought of as a consequence of: a. animism b. centration c. irreversibility d. egocentrism Answer: d Rationale: Egocentrism is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child views everything from a personal point of view rather than objectively. 67. The “mountain problem” described in the text is most often used to demonstrate the concept of: a. symbolic representation b. conservation of number c. conservation of volume d. egocentrism Answer: d Rationale: Egocentrism is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child views everything from a personal point of view rather than objectively. In the three-dimensional mountain problem, the preoperational child typically is unable to imagine how the mountains would appear from another perspective, for example, to a person sitting across the table. 68. Which of the following statements about the progress of development is correct? a. The intuitive stage occurs before the sensorimotor period. b. The intuitive stage occurs before the preconceptual stage. c. The preconceptual stage occurs before the sensorimotor period. d. The preconceptual stage occurs before the period of concrete operations. Answer: d Rationale: The order of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations. Within the preoperational stage, the preconceptual stage develops first, followed by the intuitive stage. 69. Which of the following is a correct statement of how children in the preconceptual stage are different from those in the intuitive stage? a. Children in the preconceptual stage are more egocentric. b. Children in the preconceptual stage are more likely to display animism in their thinking. c. Children in the preconceptual stage are more likely to display reification in their thinking. d. Children in the preconceptual stage are more likely to correctly solve the “mountain problem.” Answer: d Rationale: Piaget observed that preconceptual children still have difficulty with major categories of reality and display animism, reification, and egocentrism (in the “mountain problem” for example). In the intuitive (or transitional) period, Egocentrism eases somewhat, and intuitive children often can understand multiple points of view and how things relate to each other, although sometimes in an inconsistent and incomplete way. 70. According to the text, the most dramatic cognitive difference between infants and 2-year-olds is in their use of: a. animism b. reification c. automaticity d. symbolic representation Answer: d Rationale: The most dramatic cognitive difference between infants and 2-year-olds is in their use of symbolic representation. Infants primarily interact with the world through sensory experiences, while 2-year-olds begin to develop the ability to represent objects and events symbolically through language, pretend play, and other forms of symbolic communication. 71. Jose has just begun to understand that numbers, such as “1, 2, 3,” are connected conceptually to the number of objects on a table. Now when he is asked how many objects on the table, he holds up three fingers. Jose’s thinking in this instance is best considered an example of: a. symbolic representation b. reification c. egocentrism d. accommodation Answer: a Rationale: Symbolic representation refers to the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; it marks the emergence of the preoperational period. 72. Laura and Ted like to play “house,” a game they invented in which Laura pretends to be the “mother” and Ted the “father.” In this game, Laura cooks the food on a pretend stove and Ted takes out the pretend garbage. The ability to play this game relies most directly on which cognitive ability? a. egocentrism b. conservation c. reversibility d. symbolic representation Answer: d Rationale: Symbolic representation refers to the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; it marks the emergence of the preoperational period. 73. At which of the following ages are children typically the best at tasks involving symbolic representation? a. age 3 b. age 4 c. age 5 d. age 6 Answer: d Rationale: Children are typically the best at tasks involving symbolic representation at around age 6. At this age, children have developed more advanced language skills, imaginative abilities, and cognitive capacities, allowing them to engage in complex symbolic thinking and communication. 74. The term “sociocentric” is best thought of as the opposite of the term: a. egocentric b. collectivist c. individualist d. symbolic Answer: a Rationale: The development of symbolic thought helps children in interactions by allowing them to become more sensitive to the feelings and viewpoints of others. This sensitivity, in turn, helps them make the transition to less egocentric and more sociocentric thinking. 75. Suppose that a child is shown two rows of 8 pennies each. In one row the pennies are laid next to each other; in the other the pennies are spread out with more space between them. Now the child is asked to count the number of pennies in each row and then respond to the question, “Which row has more pennies?” This demonstration is most likely to be used to test the child’s: a. egocentrism b. symbolic representation skills c. conservation ability d. automaticity Answer: c Rationale: The term conservation refers to understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects and materials does not change their mass, volume, number, and so forth. 76. Suppose a child is shown a set of glass marbles that includes 5 red marbles and 8 green marbles. The child is asked to count the red marbles, then the green marbles, and then all the marbles, which she can do. Although she can answer the question, “Are there more red or green marbles?” she cannot correctly answer the question, “Are there more red marbles than glass marbles?” This situation most clearly demonstrates which of the following concepts? a. irreversibility b. egocentrism c. centration d. symbolic representation Answer: c Rationale: Centration is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which children display an inability to focus on more than one aspect of a situation at a time. 77. A child is presented with two identical balls of clay. As the child watches, one ball is rolled into a sausage, while the other remains untouched. The child is asked which has more clay, the sausage shape or the untouched ball of clay. This experiment most likely is testing which of the following concepts? a. seriation b. conservation c. egocentrism d. classification Answer: b Rationale: The term conservation refers to understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects and materials does not change their mass, volume, number, and so forth. 78. According to the text, one reason that young children often fail to correctly solve conservation problems is that they do not see them as logical problems; rather they see them as: a. perceptual problems b. social problems c. personal problems d. emotional problems Answer: a Rationale: One reason that young children often fail to correctly solve conservation problems is that they do not see them as logical problems; rather, they see them as perceptual problems. Young children are often influenced by the immediate sensory aspects of a situation, such as the appearance of objects, rather than considering underlying logical principles. 79. Mark can describe to his teacher how he walks from his house to the playground, where a bus picks him up, but he cannot describe how he would walk from the playground back to his house, because he has never done this. Mark’s thinking is best considered to be an example of: a. conservation of space b. irreversibility c. centration d. reification Answer: b Rationale: Irreversibility is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which children have an inability to think backwards, or to see how an event can be reversed. 80. The evaluation of Piaget’s theory presented in the text suggests that which of the following appears to be the most significant error in Piaget’s perspective? a. Piaget underestimated the competence of young children. b. Piaget overemphasized the emotional unsteadiness of young children. c. Piaget failed to differentiate between children who were given formal instruction and those who were not. d. Piaget did not appreciate the rather large gender differences that exist in children’s cognitive processes. Answer: a Rationale: The textbook notes that although Piaget’s general views have been supported, subsequent research has pointed out that children are probably more competent and their thinking is not as limited as his view suggests. 81. According to Lev Vygotsky, the process by which more experienced people transmit cultural information to children is called: a. conservation b. synchrony c. guided participation d. social referencing Answer: c Rationale: According to Lev Vygotsky, the process by which more experienced people transmit cultural information to children is called guided participation. This process involves scaffolding and supporting children's learning and development within the context of culturally meaningful activities and interactions. 82. When a young child learns to help fold laundry and put clothes away, cultural information is being transmitted. According to Vygotsky’s view, this is best considered to be an example of: a. conservation b. guided participation c. social referencing d. synchrony Answer: b Rationale: Most theorists today believe that the child’s understanding of the world is embedded in cultural knowledge. All cultures initiate children into activities through guided participation, and such interactions with others provide important information and guidance for children as they develop their cognitive abilities. Vygotsky emphasized that much of children’s cognitive growth takes place through guided participation, in what is called the zone of proximal development. 83. The difference between the child's actual developmental level and that child’s potential level of development if guided by adults or older peers is called the: a. intelligence quotient b. intellectual gap c. zone of potential development d. zone of proximal development Answer: d Rationale: The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between the child's actual developmental level, as determined by independent problem-solving abilities, and their potential level of development when supported and guided by more knowledgeable individuals, such as adults or older peers. 84. In comparison to Piaget’s view of cognitive development, Lev Vygotsky’s view put more emphasis on: a. gender differences between boys and girls b. whether children were raised in one-parent versus two-parent families c. social factors involved in learning d. egocentrism Answer: c Rationale: As noted in the text, a limitation of Piaget’s perspective is its rather narrow focus on the problem-solving aspects of cognitive development. Many contemporary theorists view cognitive developmental processes as also being social in nature, and they emphasize the important ways in which others in the child’s environment influence the development of the child’s thought processes. According to Vygotsky, children’s thinking and social skills develop by participating in activities that are slightly beyond their competence, provided they are given the assistance of others who are more skilled and knowledgeable. 85. One way of describing Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of childhood would be to note that Piaget saw children as ___________ whereas Vygotsky saw them as ____________. a. competent; incompetent b. little scientists; apprentices c. egocentric; sociocentric d. preoperational; postoperational Answer: b Rationale: Piaget viewed children as “little scientists,” learning through interactions with their physical environment. According to Vygotsky, children’s thinking and social skills develop by participating in activities that are slightly beyond their competence, provided they are given the assistance of others who are more skilled and knowledgeable. In other words, Vygotsky saw children as learning through apprenticeships with more skilled others. 86. Which of the following would define the lowest point in a child’s zone of proximal development, according to Vygotsky? a. the problem is too hard for the child to solve, even with help b. the child can solve the problem with no help from anyone c. the child can solve the problem, but only if someone helps with the solution d. the child can solve the problem without help 50% of the time Answer: b Rationale: The lowest point in a child’s zone of proximal development, according to Vygotsky, is when the child can solve the problem with no help from anyone. This represents tasks or skills that the child can already perform independently without assistance or guidance. 87. Which of the following would define the highest point in a child’s zone of proximal development, according to Vygotsky? a. The problem is too hard for the child to solve, even with help. b. The child can solve the problem with no help from anyone. c. The child can solve the problem, but only if someone helps with the solution. d. The child can solve the problem without help 50% of the time. Answer: c Rationale: The highest point in a child’s zone of proximal development, according to Vygotsky, is when the child can solve the problem, but only if someone helps with the solution. This represents tasks or skills that the child can accomplish with assistance or guidance from a more knowledgeable individual. 88. Dr. Larsen states that he likes to give his students just enough “hints” so that they can figure out how to solve a difficult problem with a minimum of guidance. Dr. Larsen’s approach best demonstrates the concept of: a. automaticity b. symbolic representation c. conservation d. scaffolding Answer: d Rationale: Scaffolding refers to the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate. 89. Rickie can’t figure out how to solve a math problem. His teacher gives Rickie a “hint” that helps him think a little differently about the problem, and now he solves it. Rickie’s teacher has used a technique best described as: a. scaffolding b. proximal development c. conservation d. symbolic representation Answer: a Rationale: Scaffolding refers to the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate. 90. According to the text, memory processes reach nearly adult capabilities by about what age? a. age 2 years b. age 5 years c. age 7 years d. age 10 years Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, memory processes reach nearly adult capabilities by about age 7 years. This includes improvements in memory capacity, retention, and retrieval abilities, allowing children to more effectively encode, store, and recall information in ways similar to adults. 91. According to the information-processing view of memory, human memory operates much like: a. a television camera b. a telephone c. a computer d. a refrigerator Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. The information-processing view of memory likens human memory to a computer, emphasizing processes such as encoding, storage, and retrieval, which parallel the functions of a computer in processing information. 92. According to the information-processing theory of memory, when a person is actively thinking about a problem, what part of the memory system is at work? a. the encoding mechanism b. the short-term memory c. the long-term memory d. the synaptic memory Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. When a person is actively thinking about a problem, the short-term memory is at work, where information is temporarily stored and actively manipulated. 93. If Lark is asked to tell her teacher what she had for breakfast that morning, this task would best be considered an example of: a. creative recollection b. recall c. recognition d. encoding Answer: b Rationale: Recall refers to the ability to retrieve stored information and memories with or without cues or prompts. 94. The best example of a recognition task would be: a. an essay test question b. a short-answer test question c. a multiple-choice test question d. remembering to write one’s name on the top of a test Answer: c Rationale: Recognition refers to the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again. 95. The best example of a recognition task would be: a. remembering what one had from breakfast b. remembering one’s phone number c. choosing the same tie from the closet that one wore yesterday d. reciting the Pledge of Allegiance without making a mistake Answer: c Rationale: Recognition refers to the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again. 96. The best example of a recall task would be: a. selecting the same type of pizza that you ordered the last time you had pizza b. answering a multiple choice question like this one c. looking at a picture and identifying the people who you had met at a party and those who were not there d. remembering where you parked your car in the parking lot at the shopping center Answer: d Rationale: Recall refers to the ability to retrieve stored information and memories with or without cues or prompts. 97. If you are presented with a series of photos and asked to select the photos of only those people who were in your high school graduating class, this task would primarily involve: a. recall b. relearning c. recognition d. functional subordination Answer: c Rationale: Recognition refers to the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again. 98. If you gave children a recall test and a recognition test, which group of children would probably perform the worst? a. younger children who had a recall test b. younger children who had a recognition test c. older children who had a recall test d. older children who had a recognition test Answer: a Rationale: In one classic study that compared recall versus recognition performance of younger and older children, in the recognition task where many objects were shown only once to children between the ages of 2 and 5, even the youngest children could correctly point to 81% of the objects as having been seen before; the older children recognized 92% of the objects. However, when children between the ages of 2 and 4 were asked to recall objects by naming them, 3-year-olds could name only 22% of the items and 4-year-olds only 40% (W. Schneider & Bjorklund, 1998). Subsequent research also has shown that younger children can be more easily lured away from correct recognitions by misleading questions. 99. If you gave children a recall test and a recognition test, which group of children would probably perform the best? a. younger children who had a recall test b. younger children who had a recognition test c. older children who had a recall test d. older children who had a recognition test Answer: d Rationale: In one classic study that compared recall versus recognition performance of younger and older children, in the recognition task where many objects were shown only once to children between the ages of 2 and 5, even the youngest children could correctly point to 81% of the objects as having been seen before; the older children recognized 92% of the objects. However, when children between the ages of 2 and 4 were asked to recall objects by naming them, 3-year-olds could name only 22% of the items and 4-year-olds only 40% (W. Schneider & Bjorklund, 1998). Subsequent research also has shown that younger children can be more easily lured away from correct recognitions by misleading questions. 100. Generalizing from research presented in the text, which of the following memory strategies would most likely lead a young child to the best recall of a group of common household items? a. remembering that the items are all stored in the same place (e.g., in the junk drawer) b. remembering that the items all begin with the same letter (e.g., the letter “b”) c. remembering that the items are all about the same size (e.g., all the size of a baseball) d. remembering that the items are all used for the same purpose (e.g., that they are all containers that hold things) Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, learning strategies that do appear to enhance children’s ability to remember often involve organizing information according to spatial, rather than concept-related, cues. 101. Which of the following is the best example of a script? a. listing items in alphabetic order b. arranging a set of items from largest to smallest in size c. recalling the order of tasks involved in starting a car d. drawing a picture of what a dog looks like Answer: c Rationale: It appears that children develop scripts for routine events, such as what happens at dinner time, what happens when they go to preschool, and so forth. These scripts, which serve as lists for what happens first, second, and so forth, provide a useful schema for remembering time-sequenced events. 102. Little Jason describes his morning routine: first he gets up, then he gets dressed, then he eats breakfast, and then he brushes his teeth. Jason’s memory of his morning activities is best considered to be an example of: a. a script b. encoding c. a recognition task d. egocentrism Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, scripts serve as lists for what happens first, second, and so forth, provide a useful schema for remembering time-sequenced events. Language Development 103. By age 6, most children have a working vocabulary of _____ words, and can understand more than ______ words. a. 250; 5,000 b. 1,100; 13,000 c. 2,600; 20,000 d. 10,000; 45,000 Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. By age 6, most children have a working vocabulary of around 2,600 words and can understand more than 20,000 words, reflecting significant language development during early childhood. 104. If Cathy is a typical 18-month-old child, her parents should expect that for the next several months she will learn about how many new words a day? a. 2 b. 9 c. 50 d. 85 Answer: b Rationale: As noted in the text, beginning at about 18 months of age, children learn an average of about 9 new words a day. 105. Suppose that Jalla is 3 years old. She understands the concept of “empty,” but not of “full.” Based on information presented in the text, your best conclusion about Jalla is that: a. she probably has a mild hearing problem b. she has mild mental retardation c. she is at increased risk for developing dyslexia d. she is normal Answer: d Rationale: As noted in the text, young children’s understanding of concepts is often incomplete. For example, they often understand one concept, such as more, much earlier than they know the word or the concept that contrasts with it, such as less. 106. Parker says, “I goed to the playground” instead of “I went to the playground.” This speech error is best considered an example of: a. automaticity b. functional subordination c. egocentrism d. overregularization Answer: d Rationale: Overregularization refers to children’s tendency to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions. This is typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies. 107. Which of the following is the best example of overregularization? a. “I am a big, big girl!” b. “No!” c. “I breaked the cup.” d. “I love my momma.” Answer: c Rationale: Overregularization refers to children’s tendency to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions. This is typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies. Here the “-ed” means the past action rule is generalized to a situation in which it does not apply. 108. What is the term used to refer to the language we use when we talk to ourselves? a. babbling b. recall c. collective monologue d. private speech Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. Private speech refers to the language we use when talking to ourselves, which is often observed in young children as they regulate their thoughts and actions. 109. Children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but during which children to do not necessarily talk about the same topic, are called: a. private speech b. individual monologues c. collective monologues d. dialogues Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. Collective monologues refer to children's conversations where they take turns talking but may not necessarily be talking about the same topic, reflecting early social interactions in language development. 110. Sam and Marty are having a conversation. Sam says that he just saw a big truck. Marty replies that his father is a doctor. Sam and Marty are engaging in a: a. collective monologue b. private conversation c. dialogue d. meaningful communication Answer: a Rationale: Very young children’s conversations are often collective monologues—two children appear to take turns speaking to each other, but they may be talking about entirely different, unrelated subjects. 111. When a child learns to speak in a hushed, quiet voice in church or at the library, what aspect of language is he learning? a. syntax b. semantics c. phonology d. pragmatics Answer: d Rationale: Pragmatics refers to the social and cultural aspects of language use. 112. When Madeline is in school, she knows that she should raise her hand and be called on by the teacher before speaking. Madeline has learned about the rules of: a. syntax b. phonology c. pragmatics d. semantics Answer: c Rationale: Pragmatics refers to the social and cultural aspects of language use. 113. The social and cultural aspects of language use are referred to by the term: a. grammar acquisition b. communication c. pragmatics d. cultural linguistics Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. Pragmatics refers to the social and cultural aspects of language use, including how language is used in different contexts and for different purposes. 114. Research on the development of gesturing suggests that gestures develop primarily as the result of: a. classical conditioning b. habituation c. biological programming d. egocentrism Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. Research suggests that gestures develop primarily as a result of biological programming, indicating an innate capacity for communication through nonverbal means. 115. Research presented in the text suggests that playing with which of the following types of toys appears to encourage the language development the most? a. with dolls b. with trucks c. with blocks d. with guns Answer: a Rationale: Option a is correct. Research suggests that playing with dolls appears to encourage language development the most, as it often involves imaginative play and opportunities for verbal interaction and storytelling. 116. Generalizing from the text, being bilingual is probably viewed most negatively by people in which of the following countries? a. India b. France c. Japan d. the United States Answer: d Rationale: The text states that bilingualism is usually considered an advantage in cultures that value knowing more than one language, for example, when it is associated with being a well-educated person. It is usually undervalued in societies where it is associated with immigrant status. The example given was how bilingualisms is associated with status and prestige in Europe, but not in the U. S. where immigrants are more common. This question calls on students to generalize from their knowledge of other areas of the world, where knowing English in particular is seen as a socially desirable ability. 117. The text reports a study that found that bilingual children in the U.S. and the U.K. scored lower on standardized tests than did monolingual English-speaking children. However, this result was suspect because: a. the study did not take into account the socioeconomic level of the children’s families b. the children were highly intelligent to begin with c. the second language was Japanese, which is a very difficult language for English-speakers to learn d. the bilingual children were older than the children who learned only English Answer: a Rationale: Option a is correct. The study's findings were suspect because it did not take into account the socioeconomic level of the children's families, which could have influenced the test scores and confounded the results. 118. Generalizing from research conclusions presented in the text, if given the choice, would you recommend that children be raised in bilingual environment? a. Yes b. No, because this will limit the size of their vocabulary c. No, because this will delay their learning to talk d. No, because this will make them more likely to develop reading problems Answer: a Rationale: Most research today supports the conclusion that linguistically, culturally, and probably cognitively, it is often an advantage to grow up bilingual. 119. According to the text, most research supports the conclusion that growing up bilingual: a. causes students to fall behind in their school work b. has many advantages for the student c. places unnecessary burdens on children d. causes serious learning disabilities Answer: b Rationale: Option b is correct. Most research supports the conclusion that growing up bilingual has many advantages for the student, including cognitive benefits such as enhanced executive function and problem-solving skills, as well as cultural and linguistic advantages. Play and Learning 120. According to Piaget, what is the child’s “work”: a. conservation b. symbolic representation c. elimination of egocentrism d. play Answer: d Rationale: Option d is correct. According to Piaget, play is considered the child's "work" because it is through play that children actively explore and make sense of their environment, learn new skills, and develop cognitive, social, and emotional abilities. 121. When Elizabeth and Hannah bang pots and pans together to experience new sounds, they are engaging in what type of play? a. rough-and-tumble b. dramatic c. sensory pleasure d. constructive Answer: c Rationale: Sensory pleasure refers to a type of play in which sensory experience is the goal in and of itself. This type of play teaches children essential facts about their bodies and the environment. 122. According to the text, what type of play is a child engaged in who splashes water in a birdbath? a. ritual play b. sensory pleasure play c. dramatic play d. play with motion Answer: b Rationale: Sensory pleasure refers to a type of play in which sensory experience is the goal in and of itself. This type of play teaches children essential facts about their bodies and the environment. 123. Running, jumping, and skipping are best considered to be examples of: a. sensory pleasure b. play with motion c. rough-and-tumble play d. play with language Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Running, jumping, and skipping are examples of play with motion, involving physical activity and movement exploration. 124. According to the text, play with physical objects, such as bouncing a ball, appears to: a. help them increase their knowledge of the world b. lessen the distinction that children make between “pretend” and “real” c. be used equally by boys and girls d. increase aggressiveness Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, play with objects helps children acquire information and build their knowledge. 125. Suppose you observe two children, sitting together and occasionally looking at each other, but not really interacting. Each is playing with her own toy. This type of play is called: a. symbolic play b. parallel play c. oppositional play d. independent play Answer: b Rationale: Parallel play refers to the play typically engaged in by 2-year-olds, which is characterized by each child playing independently, although in proximity to each other. 126. Suppose you observe two children, sitting together and occasionally looking at each other, but not really interacting. Each is playing with her own toy. If these children are typical for their age, about how old are they? a. one girl is probably 2 and the other much older, perhaps age 6 b. both girls are probably about 2 years old c. both girls are probably about 4 years old d. both girls are probably about 7 years old Answer: b Rationale: Parallel play refers to the play typically engaged in by 2-year-olds, which is characterized by each child playing independently, although in proximity to each other. 127. Generalizing from research presented in the text, if a 4-year-old was observed speaking to a 2-year-old, what kind of speech would the 4-year-old be most likely to use? a. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his mother b. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his older brother c. the same kind of speech he uses when talking to his preschool teacher d. a simpler version of his normal speech Answer: d Rationale: In one early study (M. Shatz & Gelman, 1973) researchers asked 4-year-olds to describe to 2-year-olds how a specific toy worked. Even 4-year-olds understood the need to address younger children in simpler terms. The researchers found that 4-year-olds spoke slowly; they used short sentences; they employed many attention-getting words, such as look and here; and they frequently repeated the child’s name. Four-year-olds did not speak to older children or adults in the same manner, indicating that they were able to understand the differing perspectives of others. 128. Parallel play is most likely to be displayed by which of the following children? a. a 2-year-old b. a 4-year-old c. a 6-year-old d. an 8-year-old Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, parallel play is typically engaged in by 2-year-olds, which is characterized by each child playing independently, although in proximity to each other 129. Which of the types of play is most directly linked to advancing the child’s skills with symbolic representation? a. dramatic play b. solitary play c. parallel play d. sensory play Answer: a Rationale: Option a is correct. Dramatic play, also known as pretend or imaginative play, involves the use of symbols and imagination to represent objects, roles, or situations, thereby advancing the child's skills with symbolic representation. 130. According to the text, dramatic play begins to be displayed in earnest at which of the following ages? a. age 2 b. age 4 c. age 6 d. age 8 Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Dramatic play begins to be displayed in earnest around age 4, as children develop the cognitive and imaginative abilities necessary for pretend play and symbolic representation. 131. Which of the following is not a good example of dramatic play? a. imitation of a parent’s behavior b. reading a book c. pretending to be a clown d. role playing the role of “teacher” Answer: b Rationale: Dramatic play develops at about age 3 or 4 and is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing. 132. Sara and James are 2 years old and are playing near each other. Sara is pretending to be a princess, while James is pretending to be a fireman. According to the text, what type of play are they engaging in? a. dramatic play b. selfish play c. cooperative play d. egocentric play Answer: a Rationale: Dramatic play develops at about age 3 or 4 and is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing. 133. The text suggests that children benefit from playing with other children who are older and younger than they are. Why? a. Older children can model for younger children, providing scaffolding. b. Older children teach rules of discipline better than same-age children. c. Younger children allow children to escape reality, thereby fostering dramatic play. d. Younger children help older children practice their language skills better than same-age children. Answer: a Rationale: As noted in the text, mixed-age peer groups can offer older children the opportunity to practice teaching and child care with younger children, and younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children. As noted earlier in the chapter, the most effective instruction involves scaffolding, which is the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate. This finding makes clear the significance of having older children as role models for those who are younger. Current Issues: A Theory of Mind 134. The text describes an experiment where 3- and 5-year-old children were shown two objects that were identical except one was red and the other was blue. The children were then given one of the objects that was inside a tube so the child could feel, but not see, it. This experiment is one that was devised to test the concept of: a. animism b. the mountain problem c. the theory of mind d. automaticity Answer: c Rationale: This is a theory of mind problem because it focuses on how children’s cognitive processes change as they age. 135. Suppose that young children are asked what is most likely to be inside a small dog cage. They say “a dog.” When they look inside, they see a chicken. To test the children’s theory of mind, what would they likely be asked next? a. What color is a chicken? b. What do chickens and dogs have in common? c. If your friend came in the room and was asked what was in the dog cage, what would he guess? d. Which would make a better pet, a dog or a chicken? Answer: c Rationale: False belief tasks are often used to study the limits of children’s thinking. A very similar example of a false belief task was described on page 166 of the text. It takes a while for children to understand that we have beliefs based on our experience, and that sometimes those beliefs are false because we do not have enough evidence. 136. According to the text, which of the following groups of 3- to 5-year-old children would be most likely to have difficulty solving theory of mind problems? a. children who were raised in collectivist cultures, such as Japan b. children who were raised in individualist cultures, such as the United States c. children with schizophrenia d. children who had not attended preschool Answer: c Rationale: Option c is correct. Children with schizophrenia are more likely to have difficulty solving theory of mind problems, as schizophrenia can impact cognitive and social functioning, including the ability to understand others' perspectives and mental states. Changing Perspectives: Bilingual Kindergarten and Play 137. Juan and Maria move to the United States from Mexico, where they begin school. From their first day, they are placed in an English-speaking classroom in which no Spanish is spoken. This method of teaching a second language would best exemplify which of the following models? a. immersion b. English as a Second Language c. two-way bilingual education d. trial-by-fire language learning Answer: a Rationale: One bilingual education model, which often is called an inclusion or immersion model, involves classes taught exclusively in English. In this model, non-English-speaking children are immersed in the majority language, with the idea that they will eventually learn it out of necessity. 138. Jack’s family moves to Japan, where he attends a school in which most of the instruction is done in both English and Japanese, which he learns to use as he plays with other children. This type of instruction is best thought of as an example of: a. immersion language learning b. two-way bilingual education c. the “English as a Second Language” approach d. the symbolic-social pyramid approach Answer: b Rationale: In the two-way bilingual education model, children are taught in their own language but ample opportunities are created for different language groups to interact, which requires all members of the class to learn a second language. True-False questions: Physical Development 139. Young children typically gain an average of 4 ½ pounds and almost 3 inches per year during early childhood. Answer: True Rationale: True. During early childhood, children experience rapid physical growth. On average, they gain about 4 ½ pounds and almost 3 inches in height per year during this period, reflecting significant changes in their body size and proportions. 140. During the brain growth spurt of early childhood, new neural connections are established and unneeded neural connections are pruned away. Answer: True Rationale: True. During the brain growth spurt of early childhood, which typically occurs between the ages of 2 and 6 years, new neural connections are established through processes such as synaptogenesis, while unnecessary or unused connections are pruned away through synaptic pruning, leading to more efficient neural functioning. 141. In the United States about 90% of children are right-handed, but in less developed countries this percentage is considerably less. Answer: False Rationale: Around the world, the percentage of children who are right-handed is about 90%. 142. Handedness is of special significance to developmentalists because it is directly tied to how rapidly a child’s vocabulary develops. Answer: False Rationale: Handedness is of interest because it is tied to brain lateralization. Lateralization is linked to language, in that language appears to be a lateralized function, especially for right-handed people. However, lateralization is not linked to the speed with which vocabulary develops. Motor Skills Development 143. Automaticity in motor development is achieved when the child can perform an action without consciously thinking about it. Answer: True Rationale: True. Automaticity in motor development refers to the ability to perform motor behaviors without conscious effort or deliberate thought. As motor skills become more practiced and ingrained through repetition, they become automatic, allowing the child to execute them without needing to consciously think about each step. 144. Functional subordination refers to the idea that gross motor skills are acquired before fine motor skills are learned. Answer: False Rationale: Functional subordination is the integration of a number of separate, simple actions or schemas into a more complex pattern of behavior. 145. Fine motor skills include such tasks as writing and handling eating utensils. Answer: True Rationale: True. Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscle movements, typically involving the hands and fingers. Tasks such as writing, drawing, buttoning clothes, and handling eating utensils require fine motor skills, highlighting their importance in daily activities and development. 146. By 5 years of age, a typical child can throw a ball “overhanded.” Answer: True Rationale: True. By the age of 5, most children have developed the motor skills necessary to throw a ball overhanded with reasonable accuracy and coordination. This milestone in motor development reflects improvements in gross motor skills and hand-eye coordination during early childhood. 147. Four-year-old Angela knows the alphabet and the sounds that correspond to many of the letters. She has begun to sit with a book and “pretends” to read by telling the story that goes with each page. The term that describes Angela’s current state is “readiness.” Answer: True Rationale: True. Angela's ability to recognize letters, associate sounds with them, and engage in pretend reading by narrating stories from a book demonstrates readiness for literacy development. Readiness refers to the stage at which a child has acquired the foundational skills and cognitive abilities necessary for further learning and development in a particular area. 148. When a child attempts to accomplish a task in order to receive praise from her teacher or parent, this is an example of intrinsic motivation. Answer: False Rationale: Working for praise, which is a reward, is an example of extrinsic, not intrinsic, motivation. Cognitive Development 149. Piaget’s preoperational period involves development first through the intuitive period and then the preconceptual period. Answer: False Rationale: In the preoperational stage, the child first enters the preconceptual period (from about age 2 to 4 or 5) and then moves into the intuitive period (age 4 or 5 to age 7). 150. When a child finds it difficult to understand another person’s feelings or perceptions, this is a good example of Piaget’s concept called concrete operations. Answer: False Rationale: The inability to take another’s point of view defines egocentrism. 151. The development of symbolic representation marks the emergence of the preoperational period. Answer: True Rationale: True. The preoperational period, according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, is characterized by the emergence of symbolic representation, which allows children to mentally represent objects, actions, and ideas through symbols such as words, images, and gestures. This marks a significant milestone in cognitive development during early childhood. 152. When a child cannot correctly answer the question, “Are there more boys or more children in this classroom?” this is a good example of the limits of egocentric thinking. Answer: False Rationale: The problem noted is a classic problem related to the development of conservation, not egocentrism. Egocentrism refers to the child’s inability to understand another person’s perspective. 153. Critics of Piaget’s theory note that children depend more on social perspectives than Piaget thought and that children are less competent and more immature than Piaget believed. Answer: False Rationale: Critics of Piaget do note that he underestimated the significance of social perspectives, but also note that he probably underestimated the competence of children. 154. The lower limit of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is determined by a child’s competence when solving the problem alone. Answer: True Rationale: True. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the range of tasks that a child cannot yet perform independently but can learn to do with the guidance and support of a more knowledgeable individual, such as a teacher or peer. The lower limit of the ZPD is determined by the child's current level of competence when solving the problem alone, while the upper limit is determined by the child's potential level of competence with assistance. 155. The progressive structuring of tasks so that their difficulty is appropriate for a child is called scaffolding. Answer: True Rationale: True. Scaffolding refers to the process of providing structured support and guidance to a child as they learn new skills or concepts. This support is gradually adjusted or removed as the child gains competence, allowing them to eventually perform the task independently. Scaffolding ensures that tasks are appropriately challenging for the child's current level of development, facilitating learning and skill acquisition. 156. The information-processing perspective conceptualizes memory as operating like a computer. Answer: True Rationale: True. The information-processing perspective views memory as operating similarly to a computer, with processes such as encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. This perspective emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in memory functioning, including attention, perception, and rehearsal, and often uses computer analogies to describe how information is processed and stored in memory. 157. Working memory is also sometimes called long-term memory. Answer: False Rationale: Working memory is also called short-term memory. 158. Multiple choice test questions are a good example of a task that requires recall. Answer: False Rationale: Multiple choice questions involve recognition, not recall, because the correct answer is presented and need only be selected. The person does not need to recall the correct answer; only find it. 159. Young children have special difficulty remembering information that is organized temporally (in a time-based sequence). Answer: False Rationale: Young children find it easier to remember events when they are organized by time-based scripts, in which events are recalled in the order in which they occur. Language Development 160. Beginning at age 18 months, children learn an average of 25 new words a day. Answer: False Rationale: At this age, children are learning an average of about 9 new words a day. 161. When a child talks in simple 2- or 3-word sentences, such as “Me do it!” this is referred to as overregularization. Answer: False Rationale: Speaking in short, abbreviated sentences is called “telegraphic speech.” Overregularization refers to the application of rules to speech, with exceptions to rules being learned later. An example would be a young child saying “I goed there” instead of “I went there.” 162. If a young child is seen to be talking to himself, this is an example of private speech. Answer: True Rationale: Private speech refers to the phenomenon where children talk to themselves as a way to regulate their thoughts and actions. This self-directed speech is often observed during tasks requiring problem-solving or decision-making. It helps children internalize language, plan actions, and control behavior. Thus, if a young child is talking to himself, it is indeed an example of private speech. 163. If two children are playing together and one says, “I think this doll is hungry” and the other responds, “I want to wear a hat,” this is a good demonstration of what is meant by the term collective monologue. Answer: True Rationale: Collective monologue refers to a conversation between children that lacks true dialogue. In this scenario, each child is expressing their own thoughts without acknowledging or responding to the other's statements. While it may appear as though they are conversing, they are not truly engaging in reciprocal communication. Thus, the exchange described fits the definition of collective monologue. 164. Research presented in the text suggests that one reason that girls may develop language abilities earlier than boys is that their play is more language-rich. Answer: True Rationale: Research has indeed suggested that girls' play tends to be more language-rich compared to boys'. Girls often engage in activities such as pretend play, storytelling, and nurturing roles that involve extensive verbal communication. These language-rich experiences contribute to the development of vocabulary, syntax, and conversational skills, potentially leading to earlier language development in girls compared to boys. 165. It seems likely that, even if socioeconomic conditions are similar, children who grow up in a bilingual environment still suffer from slower language development. Answer: False Rationale: Although studies sometimes show that bilingual children develop language more slowly, the text suggests that this is due to uncontrolled socioeconomic differences between bilingual children and children raised in a monolingual setting. The text concludes that it is probably an advantage for children to grow up in a bilingual environment. Play and Learning 166. Children generally develop a preference for dramatic play before they are able to engage in parallel play to any great degree. Answer: False Rationale: Parallel play, in which children play by themselves while in proximity to another child, develops before dramatic play does. 167. The development of dramatic play is directly linked to the child’s ability to understand problems involving conservation. Answer: False Rationale: Dramatic play is directly tied to the child’s understanding of symbolic representation, since it involves the ability to pretend. Conservation tasks, while they develop as a consequence of the child’s increasing cognitive abilities, do not directly limit or contribute to the development of dramatic play. 168. Role playing encourages cognitive development because it allows a child to experiment with a variety of behaviors and experience the consequences and emotions that come with them. Answer: True Rationale: Role-playing is a valuable activity for cognitive development as it enables children to take on different roles, perspectives, and scenarios. Through role-playing, children can explore social roles, problem-solving strategies, and emotional regulation. They learn to anticipate consequences, understand others' perspectives, and develop empathy. Thus, role-playing indeed encourages cognitive development by providing opportunities for experiential learning and socio-emotional growth. Short Answer questions: Physical Development 169. Give an example of how physical development and cognitive development interact. Answer: Example: Crawling and object permanence. As a baby develops physically and gains the ability to crawl, they can explore their environment more freely. This physical milestone also coincides with cognitive development, particularly the understanding of object permanence. As the baby moves around and interacts with objects, they begin to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. The ability to crawl facilitates this cognitive understanding, as the baby actively searches for hidden objects, linking physical exploration with cognitive development. 170. Describe what it means to state that brain development and cognitive development interact. Give an example of what is meant by the term “interaction” in this context. Answer: Brain development and cognitive development interact in a reciprocal and intertwined manner, influencing each other throughout a child's growth. Brain development provides the foundation for cognitive abilities, while cognitive experiences shape the ongoing development of the brain's structure and function. An example of interaction between brain and cognitive development is language acquisition. As a child learns new words and language skills through cognitive experiences such as interaction with caregivers and exposure to language-rich environments, neural connections in the brain associated with language processing strengthen and expand. Conversely, as the brain matures and neural networks related to language development become more efficient, the child's cognitive abilities in language comprehension and production improve, demonstrating the reciprocal relationship between brain and cognitive development. 171. Describe the two processes that occur during the brain growth spurt during early childhood. Answer: During the brain growth spurt of early childhood, two main processes occur: synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning. 1. Synaptogenesis: This process involves the formation of new neural connections, or synapses, between neurons in the brain. As the brain grows and develops, neurons extend dendrites and axons to form connections with other neurons, increasing the complexity of neural networks. Synaptogenesis is crucial for the establishment of neural circuits that underlie various cognitive functions, such as learning, memory, and language processing. 2. Synaptic pruning: Synaptic pruning involves the elimination of unnecessary or underused synapses, streamlining neural circuits and enhancing the efficiency of neural transmission. During early childhood, synaptic pruning refines and fine-tunes the connections between neurons, eliminating redundant or inefficient synapses while strengthening those that are frequently activated. This process helps to sculpt the developing brain, optimizing its structure and function for more sophisticated cognitive abilities. 172. What is meant by the term “lateralization” when it is used to describe brain development. Give an example of a function that is lateralized. Answer: Lateralization in brain development refers to the specialization of functions in the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Each hemisphere tends to dominate certain cognitive functions. For example, language processing is typically lateralized to the left hemisphere, while spatial processing often occurs more dominantly in the right hemisphere. 173. Why is early intervention usually better than later intervention when providing support to at-risk children? Answer: Early intervention is typically better than later intervention when providing support to at-risk children because early developmental stages offer a critical window of opportunity for shaping neural pathways and behaviors. Intervening early allows for the greatest potential for positive outcomes, as it can prevent or mitigate the escalation of problems and provide children with the necessary skills and support to thrive academically, socially, and emotionally. Motor Skills Development 174. Distinguish between gross motor skills and fine motor skills and give an example of each. Answer: Gross motor skills involve the coordination of large muscle groups and the movement of the whole body. Examples include walking, running, jumping, and throwing. Fine motor skills, on the other hand, involve the coordination of smaller muscle groups and precise movements, typically of the hands and fingers. Examples include drawing, writing, buttoning clothes, and using utensils. Original Question 172: What is meant by the term “lateralization” when it is used to describe brain development. Give an example of a function that is lateralized. Original Question 173: Why is early intervention usually better than later intervention when providing support to at-risk children? Original Question 174: Distinguish between gross motor skills and fine motor skills and give an example of each. 175. Define the concept of automaticity and give an example that demonstrates this ability. Answer: Automaticity refers to the ability to perform a task or behavior with little or no conscious effort or awareness, often as a result of repeated practice or learning. An example of automaticity is driving a car. Initially, learning to drive requires focused attention and conscious effort to coordinate various tasks such as steering, braking, and shifting gears. However, with practice, these actions become automatic, requiring minimal cognitive effort, allowing drivers to focus on other aspects of driving or even engage in unrelated thoughts while driving. 176. Give an example of what is meant by the term “functional subordination.” Answer: Functional subordination refers to the organization of a group or system in which each component serves a specific function and is subordinate to a larger purpose or goal. An example of functional subordination can be seen in a manufacturing assembly line. In an assembly line, various tasks are performed sequentially, with each worker or machine responsible for a specific function, such as attaching a particular part to a product. Each task is functionally subordinate to the overall goal of producing the final product efficiently and accurately. 177. Identify three ways in which a 2-year-old’s motor abilities are different from those of a 6-year-old child. Answer: 1. Gross motor skills: At age 2, children are still developing basic gross motor skills such as walking, running, and jumping. By age 6, these skills have typically become more refined, and children can demonstrate greater balance, coordination, and agility in activities like skipping, hopping on one foot, and playing sports. 2. Fine motor skills: Two-year-olds are in the early stages of developing fine motor skills such as grasping objects, scribbling, and stacking blocks. By age 6, children have typically developed more precise fine motor control, enabling them to write letters and numbers, manipulate small objects with increased dexterity, and engage in activities such as drawing detailed pictures or building intricate structures. 3. Spatial awareness and coordination: Two-year-olds may still struggle with spatial awareness and hand-eye coordination, leading to imprecise movements and difficulties in tasks requiring precise manipulation or navigation. By age 6, children have typically improved spatial awareness and coordination, allowing them to navigate their environment more confidently, engage in activities that require greater precision, and perform tasks that involve complex motor sequences with greater accuracy. 178. Define the term "readiness" and give an example of this concept. Answer: Readiness refers to a state of preparedness or suitability to engage in a particular activity or learning experience. It suggests that individuals are mentally, emotionally, or physically prepared to undertake a task or acquire new knowledge. For instance, a child who has developed basic motor skills and language comprehension may exhibit readiness for formal schooling, indicating their ability to engage effectively in educational activities. 179. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and give an example of each. Answer: Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for the inherent satisfaction or pleasure derived from the activity itself, without any external rewards. For example, someone who enjoys painting as a hobby purely for the joy of creating art exhibits intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves engaging in an activity to attain external rewards or avoid punishment, rather than for the inherent enjoyment of the activity. An example of extrinsic motivation is a student studying hard to earn good grades or praise from teachers, rather than out of genuine interest in the subject matter. Cognitive Development 180. Differentiate between animism and reification and give an example of each. Answer: Animism is the attribution of human-like qualities, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities, such as objects, animals, or natural phenomena. For instance, a child might believe that their stuffed toy has feelings and can understand them, demonstrating animism. Reification, on the other hand, involves regarding an abstract concept or hypothetical construct as if it were a concrete, tangible thing. An example of reification is treating "justice" as if it were a physical entity with specific characteristics, rather than a complex concept subject to interpretation and context. 181. Describe the “mountain problem” and suggest how egocentrism limits the child’s ability to correctly solve this problem. Answer: The "mountain problem" refers to an experiment conducted by Jean Piaget where children were shown a miniature model of a three-dimensional mountain landscape from different perspectives. They were then asked to select a picture that represented what someone else would see from a different angle. Egocentrism limits the child's ability to solve this problem because they struggle to take another person's perspective into account. Instead, they project their own viewpoint onto others, assuming that others see the same things they do. 182. Define what is meant by the term “theory of mind.” Answer: "Theory of mind" refers to the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that may differ from one's own. It involves understanding that individuals have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that influence their behaviors. 183. Describe a typical conservation problem and suggest how a child in Piaget’s preoperational stage would solve this differently than would an older child. Answer: A typical conservation problem involves understanding that certain properties of objects remain constant despite changes in their appearance. For example, in the conservation of liquid task, children are shown two glasses with equal amounts of liquid. Then, one of the glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass. The child is asked whether the amount of liquid has changed. A child in Piaget's preoperational stage might focus solely on the appearance of the liquid level and say that the taller glass has more liquid, failing to understand conservation. In contrast, an older child, in Piaget's concrete operational stage, would recognize that the amount of liquid remains the same regardless of the changes in appearance. They would understand the principle of conservation and correctly state that the amount remains unchanged. 184. Give an example of what the problem of “irreversibility” involves. Answer: The problem of "irreversibility" in cognitive development refers to the inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or operations. For example, a child who pours water from a short, wide cup into a tall, narrow glass might think there is more water in the taller glass, despite having witnessed the transfer. They cannot mentally reverse the action to understand that the amount of water remains the same. 185. Define the term “scaffolding” and give an example of how parents can provide scaffolding assistance to their children as the children learn new complex tasks. Answer: "Scaffolding" refers to the support provided by parents, teachers, or more knowledgeable peers to help children accomplish tasks that are just beyond their current capabilities. An example of scaffolding is a parent helping their child learn to ride a bike. Initially, the parent might hold onto the bike to provide balance and stability, gradually releasing support as the child gains confidence and skill. 186. What did Vygotsky mean when he argued that children learn through guided participation? Answer: Vygotsky proposed that children learn through guided participation, which means they acquire knowledge and skills by actively participating in culturally relevant activities with the guidance of more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents, teachers, or peers. In this process, the more knowledgeable individuals provide support, encouragement, and instruction, gradually transferring responsibility to the child as they develop competence in the task or concept. 187. Give an example of a recognition task and an example of a recall task. What is the essential difference between these two types of tasks? Answer: • Recognition task: A multiple-choice test where you are asked to select the correct answer from a list of options is an example of a recognition task. For instance, being shown a list of presidents and being asked to identify Abraham Lincoln. • Recall task: Writing an essay or providing a detailed answer without any cues or options is an example of a recall task. For example, being asked to recall the names of all the presidents without any prompts. The essential difference between these tasks lies in the presence or absence of cues or options. Recognition tasks provide cues or options to aid memory retrieval, while recall tasks require retrieving information from memory without any external assistance. 188. What type of scripts do young children find most helpful when they are trying to learn about events? Give an example of how a child might use this type of script. Answer: Young children find action-based scripts most helpful when learning about events. These scripts focus on the sequence of actions involved in an event. For example, a child learning about going to the grocery store might use an action-based script that includes steps like entering the store, pushing a shopping cart, selecting items from shelves, checking out at the register, and leaving the store. This type of script helps children understand the order and actions involved in specific events, aiding in their comprehension and memory retention. Language Development 189. Define “overregularization” and give an example of this type of speech. Answer: Overregularization refers to the linguistic phenomenon where children apply grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in errors such as using regular verb forms where irregular forms are required. Example of overregularization: Saying "I goed to the park" instead of "I went to the park." Here, the child incorrectly applies the regular past tense "-ed" suffix to the irregular verb "go," demonstrating overregularization. 190. What are the characteristics of two types of speaking behavior exhibited by young children? Answer: • Private speech: This refers to the habit of children talking to themselves as they engage in activities or solve problems. It's often observed during tasks where children are attempting to regulate their behavior, plan actions, or work through challenges. It can be whispered or spoken aloud and typically diminishes as children grow older and internalize their thoughts. • Collective monologues: This occurs when children engage in conversation but talk past each other rather than truly conversing. Each child is primarily focused on expressing their own thoughts and does not fully respond to the other's input. It demonstrates an early stage of social understanding and often occurs around the age of three or four. 191. Define the term "pragmatics" as it is used to describe speech. Give two examples of how pragmatics influences how speech develops. Answer: • Pragmatics refers to the understanding and use of language in social contexts, including the rules for appropriate language use and how context affects interpretation. It involves understanding the intentions behind speech, the roles of speakers and listeners, and the appropriate use of language in various situations. • Example 1: Turn-taking: Pragmatics dictates when it's appropriate to speak and when to listen, influencing the development of conversational skills such as taking turns during a conversation. • Example 2: Politeness strategies: Pragmatic rules govern how politeness is expressed in language, affecting the development of polite speech acts such as saying "please" and "thank you" appropriately in different social contexts. 192. How might cultural differences between nations influence how bilingual children are viewed? Answer: • Cultural perceptions: In some cultures, bilingualism may be highly valued and seen as a positive attribute, indicating cultural diversity and adaptability. In contrast, in cultures where linguistic homogeneity is preferred, bilingualism might be viewed with skepticism or as a sign of divided loyalty. • Educational policies: Cultural attitudes towards bilingualism can influence educational policies, impacting how bilingual children are supported in schools. In nations where bilingualism is celebrated, there may be more resources allocated to bilingual education programs. Conversely, in cultures where monolingualism is favored, bilingual children might face pressure to conform to the dominant language, potentially leading to language loss or identity conflicts. Play and Learning 193. Describe the differences between parallel play and dramatic play. Answer: Parallel play involves children playing alongside each other without significant interaction or engagement in a shared activity. Each child may be focused on their own toys or activities without actively involving others. In contrast, dramatic play involves children engaging in imaginative role-playing activities where they take on different roles, create scenarios, and interact with each other through storytelling and pretending. While parallel play emphasizes individual activities in proximity to others, dramatic play encourages cooperative engagement and imagination. 194. What advantages are associated with children’s play groups that include children of different ages, as opposed to those that are age-segregated? Answer: Playgroups that include children of different ages offer several advantages over age-segregated ones. Firstly, they foster a sense of community and inclusivity, where older children can mentor younger ones and younger children can learn from their older peers. This intergenerational interaction promotes empathy, social skills, and a sense of responsibility among children. Additionally, mixed-age playgroups provide diverse perspectives and experiences, enriching the play environment and encouraging creativity and problem-solving. Overall, such groups support holistic development and create a more dynamic and supportive play atmosphere compared to age-segregated ones. Essay questions: Physical Development 195. Comment on the accuracy of the following statement: “Bob is left-brained and that is why he is so good at solving math problems, whereas Linda is right-brained, so she is good at artistic pursuits.” Answer: This statement reflects an oversimplified and outdated understanding of brain lateralization. While certain functions may be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other, such as language being more left-lateralized in many individuals, the idea that people are strictly "left-brained" or "right-brained" is overly simplistic. Cognitive abilities, including mathematical and artistic skills, involve complex networks across both hemispheres of the brain, and individual differences in skill are influenced by various factors beyond just hemispheric dominance. 196. Why are left-handed people more likely to be ambidextrous than right-handed people? Answer: Left-handed individuals often face environments designed for right-handed individuals, which may encourage the development of ambidexterity as they adapt to tools and tasks not optimized for their dominant hand. This adaptation could lead to greater dexterity in their non-dominant hand compared to right-handed individuals who face less pressure to develop ambidextrous skills. 197. Describe the research that looks at prenatal thumb-sucking as a precursor to the development of handedness. What conclusions should be drawn from this research? Answer: Research into prenatal thumb-sucking as a precursor to handedness suggests that there may be a connection between motor behavior in utero and laterality preferences. Studies have found correlations between the frequency of thumb-sucking in utero and handedness later in life. However, these findings are correlational and do not establish causation. While it's intriguing to consider prenatal influences on handedness, more research is needed to understand the complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and developmental factors that contribute to the establishment of handedness. 198. Why would it be desirable to begin interventions programs for at-risk children earlier, rather than later, in development? Answer: It is desirable to begin intervention programs for at-risk children earlier in development because early intervention can significantly impact long-term outcomes. Early childhood is a critical period of rapid brain development and neural plasticity, during which interventions have the greatest potential to influence cognitive, social, and emotional development. By targeting at-risk children during this sensitive period, interventions can mitigate the effects of risk factors, promote healthy development, and prevent or minimize the emergence of later difficulties or disorders. Additionally, early interventions are often more cost-effective and yield greater benefits compared to interventions implemented later in development, as they can prevent the need for more intensive and costly interventions in the future. Motor Skills Development 199. Define the term “automaticity” and describe how a 2-year-old is different with respect to this trait than a 6-year-old. Answer: Automaticity refers to the ability to perform a task or behavior with little or no conscious effort or attention, typically as a result of extensive practice and repetition. In other words, automaticity reflects the degree to which a behavior becomes habitual and ingrained, requiring minimal cognitive resources to execute. A 2-year-old differs from a 6-year-old with respect to automaticity in motor skills. At the age of 2, a child is in the early stages of acquiring motor skills, and tasks such as walking, running, and grasping objects may require conscious effort and attention. The child's movements may be less coordinated, and they may need to concentrate on each step of the action. In contrast, by the age of 6, a child has had several more years of practice and experience with motor skills. As a result, many motor behaviors have become automatic for the 6-year-old. They can walk, run, and manipulate objects with greater ease and fluidity, requiring less conscious thought or effort to perform these actions. Their movements are more refined and coordinated, reflecting the development of automaticity in motor skills over time. 200. Give two examples of functional subordination, one that involves gross motor skills and one that involves fine motor skills. Answer: Functional subordination refers to the integration and coordination of different motor skills to achieve a specific goal or task. It involves the sequential organization of motor actions, where each component skill contributes to the overall performance of the task. Example involving gross motor skills: Imagine a child riding a bicycle. Riding a bicycle involves the functional subordination of various gross motor skills, such as balancing, pedaling, steering, and coordinating movements. Each of these motor skills contributes to the overall ability to ride a bike successfully. For instance, balancing on the bike requires the coordination of leg muscles to pedal while maintaining stability, and steering involves using arm muscles to guide the direction of the bike. Example involving fine motor skills: Consider a child tying their shoelaces. Tying shoelaces involves the functional subordination of fine motor skills, including grasping, pinching, and manipulating small objects. The child must use their fingers to manipulate the laces, form loops, and tie knots in a specific sequence. Each fine motor skill is coordinated and integrated to successfully complete the task of tying shoelaces, demonstrating functional subordination in fine motor skills. 201. Discuss what is meant by the concept of “readiness” and suggest how a parent can become aware of when a child is “ready” to learn something new. Give an example that demonstrates the points you make in your answer. Answer: Readiness refers to a child's developmental readiness or preparedness to acquire new skills or knowledge. It involves a combination of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social factors that influence a child's ability to successfully engage with and learn new concepts. Parents can become aware of a child's readiness by observing their child's interests, behaviors, and developmental milestones. Signs of readiness may include showing curiosity about a topic, demonstrating related skills or abilities, expressing eagerness to learn, and displaying appropriate attention and focus. For example, if a child shows a keen interest in drawing and begins to demonstrate basic hand-eye coordination, they may be ready to start learning how to write letters or numbers. 202. List and describe four conditions that are involved in learning motor skills and give an example of each. Answer: Four conditions involved in learning motor skills include: 1. Practice: Repetitive engagement in motor activities to develop and refine skills. For example, a child practices riding a bicycle to improve their balance and coordination. 2. Feedback: Receiving information about performance to guide skill refinement. For instance, a tennis coach provides feedback on a player's swing technique to enhance their tennis skills. 3. Guidance: Instruction or assistance from others to support skill acquisition. An example is a parent teaching a child how to tie their shoelaces by demonstrating and guiding their hands through the steps. 4. Maturation: Developmental changes within the individual that influence motor skill acquisition. For instance, a toddler's increasing muscle strength and coordination contribute to their ability to climb stairs independently. 203. Suggest how both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation contribute to the development of a child’s motor skills. Be sure to distinguish clearly what is meant by each of these types of motivation. Answer: Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment derived from the activity itself. In contrast, extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity for external rewards or to avoid punishment. Both types of motivation can contribute to the development of a child's motor skills. Intrinsic motivation fosters a genuine interest and passion for practicing and improving motor skills, leading to sustained engagement and skill refinement. For example, a child may enjoy playing soccer because they find joy in the game itself, leading them to practice kicking and dribbling skills independently. Extrinsic motivation, such as praise, rewards, or recognition from others, can also incentivize children to engage in motor skill activities and persist in their efforts to improve. For instance, a child may be motivated to participate in a relay race at school to earn a medal or trophy, which encourages them to develop and enhance their running skills. Cognitive Development 204. Describe how a child moves through the preconceptual and intuitive periods within Piaget’s preoperational stage, suggesting how cognitive processes change as the child moves from the first to the second period in this stage. Question: Describe how a child moves through the preconceptual and intuitive periods within Piaget’s preoperational stage, suggesting how cognitive processes change as the child moves from the first to the second period in this stage. Answer: In Piaget's preoperational stage, children progress through two sub-stages: the preconceptual stage (2-4 years) and the intuitive stage (4-7 years). In the preconceptual stage, children engage in symbolic play and represent objects with words and images, but their thinking is primarily egocentric and lacks logical reasoning. As they transition to the intuitive stage, cognitive processes evolve as children begin to grasp cause-and-effect relationships and understand concepts such as conservation and reversibility. They start to ask questions and seek explanations for phenomena, showing a more intuitive understanding of the world around them. 205. How does egocentrism limit a child’s thought? Question: How does egocentrism limit a child’s thought? Answer: Egocentrism limits a child's thought by causing them to perceive the world solely from their own perspective, without considering the viewpoints or experiences of others. This narrow focus makes it difficult for children to understand that others may have different thoughts, feelings, or beliefs. As a result, they may struggle with tasks such as taking another person's perspective, understanding social cues, or empathizing with others. Egocentrism can also lead to communication challenges, as children may assume that others have the same knowledge or understanding as themselves, leading to misunderstandings or misinterpretations. 206. Describe how the child’s development of symbolic representation contributes to the development of language and to the development of dramatic play. Question: Describe how the child’s development of symbolic representation contributes to the development of language and to the development of dramatic play. Answer: The development of symbolic representation, which involves the ability to use symbols such as words, gestures, or images to represent objects, ideas, or events, plays a crucial role in both language development and dramatic play. In language development, symbolic representation allows children to assign meaning to words and symbols, enabling them to communicate ideas, express thoughts and feelings, and engage in conversations with others. Symbolic representation also facilitates the development of vocabulary, grammar, and storytelling skills as children use words and symbols to create narratives and convey complex concepts. In dramatic play, symbolic representation enables children to pretend and imagine, transforming everyday objects and situations into symbolic representations of real-life scenarios. Through dramatic play, children can explore social roles, relationships, and emotions, developing their creativity, empathy, and problem-solving skills in the process. 207. Define the terms "centration" and "irreversibility" and suggest how each limits the child when solving a conservation problem. Answer: Centration refers to the tendency of young children to focus exclusively on one aspect of a problem while ignoring other relevant dimensions. Irreversibility is the inability to mentally reverse a sequence of steps or operations. In conservation problems, centration limits children because they fixate on only one aspect, such as the height of a liquid, while ignoring other factors like the width of the container. Irreversibility hampers their ability to understand that certain transformations can be reversed, leading them to believe that changes are permanent even when they're reversible. 208. The text makes the point that younger children view conservation problems as perceptual problems, whereas older children see them as logical problems. What does this mean? Use a standard conservation problem to illustrate your answer. Answer: This statement suggests that younger children tend to focus on the immediate perceptual aspects of a conservation problem, such as the appearance of objects, rather than the underlying logical principles. For instance, in the classic conservation of liquid problem, a child may focus solely on the height of the liquid in two different containers, assuming that the taller container holds more liquid regardless of its width. In contrast, older children understand conservation problems logically, realizing that changes in appearance do not necessarily indicate changes in quantity. They recognize that pouring liquid from a wide to a narrow container doesn't alter the amount of liquid. 209. What two criticisms are most often raised with regard to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development? Do you think these criticisms have merit? Why or why not? Answer: Two common criticisms of Piaget's theory are its underestimation of children's abilities and its cultural and contextual limitations. Critics argue that Piaget may have underestimated children's cognitive capacities by proposing rigid age-related stages, overlooking individual differences and the role of social influences. Additionally, Piaget's research primarily focused on Western, middle-class children, raising concerns about the generalizability of his findings to diverse cultural contexts. These criticisms hold merit as they highlight the need for a more nuanced understanding of cognitive development that considers individual variation and cultural diversity. However, Piaget's theory still provides valuable insights into the qualitative shifts in children's thinking processes across development. 210. Define what Vygotsky meant when he suggested that children’s cognitive growth takes place within a zone of proximal development. How would a parent know what the lower range of the child’s zone is? How would the parent know what the upper limit of the child’s zone is? Answer: Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to describe the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other, such as a parent, teacher, or peer. The lower range of a child's ZPD is determined by tasks they can accomplish independently, while the upper limit is marked by tasks they can accomplish with assistance. A parent can gauge the lower range of their child's ZPD by observing tasks the child can do without help. To determine the upper limit, a parent can offer various challenges and observe the level of assistance needed for the child to complete them successfully. 211. Describe two differences between the way that Piaget conceptualized early childhood and the way Vygotsky viewed this period of development. Answer: One difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's views of early childhood development lies in their emphasis on social interaction. Piaget focused on individual exploration and internal construction of knowledge, while Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural influences in shaping cognitive development. Another difference is in their views on the role of language. Piaget saw language development as a product of cognitive maturation, whereas Vygotsky viewed language as a tool for thinking and believed that language development and cognitive development are closely intertwined, with language playing a crucial role in shaping thought processes. 212. Describe how children use scripts as a memory strategy during early childhood. What kinds of scripts do they find especially helpful? Give an example to illustrate your answer. Answer: Children use scripts as a memory strategy during early childhood by organizing and categorizing information into familiar, structured sequences of events. These scripts help them anticipate what will happen next and remember details more effectively. Children find event scripts, such as those for routines or familiar activities, especially helpful. For example, a bedtime routine script might include actions like brushing teeth, putting on pajamas, reading a story, and getting tucked into bed. By following this script, children can remember and execute each step of the bedtime routine more easily, reducing the cognitive load associated with remembering the sequence of tasks. Language Development 213. Comment on the statement, “Children learn the rules of language before they learn the exceptions to the rules.” Use an example of overregularization to support your answer. Answer: The statement "Children learn the rules of language before they learn the exceptions to the rules" aligns with theories of language acquisition. For instance, children typically acquire regular grammatical patterns before they encounter irregularities. An example of overregularization, where a child applies a regular grammatical rule incorrectly, supports this idea. For instance, a child might say "goed" instead of "went" because they've learned the rule for forming past tense verbs (-ed), but they haven't yet mastered the irregular verb "go." 214. Is private speech something that parents of young children should try to encourage or discourage? Explain your answer. Answer: Parents of young children should generally encourage private speech, also known as self-talk. Private speech plays a crucial role in cognitive development, helping children regulate their thoughts, plan actions, and solve problems. When children engage in private speech, they're externalizing their internal thoughts, which aids in processing information and developing language skills. Encouraging this behavior can support children's cognitive and linguistic development. 215. Generalizing from research presented in the text about how children’s play influences their language development, how might parents encourage play behaviors that will facilitate the development of their child’s language abilities? Answer: Parents can encourage play behaviors that support language development by providing a rich and stimulating environment. They can offer a variety of toys and materials that promote language-rich activities, such as books, puzzles, and imaginative play props. Engaging in interactive play with their children, such as role-playing, storytelling, and asking open-ended questions, also fosters language skills. Additionally, parents can expose their children to diverse experiences, such as visits to museums, parks, and cultural events, which provide opportunities for vocabulary expansion and language exploration through real-life contexts. 216. Does being raised in a bilingual culture provide advantages or disadvantages for a child? Describe research that supports your answer. Answer: Being raised in a bilingual culture can provide various advantages for a child. Research indicates that bilingualism can enhance cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving skills, creativity, and multitasking. Additionally, bilingual individuals often demonstrate better executive function, such as attention control and task-switching abilities. Studies have shown that bilingual children tend to outperform monolingual peers in tasks requiring cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness. Moreover, bilingualism has been associated with a delay in the onset of cognitive decline in older adults. Overall, research suggests that being raised in a bilingual culture offers cognitive advantages to children. Play and Learning 217. What does it mean to say that play both mirrors and encourages cognitive development? Answer: Saying that play mirrors and encourages cognitive development means that the activities children engage in during play reflect their cognitive abilities and also contribute to further cognitive growth. Play serves as a platform for children to explore and experiment with various cognitive processes, such as problem-solving, imagination, memory, and social interaction. Through play, children mimic real-world scenarios, which helps them understand and make sense of their environment. Moreover, play allows children to engage in activities that challenge their cognitive abilities, fostering the development of new skills and knowledge. Thus, play both mirrors the cognitive abilities children possess and encourages the development of new cognitive skills. 218. Describe how children’s egocentrism is linked to the type of play that they prefer. Answer: Children's egocentrism, the tendency to view the world from their own perspective and have difficulty understanding others' viewpoints, influences the type of play they prefer. Egocentric children often engage in solitary or parallel play, where they play independently or alongside others without significant interaction or cooperation. This preference for solitary or parallel play stems from their limited ability to consider others' perspectives and collaborate effectively. Egocentric children may struggle with cooperative play, which requires understanding and accommodating others' viewpoints, preferences, and needs. As children develop social and cognitive skills and overcome egocentrism, they become more adept at engaging in cooperative play, involving shared goals, negotiation, and collaboration with peers. Therefore, children's egocentrism is linked to their preference for certain types of play and their stage of social development. 219. How would a child’s skills of symbolic representation contribute to, or limit, the types of play activities in which the child engaged? Answer: • Symbolic representation skills enable children to use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other objects, actions, or ideas. These skills greatly expand the range of play activities a child can engage in by allowing them to pretend and imagine scenarios that are not immediately present. For example, a child with advanced symbolic representation skills might use a stick as a magic wand in imaginative play, transforming it into various objects or creatures. • On the other hand, limitations in symbolic representation skills might restrict the complexity of a child's play. For instance, a child who struggles with symbolic representation might engage in more concrete, sensorimotor play activities where objects are used in straightforward, literal ways, limiting the variety and depth of their play experiences. 220. Provide two examples of how a child’s level of cognitive development is linked to the kind of play activities in which that child engages. Answer: • Sensorimotor play: During the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development (as described by Piaget), infants and toddlers engage in play that involves exploring their environment through their senses and motor actions. For example, an infant might enjoy shaking a rattle or mouthing different objects to learn about their properties. • Symbolic play: As children progress through Piaget's preoperational and concrete operational stages, their cognitive abilities develop, enabling more complex forms of play. Symbolic play becomes prominent during the preoperational stage, where children engage in imaginative and pretend play. For instance, a preschooler might engage in role-playing games, pretending to be a doctor, firefighter, or parent, using symbolic representation to enact scenarios and explore different roles and relationships. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079