CH-16 Older Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development – Understanding Human Development : Exam Guide

Chapter 16 - Older Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development 1. In the colonial period in the United States, the median age of the population was ____ years and about ______ of the population reached the age of 65. a. 16; 2% b. 25; 6% c. 25; 20% d. 32; 40% Answer: a Rationale: The correct answer is a. During the colonial period in the United States, the median age of the population was around 16 years, and only about 2% of the population reached the age of 65. This reflects the relatively young age structure and lower life expectancy during that historical period. 2. The text cites recent studies of the brain that indicate that as adults age, their brain actually becomes _________ and the activity of their brain in the prefrontal cortex regions __________. a. smaller; declines b. smaller; increases c. larger; declines d. larger; increases Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. Recent studies suggest that as adults age, their brain volume tends to decrease, but the activity in the prefrontal cortex regions actually increases. This contradicts the common misconception that brain activity declines uniformly with age. 3. Which of the following words means essentially the same thing as dementia? a. senescence b. stochastic c. senility d. ageism Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. Senility is a term often used interchangeably with dementia to describe a decline in cognitive function, memory loss, and other symptoms associated with cognitive impairment in older adults. 4. In general, what has been the effect of high-intensity physical exercise programs for the elderly? a. These programs are linked to a greater incidence of heart attack. b. These programs can help older adults double or even triple their physical strength. c. These programs work well to build strength for people under the age of 75, but are dangerous for those in older age categories. d. Programs of high-intensity exercise have little impact on the elderly. Answer: b Rationale: The correct answer is b. High-intensity physical exercise programs for the elderly have been shown to be effective in improving strength, endurance, and overall physical fitness. Such programs can help older adults significantly increase their physical strength, contrary to the misconception that exercise might be risky for them. 5. According to the text, which of the following factors accounts for the largest share of problems older adults have with driving a car? a. decline in visual acuity b. an increase in the probability of having cataracts c. increased hypertension that leads to mental errors of judgment d. a general slowing down of general cognitive abilities Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. The text suggests that the largest share of problems older adults have with driving a car is due to a general slowing down of cognitive abilities, which can impact reaction times, decision-making, and other cognitive processes essential for safe driving. 6. To say that a condition is chronic means that it: a. involves a serious but brief illness b. is the result of genetic factors c. involves repeated occurrences or continuation of a disease d. is related to lifestyle choices, such as alcoholism or smoking-related illnesses Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. A chronic condition refers to a health condition or disease that involves repeated occurrences or persists over an extended period, typically lasting for three months or more. 7. If you were to estimate the typical percentage of prescription errors that occur in administering medicines to older adults, the most accurate percentage would be which of the following? a. Errors occur in about 1% of the prescriptions that are given. b. Errors occur in about 2% of the prescriptions that are given. c. Errors occur in about 5% of the prescriptions that are given. d. Errors occur in 15% or more the prescriptions that are given. Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. Prescription errors in administering medicines to older adults are estimated to occur in 15% or more of prescriptions, highlighting a significant concern regarding medication management in this population. 8. John says he fears becoming old because “old people are stupid, poor, in poor health, lonely, and they seldom can take care of themselves.” John’s statement is a good example of: a. senescence b. filial piety c. ageist stereotypes d. metacognition Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. John's statement reflects ageist stereotypes, which are negative attitudes and beliefs about older adults based on age-related stereotypes rather than factual information or individual characteristics. 9. Frank reports that he just can’t get to sleep, and if he does fall asleep, he can’t stay asleep. His condition would be called: a. sleep apnea b. sleep aphasia c. sleep-related senescence d. insomnia Answer: d Rationale: The correct answer is d. Frank's condition, characterized by difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep, is consistent with insomnia, a common sleep disorder among older adults. 10. If Sara believes that aging is the result of chromosome breakage that occurs each time a cell divides and accumulates until the cell no longer can reproduce itself, her view is most similar to: a. free radical theory b. a stochastic theory of aging c. a biological clock theory of aging d. the theory of senility Answer: c Rationale: The correct answer is c. Sara's belief aligns with the biological clock theory of aging, which suggests that aging is predetermined by genetic factors and influenced by the accumulation of cellular damage over time, rather than external factors like free radicals or random events (stochastic theory). 1. According to the text, what percent of U.S. adults age 85 and older live in nursing homes? a. 14% b. 22% c. 33% d. nearly 50% Answer: a Rationale: Research indicates that approximately 14% of U.S. adults aged 85 and older reside in nursing homes. This suggests that while a significant portion of the population in this age group may require institutional care, the majority still live independently or receive care in other settings. 2. The term most often used to refer to theories suggesting that genetic programming determines the pace and processes of aging are referred to as: a. biological clock theories of aging b. senescence theories of aging c. stochastic theories of aging d. random theories of aging Answer: a Rationale: Biological clock theories of aging propose that genetic factors play a significant role in determining the rate and mechanisms of aging. These theories suggest that there are inherent biological processes or mechanisms, akin to a "clock," that regulate the aging process. 3. Which of the following is a disease that involves a progressive deterioration of brain cells, especially in the cerebral cortex, and is a common form of dementia? a. atherosclerosis b. osteoporosis c. Parkinson’s disease d. Alzheimer’s disease Answer: d Rationale: Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the gradual decline of cognitive function, including memory loss, impaired reasoning, and changes in behavior. It is the most common form of dementia and is associated with the progressive degeneration of brain cells, particularly in the cerebral cortex. 4. In which of these cultures is filial piety the LEAST strong? a. mainstream U.S. culture of 200 years ago b. mainstream U.S. culture today c. Native American culture in the U.S. today d. Chinese culture today Answer: b Rationale: Filial piety, the respect and deference for one's parents and ancestors, is least strong in mainstream U.S. culture today compared to other cultures such as Chinese culture, where it holds significant importance traditionally. 5. Retirement in the United States today typically occurs at about age 65 or 66. Thus, most people who retire would belong to which of the following groups? a. young-old b. middle-aged old c. old-old d. very old-old Answer: a Rationale: Individuals who retire around age 65 or 66 would typically belong to the "young-old" category, which refers to individuals in the early stages of old age who are still relatively healthy and active. 6. If you conducted a survey of older adults who live in their own homes, you would expect that about ____ would report that they suffer from sleep problems of one sort or another. a. 10% b. 33% c. 50% d. 85% Answer: c Rationale: Research suggests that approximately 50% of older adults living in their own homes report experiencing some form of sleep problem. This can include difficulties with falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing poor sleep quality. 7. Generalizing from research described in the text, you would expect older adults to suffer the greatest memory decrement on which of the following tasks? a. arithmetic calculations, such as balancing a checkbook b. vocabulary, such as that needed to solve a crossword puzzle c. storytelling of stories from their distant past or childhood d. knowledge of a second language learned in childhood and used in early adulthood Answer: c Rationale: Older adults typically experience the greatest decline in memory performance when recalling specific episodic memories, such as storytelling about events from their distant past or childhood, compared to tasks involving semantic memory or procedural memory. 8. Brenda has been a watercolor artist all of her adult life. Now in her 60s, she has lost the ability to distinguish fine detail. Her visual problem would best be described as a decline in: a. visual acuity b. binocular disparity c. convergence d. sensory adaptation Answer: a Rationale: Brenda's difficulty in distinguishing fine detail suggests a decline in visual acuity, which refers to the ability to see objects clearly and discern fine details. 9. Beginning around the time of her 70th birthday, Margaret began to experience increasing problems in learning new things, with her memory, and with her motor coordination. She now is frequently confused, sometimes doesn’t recognize people she has known for a long time, and her speech has become less fluent. The condition that would most likely be diagnosed in Margaret’s case would be: a. senescence b. dementia c. atherosclerosis d. pathological aging Answer: b Rationale: Margaret's symptoms, including memory loss, confusion, and declining motor coordination, are indicative of dementia, a condition characterized by progressive cognitive decline that significantly impairs daily functioning. 10. John’s grandmother says she has “hardening of the arteries.” The more technical term for this condition is: a. osteoporosis b. atherosclerosis c. hypertension d. apnea Answer: b Rationale: "Hardening of the arteries" is a layman's term for atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arterial walls, leading to narrowing and stiffening of the arteries. Multiple Choice questions: Aging Today: 1. A widely prevalent social attitude that overvalues youth and discriminates against the elderly defines the term: a. ageism b. senescence c. bigotry d. gerontologism Answer: a Rationale: Ageism refers to prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping based on a person's age, particularly against older adults. This attitude is characterized by the overvaluation of youth and the devaluation or marginalization of the elderly in various aspects of society. 2. Barb feels that all older people are senile, grouchy, and unsociable. She is demonstrating: a. filial piety b. senescence c. projection d. ageism Answer: d Rationale: Ageism refers to the set of widely prevalent negative attitudes that many people hold of older adults. 3. If you judged the way that younger and older men and women are portrayed in U. S. movies today, you would most likely conclude that ageist stereotypes are greatest for: a. older women b. older men c. younger women d. younger men Answer: a Rationale: A survey of popular movies over the last several decades found that older women are more often portrayed as unattractive, unfriendly, and unintelligent than are older men. 4. Suppose you watch 100 current U.S. films as part of a course on film. If these films are representative of those typically produced in the U.S., which of the following groups of people would be most likely to be presented as unattractive, unfriendly, and unintelligent? a. younger men b. younger women c. older men d. older women Answer: d Rationale: A survey of popular movies over the last several decades found that older women are more often portrayed as unattractive, unfriendly, and unintelligent than are older men. 5. John says he fears becoming old because “old people are stupid, poor, in poor health, lonely, and they seldom can take care of themselves.” John’s statement is a good example of: a. senescence b. filial piety c. ageist stereotypes d. metacognition Answer: c Rationale: Ageist stereotypes typically overvalue youth and degrade older people. Each of the characteristics John listed reflects a negative ageist stereotype listed in Table 16-2. 6. The veneration given the elderly in Asian cultures is called: a. senescence b. transference c. ageism d. filial piety Answer: d Rationale: Filial piety refers to the respect, reverence, and duty that children are expected to show towards their parents and elders in Asian cultures. It involves taking care of parents in their old age and honoring their wisdom and experience. 7. James, who is of Japanese ancestry, shows great respect for his elders in everyday matters as part of his Asian culture. This is part of a tradition known as: a. filial piety b. ageism c. seniority d. senescence Answer: a Rationale: Filial piety refers to the veneration given to the elderly in Asian cultures and other cultures, which is manifested in cultural traditions, as well as in everyday encounters. 8. In which of these cultures is filial piety the LEAST strong? a. mainstream U. S. culture of 200 years ago b. mainstream U. S. culture today c. Native American culture in the U.S. today d. Chinese culture today Answer: b Rationale: In China, Japan, and other Asian nations, older people are honored in a tradition known as filial piety. Filial piety may be changing, however. Although respect for older people remains strong in countries throughout Asia, it is more pronounced among middle-aged and rural people than among young adults and urban residents who reflect to a greater degree the influence of Western traditions. From a historical context, the biblical tradition of veneration for elders was a powerful cultural influence, even in Western cultures like the United States. For example, in colonial times, long life was viewed as an outward manifestation of divine grace and favor, the reward for an extraordinarily upright life. 9. If you were to guess which of the following 90-year-old men would be LEAST likely to be honored and respected by his family and members of his culture, your best guess would be? a. Nathan, who is a Native American man living on a reservation in the United States b. Peter, who is a white man living in the United States c. Lee, who is a Chinese man living in the United States d. Hong, who is a Chinese man living in China Answer: b Rationale: Among Native Americans throughout the hemisphere, older people traditionally have been venerated as wise elders and transmitters of culture and have been respected as a storehouse of historical lore. In China, Japan, and other Asian nations, older people are honored in a tradition known as filial piety. 10. If you were to study how Japanese citizens consider filial piety today, you would most likely find that which of the following groups are LEAST likely to honor this tradition? a. older Japanese people who live in urban areas b. older Japanese people who live in rural areas c. younger Japanese people who live in urban areas d. younger Japanese people who live in rural areas Answer: c Rationale: In China, Japan, and other Asian nations, older people are honored in a tradition known as filial piety. Filial piety may be changing, however. Although respect for older people remains strong in countries throughout Asia, it is more pronounced among middle-aged and rural people than among young adults and urban residents who reflect to a greater degree the influence of Western traditions. 11. If you were to study how Japanese citizens consider filial piety today, you would most likely find that which of the following groups are MOST likely to honor this tradition? a. older Japanese people who live in urban areas b. older Japanese people who live in rural areas c. younger Japanese people who live in urban areas d. younger Japanese people who live in rural areas Answer: b Rationale: In China, Japan, and other Asian nations, older people are honored in a tradition known as filial piety. Filial piety may be changing, however. Although respect for older people remains strong in countries throughout Asia, it is more pronounced among middle-aged and rural people than among young adults and urban residents who reflect to a greater degree the influence of Western traditions. 12. In colonial America, older adults typically: a. were not trusted b. were considered helpless and a burden c. received great respect stemming from the biblical tradition d. were rarely consulted for their opinions Answer: c Rationale: In colonial America, older adults received great respect stemming from the biblical tradition, which emphasized honoring elders and their wisdom. They were often looked upon for guidance and were integral parts of the community. 13. According to the text, the reverence for the elderly common in colonial times is thought to be due to the fact that: a. people were raised with higher moral values b. so few people managed to live to old age c. knowledge was passed down from the elderly d. the elderly were needed for manual labor Answer: b Rationale: Part of the reason that reverence for age was powerful in earlier times was that so few people managed to achieve old age. The demographic contrast between then and now is startling. In the colonial period, the median age of the population was 16 and only 2% of the population reached the age of 65; today, the median age of the U.S. population is 37.2 and climbing, and approximately one in eight people is age 65 or older. 14. In the colonial period in the United States, the median age of the population was ____ years and about ___ of the population reached the age of 65. a. 16; 2% b. 25; 6% c. 25; 20% d. 32; 40% Answer: a Rationale: During the colonial period in the United States, the median age of the population was relatively young, around 16 years, and only about 2% of the population reached the age of 65 due to lower life expectancies and higher mortality rates. 15. In the United States today, about what percent of the population is age 65 or older? a. 2% b. 6% c. 12% d. 19% Answer: c Rationale: Today in the United States, about 1 in 8 people is age 65 or older. 16. In the United States today, the median age of the population is about: a. 27 years b. 37 years c. 47 years d. 57 years Answer: b Rationale: As of today, the median age of the population in the United States is approximately 37 years, reflecting demographic shifts towards an older population due to factors such as increased life expectancy and lower birth rates. 17. From 1950 to 2050 in the U. S., the proportion of people age 65 and over in the population is expected to: a. decline slightly b. remain constant c. increase slightly d. increase dramatically Answer: d Rationale: Over the period from 1950 to 2050, the proportion of people aged 65 and over in the U.S. population is expected to increase dramatically due to factors such as the aging of the baby boomer generation and advancements in healthcare leading to longer lifespans. 18. According to statistics presented in the text, in the United States in colonial times about 1 in ___ people were age 65 and over; today, about 1 in ___ people are age 65 and over, and in 2030, about 1 in ___ people is expected to be age 65 and over. a. 10; 8; 6 b. 50; 8; 5 c. 100; 40; 20 d. 100; 20; 6 Answer: b Rationale: In colonial times, about 1 in 50 people were aged 65 and over. Today, about 1 in 8 people are in this age group. By 2030, it is projected that about 1 in 5 people will be aged 65 and over, reflecting the aging population trend. 19. Suppose you conducted a survey of older Americans. If your results mirrored those of a study reported in the text, you would find that most older adults: a. believe that they are among the “lucky few” older adults to be in a favorable economic and social position b. are actually considerably worse off economically than they perceive themselves to be c. have considerably poorer health than they perceive themselves to have d. have much poorer memory abilities than they think they do Answer: a Rationale: Polls have shown that, although most older adults have a high opinion of their own economic and social condition, they often believe that they are among the lucky few who have escaped the misery of aging in the United States. 20. If you were to investigate ageist stereotypes, you should expect to find that: a. they are nearly all negative b. they are nearly all positive c. they are a mixture of negative and positive d. they generally do not exist anymore in developed societies Answer: c Rationale: The text, Table 16-2, and Figure 16.1 show that older people are perceived with a mixture of stereotypes – some positive (e.g., “wisdom”) and some negative (e.g., physical attractiveness”). 21. Older people are generally perceived more favorably than younger adults on all of the following traits EXCEPT: a. their overall view of society b. their general knowledge c. the respect they receive d. the wisdom they possess Answer: a Rationale: Figure 16-1 shows that perceptions about aging are generally positive for wisdom, received respect, general knowledge, and family authority, but negative for overall view of society, ability to perform everyday tasks, ability to learn new things, and physical attractiveness. 22. Older people are generally perceived more unfavorably than are younger adults on all of the following traits EXCEPT: a. physical attractiveness b. ability to learn new things c. ability to perform everyday tasks d. general knowledge Answer: d Rationale: Figure 16-1 shows that perceptions about aging are generally positive for wisdom, received respect, general knowledge, and family authority, but negative for overall view of society, ability to perform everyday tasks, ability to learn new things, and physical attractiveness. 23. Of all of the cosmetic surgical procedures done in the U.S., about are done on women. a. 67% b. 77% c. 92% d. 99% Answer: c Rationale: Approximately 92% of all cosmetic surgical procedures performed in the U.S. are done on women, indicating a higher prevalence of cosmetic procedures among women compared to men. 24. Compared to 15 years ago, today there are about times more cosmetic surgical procedures performed in the United States. a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. 8 Answer: c Rationale: The text notes that the number of such procedures has grown from 2 million in 1997 to 9.2 million in 2011 – an increase of almost 500% (460%) over just 15 years. 25. In the U.S. today, surveys suggest that about of men and women approve of cosmetic surgery and about of them would consider it for themselves. a. 98%; 90% b. 98%; 67% c. 80%; 60% d. 50%; 33% Answer: d Rationale: Surveys suggest that about 50% of both men and women in the U.S. approve of cosmetic surgery, while approximately 33% of them would consider undergoing cosmetic surgery themselves, indicating a significant level of acceptance and interest in cosmetic procedures. 26. According to statistics presented in the text, the life expectancy for 75-year-old adults living in the U. S. today is: a. 78 years b. 80 years c. 82 years d. 87 years Answer: d Rationale: The text notes that the average 75-year-old can expect to live another 12.0 years. 27. The text suggests that older adulthood is best thought of as consisting of 4 distinct age-related periods. Why is older adulthood, but not other stages of development, divided into “substages”? a. This is the fastest growing part of the U. S. population. b. Older adults differ more dramatically from each other than do people in other age groups. c. Older adults are mostly White, so they generally are not divided into racial/ethnic categories, making age the best way to divide them into groups. d. Everyone in older adulthood is pretty much alike in most regards, so they need to be divided into different age groups so they can be studied more accurately. Answer: b Rationale: Because people commonly live into their 90s and beyond, older adulthood can span 40 years or more and individuals grouped into older adulthood could even be members of separate generations. As such, this group displays considerable heterogeneity, making it useful to divide this stage of development into substages. 28. According to the text, those persons aged 60 to 69 are considered a. young-old b. middle-aged-old c. old-old d. very old-old Answer: a Rationale: Individuals aged 60 to 69 are typically categorized as "young-old" in gerontology terminologies, indicating that they are in the early stages of older adulthood and may still be relatively healthy and active compared to older age groups. 29. Retirement in the United States today typically occurs at about age 65 or 66. Thus, most people who retire would belong to which of the following groups? a. young-old b. middle-aged old c. old-old d. very old-old Answer: a Rationale: The young-old substage encompasses ages 60-69. 30. In the previous year of his life, Albert’s income has been reduced because he retired and his physical strength has waned somewhat, although he still feels healthy enough to engage in a wide array of leisure activities. Albert is most likely in what age group? a. 60-69 b. 70-79 c. 80-89 d. 90-99 Answer: a Rationale: The experiences listed in this question are all typical of the young-old substage, which spans ages 60-69. 31. At age 62, George takes early retirement. He is considered: a. young-old b. middle-aged old c. old-old d. very old-old Answer: a Rationale: The young-old substage encompasses ages 60-69. 32. According to the text, if the young-old slow down their activity level, this is usually due mainly: a. because they have lost much of their vigor b. because they have little to keep them active c. because of society's expectations that they will do so d. to indicate their unique social status Answer: c Rationale: Society frequently reduces its expectations of people in their 60s, demanding less energy, independence, and creativity, which thereby demoralizes older adults, especially those who remain healthy and vigorous. Many people in their 60s accept these expectations and respond by slowing the pace of their life, thereby creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. 33. For most people in young-old adulthood, the biggest adjustment during this period usually concerns: a. death of a spouse b. a significant decline in physical health c. a significant decline in mental health and cognitive abilities d. retirement Answer: d Rationale: The book notes that the young-old stage frequently involves a major transition in roles since this is the time period in which most people retire. 34. According to the text, many people in their 70s experience a dramatic decline in sexual activity, which is most often because of: a. declining physical abilities b. a loss of interest in sex c. societal attitudes about physical attractiveness and aging d. the loss of a partner Answer: d Rationale: The loss of a partner is often the primary reason for a decline in sexual activity among individuals in their 70s. This can result from the death of a spouse or partner, leading to decreased opportunities and desire for sexual activity. 35. The fastest growing segment of the U.S. population is that including: a. adults between the ages of 55 and 65 b. adults between the ages of 65 and 75 c. adults between the ages of 75 and 85 d. adults over the age of 85 Answer: d Rationale: The fastest-growing segment of the U.S. population is comprised of adults over the age of 85. This demographic trend is driven by increased life expectancy and advances in healthcare, leading to a larger population of older adults. 36. According to the text, the old-old age group extends from ages: a. 60 to 69 b. 70 to 79 c. 80 to 89 d. 90 and older Answer: c Rationale: The old-old age group extends from ages 80 to 89. This age category is characterized by advanced age and may come with specific health and social challenges associated with aging. 37. The term used to refer to people in their 80s is which of the following? a. octogenarians b. Decagenarians c. nonagenarians d. septuagenarians Answer: a Rationale: People in their 80s are commonly referred to as octogenarians. The prefix "octo-" means eight, corresponding to the decade of life in which they are currently situated. 38. The term used to refer to people in their 90s is which of the following? a. octogenarians b. Decagenarians c. nonagenarians d. septuagenarians Answer: c Rationale: People in their 90s are commonly referred to as nonagenarians. The prefix "nona-" means nine, indicating the decade of life in which they are currently situated. 39. According to the text, what percent of U.S. adults age 85 and older live in nursing homes? a. 14% b. 22% c. 33% d. nearly 50% Answer: a Rationale: Approximately 14% of U.S. adults aged 85 and older live in nursing homes. This percentage suggests that the majority of older adults in this age group receive care in other settings such as assisted living facilities or with family members. 40. According to the text, the percentage of older adults who live in nursing homes is: a. increasing slightly b. increasing dramatically, and is expected to double by 2030 c. remaining constant d. decreasing Answer: d Rationale: The percentage of older adults who live in nursing homes is decreasing. This trend reflects a shift towards alternative forms of care such as home care services and community-based programs, as well as advancements in healthcare that allow for more independent living among older adults. 41. What percent of the U. S. population age 85 and older is comprised of women? a. about 50% b. about 60% c. about 70% d. about 80% Answer: c Rationale: Approximately 70% of the U.S. population aged 85 and older is comprised of women. This gender disparity in the older population can be attributed to women's longer life expectancy compared to men. The Physical Aspects of Aging 42. Jack is 67 years old and is dying from liver disease that has resulted from his long and heavy over-consumption of alcohol. The term that best captures the idea that Jack’s illness results from poor lifestyle choices is: a. dementia b. pathological aging factor c. senescence d. chronic condition Answer: b Rationale: Pathological aging factors refer to the cumulative effects that result from earlier events and lifestyle choices—accidents, previous illnesses, or bad health habits—that may accelerate aging. 43. Which of the following is the BEST example of a pathological aging factor? a. Joan carries a dominant gene that codes for the development of cancer. b. Bob carries a recessive gene that puts him at risk for developing heart problems. c. Luke has been severely obese since childhood, and he is now developing diabetes. d. Charlene is developing osteoporosis as the result of normal aging processes. Answer: c Rationale: Pathological aging factors refer to the cumulative effects that result from earlier events and lifestyle choices—accidents, previous illnesses, or bad health habits—that may accelerate aging. 44. Age spots that look like brown areas of pigmentation are popularly called: a. freckles b. liver spots c. moles d. rashes Answer: b Rationale: Age spots that resemble brown areas of pigmentation are commonly referred to as "liver spots." These spots are typically harmless and are associated with sun exposure and aging. 45. For most people age-related changes in the skin are most likely the result of: a. a diet deficient in vitamin D b. a diet deficient in vitamin A c. liver dysfunction d. exposure to ultraviolet rays of the sun Answer: d Rationale: Age-related changes in the skin, including wrinkles and age spots, are most commonly the result of exposure to ultraviolet rays from the sun. Over time, this exposure leads to the breakdown of collagen and elastin fibers in the skin, contributing to signs of aging. 46. Which of the following is NOT one of the changes normally associated with aging? a. blood vessels become more elastic b. muscle weight decreases c. less oxygen is supplied to the muscles d. fine motor coordination deteriorates Answer: a Rationale: Blood vessels becoming more elastic is not a change normally associated with aging. In fact, as people age, blood vessels tend to become less elastic, leading to conditions like hypertension and reduced cardiovascular efficiency. 47. In general, what has been the effect of high-intensity physical exercise programs for the elderly? a. These programs are linked to a greater incidence of heart attack. b. These programs can help older adults double or even triple their physical strength. c. These programs work well to build strength for people under the age of 75, but are dangerous for those in older age categories. d. Programs of high-intensity exercise have little impact on the elderly. Answer: b Rationale: The age-related decline in strength and mobility often can be delayed or partially offset by high-intensity exercise training. In one study, those who engaged in muscle-building exercises were able to double and even triple their strength and, for the first time in years, perform many strength-related tasks without assistance. 48. If Tom and Betty are typical adults and both are 6 feet tall at age 25, about how tall would you expect them to be at age 80? a. Tom will remain at 6 feet, but Betty will be about 5 feet 10 inches tall. b. Betty will remain at 6 feet, but Tom will be about 5 feet 10 inches tall. c. Tom and Betty will both remain at 6 feet. d. Tom and Betty will both be about 5 feet 10 inches tall. Answer: d Rationale: Older adults are usually an inch or more shorter than they were in early adulthood as a result of the compression of cartilage in the spine, which is a long-term effect attributable to the effects of gravity. 49. Older adults sometimes suffer from a condition that makes their bones more hollow and more brittle and may lead to a bent or stooped posture. This condition is called: a. arthritis b. atherosclerosis c. muscular atrophy d. osteoporosis Answer: d Rationale: Osteoporosis is an age-related condition where bones become weaker, more hollow, and more brittle. This condition makes bones more likely to fracture and take longer to mend and is often the cause of the bent or stooped posture that some people develop as they age. 50. Which of the following women has the HIGHEST likelihood of having osteoporosis? a. Ruth, a 30-year-old white woman b. Beth, a 60-year-old black woman c. Amy, a 60-year-old Asian American woman d. Tish, a 30-year-old black woman Answer: c Rationale: Osteoporosis generally develops in older adulthood and White and Asian women are especially likely to develop this condition. 51. As we age and enter older adulthood, which of the following changes is LEAST likely to occur? a. Our immune function becomes stronger, because we have been exposed to so many diseases that immunities have developed. b. Respiratory infections become more common because aging involves a lower capacity of oxygen intake. c. The reserve capacity of our cardiovascular system becomes smaller. d. Our sense of balance is compromised, so we are more likely to fall and hurt ourselves. Answer: a Rationale: As we age, the function of our immune system declines, leaving us less protected from infection and disease. The other changes listed are all noted in the textbook as common age-related changes. 52. According to text, why do older adults typically keep their houses warmer than younger adults do? a. They have more money and can afford to pay for heating expenses. b. They have diminished reserve capacity in their organ systems and lower body temperatures. c. Their muscles need more heat in the environment to work efficiently. d. Their memories are bad and they forget to turn the heat down when they come in from the cold. Answer: b Rationale: Older adults typically keep their houses warmer than younger adults due to diminished reserve capacity in their organ systems and lower body temperatures, making them more sensitive to cold temperatures. 53. If you conducted a survey of older adults who live in their own homes, you would expect that about ____ would report that they suffer from sleep problems of one sort or another. a. 10% b. 33% c. 50% d. 85% Answer: c Rationale: The text reports that about half of the people over age 65 who live at home and about two-thirds of those in nursing homes and other long-term care facilities suffer from sleep problems. 54. Suppose you are conducting research at a nursing home populated by older adults. About two-thirds of these adults complain that they suffer from sleep problems. Generalizing from research presented in the text, you should conclude that the proportion of adults in this facility with sleep problems is: a. much higher than you would expect b. slightly higher than you would expect c. about the same as you would expect d. somewhat lower than you would expect Answer: c Rationale: The text reports that about half of the people over age 65 who live at home and about two-thirds of those in nursing homes and other long-term care facilities suffer from sleep problems. The people in this nursing home, thus, are about average in the proportion that report sleep problems. 55. Part of the reason why a large proportion of older adults report sleep problems is that they spend _______ time sleeping and spend _______ time in deep sleep, compared to younger adults. a. more; more b. less; less c. more; less d. less; more Answer: b Rationale: A large proportion of older adults report sleep problems because they spend less time sleeping overall and less time in deep sleep compared to younger adults, which can contribute to issues such as insomnia and fragmented sleep patterns. 56. According to research presented in the text, older adults typically sleep about _____ hours a night, although they stay in bed about ____ hours per night: a. 4; 10 b. 6 to 6½; 8 c. 8 to 8½; 10 d. 9 to 10; 23 Answer: b Rationale: According to research presented in the text, older adults typically sleep about 6 to 6½ hours per night, although they stay in bed for about 8 hours per night, indicating decreased sleep efficiency and more fragmented sleep patterns. 57. Frank reports that he just can’t get to sleep, and if he does fall asleep, he can’t stay asleep. His condition would be called: a. sleep apnea b. sleep aphasia c. sleep-related senescence d. insomnia Answer: d Rationale: Insomnia refers to the inability to sleep in general. 58. Marion feels tired because his breathing pauses or stops frequently while he is sleeping, waking him up gasping for breath, and being unable to fall back asleep again. This condition is called: a. sleep apnea b. sleep aphasia c. sleep-related senescence d. insomnia Answer: a Rationale: Sleep apnea is a condition involving repeated waking due to interruptions or pauses in breathing. 59. According to the text, which of the following senses is LEAST affected by advanced age? a. hearing b. visual acuity c. taste d. visual attention and integration Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, taste is the sense least affected by advanced age. While hearing, visual acuity, and visual attention and integration may decline with age, taste perception tends to remain relatively stable. 60. Judy is upset because her doctor has just put her on medication because her blood pressure is too high. Judy suffers from : a. glaucoma b. atherosclerosis c. osteoporosis d. hypertension Answer: d Rationale: Hypertension is the technical term for high blood pressure. 61. According to the text, hearing problems associated with aging include all of the following EXCEPT: a. difficulty hearing high-frequency sounds b. difficulty hearing low-frequency sounds c. difficulty hearing mid-frequency sounds d. separating speech sounds from sounds of background noise Answer: c Rationale: According to the text, hearing problems associated with aging include difficulty hearing high-frequency and low-frequency sounds, as well as separating speech sounds from sounds of background noise. However, mid-frequency hearing loss is not typically mentioned as a common age-related hearing issue. 62. Robert is diagnosed as having glaucoma. He should anticipate that the recommended treatment for this condition will most likely be: a. eating a better diet higher in vitamin A b. Lasik surgery c. cataract surgery d. medication Answer: d Rationale: The text notes that glaucoma often can be treated with medication. 63. Brenda has been a watercolor artist all of her adult life. Now in her 60s, she has lost the ability to distinguish fine detail. Her visual problem would best be described as a decline in: a. visual acuity b. binocular disparity c. convergence d. sensory adaptation Answer: a Rationale: Visual acuity, the ability to distinguish fine detail, is frequently lost to some extent by older individuals. 64. Helen used to love to sew, but when she turned 90 she gave this up, because she could no longer see well enough to thread a needle. Helen’s problem is best described as one involving: a. glaucoma b. visual acuity c. senescence d. hypertension Answer: b Rationale: Visual acuity, the ability to distinguish fine detail, is frequently lost to some extent by older individuals. 65. According to the text, which of the following factors accounts for the largest share of problems older adults have with driving a car? a. decline in visual acuity b. an increase in the probability of having cataracts c. increased hypertension that leads to mental errors of judgment d. a general slowing down of general cognitive abilities Answer: d Rationale: The book notes that visual acuity problems generally are not the source of problems with driving. Rather, it is the more general slowing down of certain cognitive abilities that can lead older adults into difficulties with driving. 66. Older adults typically have some difficulty in driving a car. The particular visual problem that is most responsible for driving problems and car accidents is: a. a noticeable decline in visual acuity, especially in the center of the visual field b. a noticeable decline in visual acuity, especially in peripheral vision c. a problem in ignoring irrelevant stimuli, especially in complex displays requiring quick decisions d. a build-up of pressure within the eyes that causes distant objects to sometimes appear blurry Answer: c Rationale: The book notes that visual acuity problems generally are not the source of problems with driving. Rather, it is the more general slowing down of certain cognitive abilities that can lead older adults into difficulties with driving. As people age, they increasingly have trouble ignoring irrelevant stimuli. Their ability to perform visual search tasks, locating the correct “place to look” in a complex display of visual information, tends to become slower and less accurate with age. 67. Beginning around the time of her 70th birthday, Margaret began to experience increasing problems in learning new things, with her memory, and with her motor coordination. She now is frequently confused, sometimes doesn’t recognize people she has known for a long time, and her speech has become less fluent. The condition that would most likely be diagnosed in Margaret’s case would be: a. senescence b. dementia c. atherosclerosis d. pathological aging Answer: b Rationale: Dementia is a disorder associated with older age that includes a broad array of cognitive deficiencies, such as impaired learning and memory ability, a deterioration of language and motor functions, a progressive inability to recognize familiar people and objects, frequent confusion, and personality changes. 68. If a normal person’s brain weighed 3 pounds at age 30, about how much would you expect it to weigh at age 90? a. 3.6 pounds b. 3.3 pounds c. 3.0 pounds d. 2.7 pounds Answer: d Rationale: At age 90, the brain of a normal person weighs about 90% of what it weighed at age 30. 69. The normal, age-related changes that occur in the brain as we enter older adulthood are most likely the result of having ______ of brain cells and having _______ connections among brain cells. a. fewer; about the same number of b. fewer; fewer c. about the same number of; fewer d. fewer; more Answer: c Rationale: The normal, age-related changes that occur in the brain as we enter older adulthood are most likely the result of having about the same number of brain cells and having fewer connections among brain cells. This reflects the decline in synaptic density and neural connectivity that occurs with age. 70. If you were to do one thing that would give you the best chance of avoiding or limiting normal, age-related declines in brain functioning, that would be: a. engaging in complex cognitive tasks on a regular basis b. sleeping longer than normal c. sleeping less than normal d. trying not to “over-tax” the brain by thinking too hard or too long on difficult problems Answer: a Rationale: Those who experience the least brain atrophy are more likely to engage regularly in complex cognitive tasks. Apparently, keeping our brains active and engaged in old age may help ward off some of the neurological decline that typically accompanies aging. 71. If you examined the brain functioning of a teenager and that of an older adult, you would probably notice which of the following differences, with respect to brain lateralization? a. lateralized functioning would be higher in the adolescent’s brain b. lateralized functioning would be higher in the older adult’s brain c. the degree of lateralized functioning would be about equal for these two people d. in females, lateralization would he higher in the teenager’s brain but in males, the lateralization would be higher for older men Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, the lateralization of functions into the left or right hemispheres that is characteristic of the brain during adolescence and young adulthood becomes at least somewhat reversed in old age. 72. To say that a condition is chronic means that it: a. involves a serious but brief illness b. is the result of genetic factors c. involves repeated occurrences or continuation of a disease d. is related to lifestyle choices, such as alcoholism or smoking-related illnesses Answer: c Rationale: The text defines chronic conditions as those illnesses that never go away. 73. Luther, like millions of other Americans, suffers from arthritis, which is considered to be a chronic condition because it: a. is an illness that occurs repeatedly or never goes away b. is an illness that he inherited from his parents c. can be controlled with drugs d. only develops in old age Answer: a Rationale: The text defines chronic conditions as those illnesses that never go away. 74. According to the text, which of the following is NOT one of the three most common chronic conditions associated with age? a. hypertension b. arthritis c. heart disease d. cancer Answer: d Rationale: According to the text, cancer is not one of the three most common chronic conditions associated with age. The three most common chronic conditions are hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease. 75. Miranda suffers from type 2 diabetes. If she is typical, you would guess that she is also: a. a smoker b. a moderate to heavy drinker (of alcohol) c. obese d. under the age of 50 Answer: c Rationale: Type 2 diabetes is linked most closely to obesity, which is becoming more prevalent among older adults. 76. According to the text, what percent of people over age 75 are probably affected by at least one chronic condition? a. about 10% b. about 25% c. about 50% d. about 75% Answer: d Rationale: According to the text, about 75% of people over age 75 are likely affected by at least one chronic condition, highlighting the prevalence of health issues in older adults. 77. Which of the following is the best example of a chronic health problem faced by a relatively large proportion of older adults? a. diabetes b. influenza c. cancer d. stroke Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, type 2 diabetes is a chronic, age-related health condition. Not only does this disease become more prevalent as adults grow older, but also the damage it causes to the body accumulates over time. 78. Compared to obesity rates in the 1980s, the percentage of older adults who are obese today has: a. remained about the same b. decreased c. increased for both men and women d. increased for women, but decreased for men Answer: c Rationale: Figure 16-5 shows obesity rates for men and for women from 1976-1980 up to 2007-2008. Obesity rates were fairly steady until about the 1980s, at which point rates for both men and women rose sharply until 1999-2002, after which they have declined slightly. 79. If you were to interview 1,000 adults age 85 and over and ask them to rate their own health status, about how many people in this group would you expect to report that their health is “good” to “excellent”? a. about 150 b. about 330 c. about 500 d. about 750 Answer: c Rationale: The text reports that more than half of adults age 85 and over report having good to excellent health. 80. If you were a dietician at a restaurant in an extended care facility where active healthy people in older adulthood ate, you should know that, in comparison to younger adults, older adults need about _______ calories and about _______ nutrients. a. the same number of; 20% more b. 20% more; the same number of c. the same number of; 20% fewer d. 20% fewer; the same number of Answer: d Rationale: By the time they reach age 65, older adults require at least 20% fewer calories than younger adults do; however, they still need nearly as many basic nutrients. 81. Which of the following disorders is more commonly known as “hardening of the arteries”? a. atherosclerosis b. osteoporosis c. hypertension d. dementia Answer: a Rationale: Atherosclerosis is more commonly known as "hardening of the arteries," referring to the buildup of plaque within the arterial walls, leading to reduced blood flow and increased risk of cardiovascular problems such as heart attacks and strokes. 82. John’s grandmother says she has “hardening of the arteries.” The more technical term for this condition is: a. osteoporosis b. atherosclerosis c. hypertension d. apnea Answer: b Rationale: Atherosclerosis is also known as hardening of the arteries, which is a common condition of aging caused by the body’s increasing inability to use excess fats in the diet; responsible for many of the heart conditions prevalent among older people; these fats are stored along the walls of arteries, where they restrict flow of blood when they harden. 83. Atherosclerosis is most closely linked to a diet high in: a. protein b. fat c. sugar d. fiber Answer: b Rationale: Atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, is most closely linked to a diet high in fat. Specifically, diets high in saturated and trans fats have been shown to contribute to the development of atherosclerosis by increasing levels of LDL cholesterol, which can lead to arterial plaque formation. 84. If you were to estimate the typical percentage of prescription errors that occur in administering medicines to older adults, the most accurate percentage would be which of the following? a. Errors occur in about 1% of the prescriptions that are given. b. Errors occur in about 2% of the prescriptions that are given. c. Errors occur in about 5% of the prescriptions that are given. d. Errors occur in 15% or more the prescriptions that are given. Answer: d Rationale: The text cites several studies that all indicate the high frequency of errors in prescribing and delivering prescription medication. For example, inappropriate medicines were prescribed in 8% of doctor visits; errors were made in 28.2% of the medication deliveries in a set of 12 different assisted living facilities; and 20-25% of older adults had at least one inappropriate prescription. Taken together, this pattern demonstrates that prescription errors are frequent. The best judgment from the choices given is that errors occur in about 15% or more of the prescriptions that are given. 85. Statistically speaking, which of the following people is the MOST likely to be taking 3 or more prescription medicines? a. Doris, who is a 70-year-old woman b. Donna, who is a 60-year-old woman c. Charles, who is a 50-year-old women d. Elway, who is a 50-year-old man Answer: a Rationale: Figure 16-7 shows the percentage of men and women in the United States with 5. or more drug prescriptions in the previous month, by age. According to this figure, the percentage increases with age and today is about the same for men and women age 65 and over. 86. The average annual prescription drug cost for non-institutionalized Medicare recipients was about ____ in 1992, compared to about ____ in 2004. a. $100; $1,000 b. $200; $600 c. $500; $800 d. $500; $2,000 Answer: d Rationale: Figure 16-6 displays statistics that show how prescription drug costs have changed across the years from 1992 to 2004. By reading this figure, it is clear that in 1992 the average cost was about $500-$600 and this cost had risen to about $2,000 by 2004. 87. If you were to compare the average prescription drug costs of people age 65 and over in the U.S. in 2012 to these same costs in 2004, you would expect that they have gone up about: a. 15% b. 30% c. 60% d. 200% Answer: a Rationale: The text notes that since 2004, prescription drug costs for older adults have increased about 1 to 2% per year. Even considering the compounding effect of such increases, over 8 years this would equal a combined increase of somewhere near 15%. The Causes of Aging 88. According to the text, the upper end of the lifespan is thought to be about age: a. 105 b. 110 c. 120 d. 145 Answer: b Rationale: While the upper limit of human lifespan remains a subject of debate, current research suggests that the upper end of the lifespan is approximately age 110. Although exceptional cases of individuals living beyond this age have been reported, they are exceedingly rare. 89. The normal aging process, not connected with the occurrence of disease in the individual, is called: a. gerontology b. senescence c. ageism d. osteoporosis Answer: b Rationale: The normal aging process, distinct from the onset of age-related diseases, is referred to as senescence. Senescence encompasses the gradual physiological and functional changes that occur in individuals as they grow older, such as declines in muscle mass, cognitive function, and sensory abilities. 90. Dr. Rogers is giving a lecture in which he stresses that aging is a normal, natural process that is very much the same for all people, unless illness or injury is involved. The topic for this lecture would best be described as: a. stochastic theories of aging b. senescence c. senility d. dementia Answer: b Rationale: Senescence refers to the normal aging process that is not connected with the occurrence of disease in an individual. It refers to the universal biological process of aging. 91. Dr. Robbins argues that aging is primarily the result of the attack of body cells by harmful molecules and radiation from the sun. His theory would be most closely associated with which of the following views? a. the biological clock theory aging b. the theory of senescence as proposed by Erikson c. the theory or senescence as proposed by Freud d. the stochastic theory of aging Answer: d Rationale: Stochastic theories of aging suggest that the body ages as a result of random assaults from both internal and external environments. 92. According to the text, theories that explain aging as the result of random assaults from both internal and external environments are referred to as: a. biological clock theories of aging b. senescence theories of aging c. stochastic theories of aging d. random theories of aging Answer: c Rationale: Stochastic theories of aging propose that aging is primarily the result of random assaults or damage from both internal and external factors, such as DNA mutations, oxidative stress, and environmental toxins. These theories emphasize the role of chance events in the aging process. 93. Dr. Smith believes that aging is the result of a genetically programmed set of changes that operate such that cells can only live for a certain length of time before they become unable to process glucose and die. Such a view would be most consistent with which of the following theoretical models? a. biological clock theories b. psychological clock theories c. the gerontology model d. stochastic theories Answer: a Rationale: Biological clock theories of aging are those suggesting that genetic programming determines the pace and process of aging. 94. If Sara believes that aging is the result of chromosome breakage that occurs each time a cell divides and accumulates until the cell no longer can reproduce itself, her view is most similar to: a. free radical theory b. a stochastic theory of aging c. a biological clock theory of aging d. the theory of senility Answer: c Rationale: According to one version of biological clock theories of aging, there is a limit to the number of times each cell can divide before it dies. One limiting mechanism that appears to be involved centers on DNA sequences, called telomeres, which lie at the tips of chromosomes. Research shows that with each cell division, the length of the telomere becomes shorter; after about 60 to 80 cell divisions, there is no longer enough telomere left for cells to reproduce, and they ultimately die. 95. The term most often used to refer to the internal timing that is linked to both the female menstrual cycle and the human immune system is: a. age clocks b. biological clocks c. social clocks d. psychological clocks Answer: b Rationale: Biological clocks are internal timing mechanisms that regulate various physiological processes in the body, including the female menstrual cycle and the functioning of the immune system. These clocks help coordinate rhythmic biological activities with environmental cues. 96. The term most often used to refer to theories suggesting that genetic programming determines the pace and processes of aging are referred to as: a. biological clock theories of aging b. senescence theories of aging c. stochastic theories of aging d. random theories of aging Answer: a Rationale: Biological clock theories of aging propose that genetic programming determines the pace and processes of aging. These theories suggest that individuals are genetically programmed to age at a predetermined rate, influenced by factors such as DNA repair mechanisms and cellular senescence. 97. Which of the following would be LEAST well explained by biological clock theories? a. menarche b. menopause c. age-related changes in the immune system d. sun damage to skin cells Answer: d Rationale: Menarche, menopause, and changes in the immune system all occur according to biological clocks, but sun damage to skin cells centers on a “wear-and-tear” explanation that is more consistent with stochastic theories of aging. Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age 98. The term that usually is used to describe general, overall intellectual functioning is: a. personality b. intelligence c. cognition d. intellect Answer: c Rationale: The term "cognition" is used to describe general, overall intellectual functioning, including processes such as memory, attention, perception, reasoning, and problem-solving. It encompasses a wide range of mental abilities and processes. 99. If you were to compare the performance of a group of 30-year-olds and a group of 70-year-olds, the most noticeable differences would most likely be on tasks that involved: a. memory for events long in the past b. memory for recent events c. vocabulary d. speed Answer: d Rationale: Many studies have shown that the intellectual functions that depend heavily on speed of performance decline in older people. Older people have slower reaction times, slower perceptual processing, and slower cognitive processes in general. 100. Compared to younger adults, older adults typically are _________ at performing cognitive tasks and they are __________ at using performance-enhancing strategies. a. slower; better b. slower; worse c. faster; better d. faster; worse Answer: a Rationale: Older people have slower reaction times, slower perceptual processing, and slower cognitive processes in general, but often learn new strategies to compensate for their loss of speed. By using more effective strategies, older people are often able to compensate for their loss of speed on many tasks and, in many cases, to recover much of their former performance level. 101. According to the text, older adults experience the largest decline in their ability to manage which of the following types of memory? a. semantic memory b. short-term memory c. episodic memory d. sensory memory Answer: c Rationale: The text notes that older adults experience more decline in their episodic memories than in their semantic memories. Table 16-6 lists the degree of decline associated with each type or function of memory. This table lists the declines in sensory and short-term memory as slight to none, the decline in semantic memory as minimal, and notes that episodic memory does decline with age, although this may be due to slower processing speed. 102. The term usually used to refer to the memory store that holds visual or auditory memories very briefly for a few seconds prior to further processing of the information is called: a. sensory memory b. semantic memory c. short-term memory d. episodic memory Answer: a Rationale: The memory store that holds visual or auditory memories very briefly for a few seconds prior to further processing is called sensory memory. It acts as a buffer, retaining sensory information long enough for it to be attended to and possibly transferred to short-term memory. 103. Research usually shows that in older adulthood, sensory memory typically: a. decreases significantly b. decreases slightly c. improves slightly d. remains the same Answer: b Rationale: With respect to memory capacity, it appears that older individuals are able to pick up and hold slightly less sensory information than are young adults. 104. Suppose you look up the telephone number to call, and someone asks you where your next class is. You answer quickly, but promptly forget the number you just looked up. The memory store in which this telephone number was held is called: a. sensory memory b. short-term memory c. long-term memory d. semantic memory Answer: b Rationale: Short-term memory refers to memory for things we are presently and actively thinking about. Table 16-6 lists as an example of short-term memory remembering a phone number just looked up long enough to dial it. 105. Eighty-five-year-old Norma tells her grandchildren about her life during the Great Depression. Her recall of such events illustrates her ability to recall information from: a. sensory memory b. short-term memory c. semantic memory d. episodic memory Answer: d Rationale: Episodic long-term memory refers to a person’s recollection of past events and personally relevant information. 106. Generalizing from research described in the text, you would expect older adults to suffer the greatest memory decrement on which of the following tasks? a. arithmetic calculations, such as balancing a check book b. vocabulary, such as that needed to solve a crossword puzzle c. story-telling of stories from their distant past or childhood d. knowledge of a second language learned in childhood and used in early adulthood Answer: c Rationale: The greatest memory decline in older adulthood is for tasks involving episodic, rather than semantic, memory. Episodic memories involve the recall of specific past events, whereas semantic memories involve factual recall. In this example, arithmetic, vocabulary, and knowledge of a second language all depend on semantic memory, whereas recall of childhood events is an episodic memory task. Thus, recall of past episodes is the type of memory task where the greatest decrement would be expected. 107. Generalizing from research described in the text, you would expect older adults to suffer the LEAST memory decrement on which of the following tasks? a. arithmetic calculations, such as balancing a check book b. memories of a trip taken in childhood c. recollections of clothing that one wore at an important occasion years before d. recall of the colors painted on the walls of the house one lived 40 years ago Answer: a Rationale: The greatest memory decline in older adulthood is for tasks involving episodic, rather than semantic, memory. Episodic memories involve the recall of specific past events, whereas semantic memories involve factual recall. In this example, the arithmetic task depends on semantic memory, whereas recall of childhood events in an episodic memory task. Thus, the least memory decrement would likely be for the check-balancing task. 108. The text cites recent studies of the brain that indicate that as adults age, their brain actually becomes _________ and the activity of their brain in the prefrontal cortex regions __________. a. smaller; declines b. smaller; increases c. larger; declines d. larger; increases Answer: b Rationale: Recent studies of the aging brain indicate that, contrary to previous assumptions, the brain actually becomes smaller with age. However, the activity of the brain in the prefrontal cortex regions tends to increase with age, reflecting ongoing cognitive processing and compensatory mechanisms. 109. Suppose you apply for a job as a data programmer and you are asked to compare two lists of numbers paired side by side, noting which pairs of numbers are identical to each other and which pairs are different from each other. This task would best be considered a test of: a. inductive reasoning b. spatial orientation c. perceptual speed d. verbal memory Answer: c Rationale: Table 16-7 lists the 6 mental abilities studied in the Seattle Longitudinal Study and provides an example of each. Checking lists for identical versus nonidentical pairs of items is the example given that demonstrates perceptual speed. 110. Suppose you are given a test that asks you to identify similarities between two words. For example, one question asks, “How are a cup and a plate alike?” This test is most likely measuring which of the cognitive abilities tested in the Seattle Longitudinal Study? a. perceptual speed b. inductive reasoning c. numeric facility d. verbal ability Answer: d Rationale: Table 16-7 lists the 6 mental abilities studied in the Seattle Longitudinal Study and provides an example of each. “How are a cat and dog alike?” is the example given that demonstrates verbal ability. 111. The Seattle Longitudinal Study is best described as a study that uses which of the following methods to study how adult cognition changes with age? a. only cross-sectional methods b. only longitudinal methods c. neither cross-sectional nor longitudinal methods d. both cross-sectional and longitudinal methods Answer: d Rationale: The Seattle Longitudinal Study is a comprehensive research effort that utilizes both cross-sectional and longitudinal methods to study how adult cognition changes with age. This approach allows researchers to examine both age-related differences and individual trajectories of cognitive development over time. 112. Which of the following is the most accurate statement of the purpose of the Seattle Longitudinal Study? a. to investigate how cognitive processes change during adulthood b. to determine the factors that cause cognitive processes to change with age c. to examine gender and socioeconomic differences in cognition d. to investigate how wisdom develops and why some people are “wiser” than others Answer: a Rationale: K. Warner Schaie has been studying the age-related changes in various types of cognitive abilities for over 50 years through the Seattle Longitudinal Study, in which he has tracked adults, ages 20 to 70, since 1956. 113. Suppose that Dr. Rand goes to a college reunion and asks for volunteers to take a memory test. He identifies 4 groups: people who graduated in 1920-1925, in 1940-1945, in 1960-1965, and in 1980-1985. He then analyzes how these groups compare to each other on the tests. Dr. Rand’s study is best considered to be an example of: a. an experiment b. a cross-sectional study c. a longitudinal study d. both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study Answer: b Rationale: Cross-sectional studies compare individuals in various age groups at the same point in time. 114. The longitudinal results of the Seattle Longitudinal Study show which of the following patterns in relationship of cognitive abilities and aging? a. Most cognitive abilities remain intact until older adulthood, at which point they begin to decline. b. Verbal abilities show little decline with age, but perceptual abilities decline steadily throughout adulthood. c. Perceptual abilities show little decline with age, but verbal abilities decline steadily throughout adulthood. d. Nearly all cognitive abilities show a small but steady decline throughout adulthood, beginning at about age 35. Answer: a Rationale: When individuals are tracked across time as they age, results show that they maintain their early levels of cognitive functions throughout early and middle adulthood, with very little decline occurring until about age 65. By age 75, some gentle decline in most functions has begun, and by age 85 this decline is more significant. 115. According to the results of the Seattle Longitudinal Study, which of the following adults would be expected to have the worst performance on the tests included in this study? a. Matt, who is 25 years old b. Tom, who is 50 years old c. Bob, who is 65 years old d. Fred, who is 85 years old Answer: d Rationale: The Seattle Longitudinal Study shows that, although age-related cognitive decline is modest throughout much of adulthood, by age 85 this decline is more significant. Figure 16-10 clearly shows this age-related decline. 116. If you were to choose one word to describe the essence of what developmentalists mean by the term “wisdom” that word would be: a. expert b. verbal c. fast d. old Answer: a Rationale: Wisdom refers to an expert knowledge system that involves excellent judgment and advice on critical and practical life issues. 117. According to the text, expert knowledge focusing on the pragmatics of life that involves excellent judgment and advice on critical life issues defines the trait called: a. fidelity b. wisdom c. purpose d. competence Answer: b Rationale: Wisdom is characterized by expert knowledge focusing on the pragmatics of life, demonstrating excellent judgment, and offering valuable advice on critical life issues. It encompasses insights gained through life experiences and the ability to apply this knowledge effectively in various situations. 118. Which of the following abilities improves, or increases, with advancing age into older adulthood? a. perceptual speed b. verbal memory c. numeric ability d. wisdom Answer: d Rationale: Wisdom is positively related to age; both the development of personality and cognitive growth contribute to wisdom. 119. Suppose you are given a test that asks questions such as: “Suppose a single mother with no money wants to have another child. What should she do?” This question is most likely on a test that assesses which of the following traits: a. wisdom b. verbal ability c. procedural knowledge d. spatial orientation Answer: a Rationale: This question is the one given as an example in Table 16-8, used to demonstrate the use of wisdom-related criteria to evaluate discourse about life matters. 120. The text defines the confusion, forgetfulness, and personality changes associated with old age as: a. dementia b. psychosis c. depression d. neurosis Answer: a Rationale: Dementia refers to a group of symptoms that include confusion, forgetfulness, and personality changes, commonly associated with old age. It is a progressive condition that affects cognitive functioning and interferes with daily activities. 121. Which of the following words means essentially the same thing as dementia? a. senescence b. stochastic c. senility d. ageism Answer: c Rationale: Senility is essentially synonymous with dementia, referring to the cognitive decline, memory loss, and other symptoms associated with aging and cognitive impairment. 122. Chuck, age 82, suffers from confusion, forgetfulness, and personality changes associated with old age. The general term that best describes Chuck’s symptoms is: a. hypertension b. atherosclerosis c. osteoporosis d. dementia Answer: d Rationale: Dementia, which is sometimes referred to by the less-technical term senility, refers to the chronic confusion, forgetfulness, and accompanying personality changes that are sometimes associated with advanced age. 123. Eighty-year-old Jack has a limited ability to grasp abstractions. His memory for recent events is impaired. He is unable to cope with routine tasks, and can no longer relate to people. Jack most likely suffers from which of the following conditions: a. Parkinson's disease b. depression c. dementia d. osteoporosis Answer: c Rationale: Dementia, which is sometimes referred to by the less-technical term senility, refers to the chronic confusion, forgetfulness, and accompanying personality changes that are sometimes associated with advanced age. People with dementia have a limited ability to grasp abstractions and because of their mental deterioration, people with dementia may be unable to cope with routine tasks, such as keeping clean and groomed, and may be unable to think, behave, or relate to people normally. 124. Larry was an orphaned child and has lived in an institution his entire life. As he ages, he begins to experience the symptoms of dementia. If these symptoms are the result of his impoverished living conditions, they would best be considered an example of what the text defines as: a. specific causes of cognitive decline b. personal causes of cognitive decline c. environmental causes of cognitive decline d. precipitous causes of cognitive decline Answer: c Rationale: Environmental factors of cognitive decline describe a person’s overall welfare, such as poor general health or living in a nonstimulating environment. These factors can produce symptoms associated with dementia. 125. If Leila is hospitalized and the diagnosis is “multi-infarct dementia,” her family would know that she has: a. had a heart attack b. moved into the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease c. moved into the later stages of Alzheimer’s disease d. had a series of small strokes Answer: d Rationale: Strokes, including ministrokes, produce a form of cognitive decline that is sometimes called multi-infarct dementia (MID). An infarct is an obstruction of a blood vessel that prevents a sufficient supply of blood from reaching a particular area of the brain. 126. Another term used to describe the condition called “multi-infract dementia” is: a. Alzheimer’s disease b. Parkinson’s disease c. stroke d. heart attack Answer: c Rationale: Strokes, including ministrokes, produce a form of cognitive decline that is sometimes called multi-infarct dementia (MID). An infarct is an obstruction of a blood vessel that prevents a sufficient supply of blood from reaching a particular area of the brain. 127. Which of the following is a disease that involves a progressive deterioration of brain cells, especially in the cerebral cortex, and is a common cause of dementia? a. atherosclerosis b. osteoporosis c. Parkinson's disease d. Alzheimer's disease Answer: d Rationale: Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a progressive deterioration of brain cells, particularly in the cerebral cortex, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and other symptoms associated with dementia. 128. Alzheimer's disease is a form of: a. dementia b. cancer c. atherosclerosis d. stroke Answer: a Rationale: The text notes that the leading cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease. 129. According to the text, which of the following is generally the first noticeable symptom of Alzheimer's disease to appear? a. forgetfulness b. fatigue c. physical impairment, such as stumbling and shaking d. depression Answer: a Rationale: Forgetfulness is typically the first noticeable symptom of Alzheimer's disease to appear, often manifesting as difficulty remembering recent events or important information. 130. If a researcher is working on a genetic test to determine which variation of the APP and ApoE genes a person carries, the general focus of this work is most likely on finding a test that can be used to diagnose which of the following diseases: a. Alzheimer’s disease b. Parkinson’s disease c. atherosclerosis d. stroke Answer: a Rationale: APP and ApoE are genes that are thought to control processes linked to the development of Alzheimer’s disease. 131. If researchers are working to develop drugs that slow or limit the damage caused by Alzheimer’s disease, the neurotransmitter they most likely would be working with would be: a. dopamine b. acetylcholine c. GABA d. serotonin Answer: b Rationale: The text notes that drugs that prevent the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine can act to delay the worsening of symptoms associated with Alzheimer’s disease, so research is most likely to involve investigation of this neurotransmitter. 132. Alzheimer’s disease is the______ leading cause of death among people age 65 and older and the ____ leading cause of all deaths in the U.S. today. a. 5th; 6th b. 5th; 10th c. 2nd; 6th d. 2nd; 10th Answer: a Rationale: Alzheimer's disease is the 5th leading cause of death among people aged 65 and older and the 6th leading cause of all deaths in the United States today, highlighting its significant impact on public health and mortality rates. 133. On autopsy, Dan’s brain showed a high incidence of twisted and tangled neurons, along with some general cortical shrinkage. This evidence most likely suggests that Dan may have died from: a. a major stroke b. a transient ischemic attack c. Alzheimer’s disease d. atherosclerosis Answer: c Rationale: Autopsies of deceased people in the advanced stages of Alzheimer’s disease have revealed a characteristic pattern of damaged brain areas where neurons are no longer neatly ordered but instead are disorganized, looking like little bits of braided yarn. Cortical shrinkage is also revealed in the brain scans of people living with Alzheimer’s disease. Changing Perspectives: Diabetes – Will Type 2 Diabetes Be the New Lifestyle Disease Epidemic? 134. Diabetes is a chronic disease that involves a problem with the body’s use of, or production of, _________, a protein produced in the pancreas that is needed to break down molecules of _______. a. riboflavin; fat b. riboflavin; sugar c. insulin; fat d. insulin; sugar Answer: d Rationale: Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. In diabetes, particularly in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, there is either a deficiency in insulin production or an inability of the body's cells to respond effectively to insulin. This disrupts the breakdown of sugar (glucose) molecules, leading to elevated blood glucose levels. Therefore, option d, "insulin; sugar," accurately describes the relationship between insulin and the breakdown of sugar molecules, which is central to diabetes. 135. The type of diabetes that typically develops in adulthood and is linked to obesity is called: a. insulin-dependent diabetes b. insulin-expressive diabetes c. type 1 diabetes d. type 2 diabetes Answer: d Rationale: Type 2 diabetes is often referred to as adult-onset diabetes because it typically develops in adulthood, although it can occur at any age. It is closely associated with obesity and lifestyle factors such as poor diet and lack of physical activity. In type 2 diabetes, the body either becomes resistant to insulin or doesn't produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood glucose levels. Therefore, option d, "type 2 diabetes," correctly identifies the type of diabetes that is commonly linked to obesity and develops in adulthood.136. Connor is 50 years old, is considerably overweight, and has recently become concerned that he may have developed type 2 diabetes. If he is experiencing all of the following symptoms which is LEAST likely to be the result of having this disease: a. excessive thirst b. insomnia c. frequent need to urinate d. fatigue Answer: b Rationale: According to the text, common symptoms of diabetes include excessive thirst and urination (to dilute the unused sugar and excrete it), and fatigue (because energy levels are low). 137. Type 2 diabetes is associated with higher risks of developing all of the following conditions EXCEPT: a. cancer b. heart disease c. blindness d. kidney disease Answer: a Rationale: According to the text, diabetes is the leading cause of blindness in adults. Nearly one-half of the cases of end-stage kidney disease are the result of diabetes and those with diabetes are at higher risk for various chronic ailments, ranging from heart disease and stroke to circulation problems, especially in the feet and legs. 138. According to statistics presented in the text, the number of people in the world with type 2 diabetes is expected to __________ between 2000 and 2025. a. increase 10% b. increase 50% c. double d. quadruple Answer: c Rationale: Epidemiological data and projections indicate a significant increase in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes worldwide. The term "epidemic" is often used to describe this rise due to factors such as aging populations, urbanization, sedentary lifestyles, and poor dietary habits. The projected doubling of the number of people with type 2 diabetes between 2000 and 2025 reflects the alarming trend of increasing incidence and prevalence of the disease on a global scale. Therefore, option c, "double," accurately reflects the expected growth in the number of individuals with type 2 diabetes during the specified time frame. 139. Statistically speaking, which of the following adults has the highest risk of developing type 2 diabetes? a. Bob, who is a White American b. Rex, who is an African America c. Jesus, who is a Hispanic American d. Joseph, who is a Native American Answer: d Rationale: Compared to non-Hispanic Whites, the incidence of diabetes is 60% higher for Blacks, it is 110 to 120% higher for Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans, and it is highest of all for Native Americans. Current Issues: Wisdom – Cross-Cultural or Culture Specific? 140. In Baltes’ studies, participants are asked to consider complex situations and make recommendations about the best course of action. For example, a question might be: “A teenage boy wants to drop out of high school. What should his parents do?” Tests comprised of questions such as this have helped Baltes and his colleagues understand the concept of: a. dementia b. wisdom c. ageism d. senescence Answer: b Rationale: Paul Baltes and colleagues have been conducting a program of research on the concept of wisdom over the past 15 years or more. To study how people make wise choices, Baltes and colleagues have posed dilemmas and asked people to answer questions about the dilemmas that require the consideration of various kinds of judgments involved in wisdom. 141. According to Baltes and his colleagues, the combination of knowledge and judgment defines: a. aging b. wisdom c. creativity d. intelligence Answer: b Rationale: Baltes and colleagues see wisdom as reflecting a general theory of expert knowledge and judgment that speaks to the combination of excellence in mind together with virtue. 142. Bill is knowledgeable, but he also can see the consequences that different choices in life will have for the future. Paul Baltes and his colleagues would describe Bill as possessing which of the following traits? a. extroversion b. openness to experience c. wisdom d. agreeableness Answer: c Rationale: According to the view of Baltes and his colleagues, wise people are those who are able to see the ramifications and consequences of different choices in the important decisions of life. True-False questions: Aging Today 143. Ageist stereotypes can be either positive or negative. Answer: True Rationale: Ageist stereotypes can encompass a wide range of beliefs and attitudes about older adults, which can be either positive (e.g., wisdom, experience) or negative (e.g., frailty, incompetence). These stereotypes can influence how older individuals are perceived and treated in society. 144. In most Asian nations, the tradition of filial piety is becoming stronger as the population is aging. Answer: False Rationale: Filial piety, which refers to the veneration of the elderly in Asian cultures, is weakening, especially among younger people and those who live in urban environments. 145. Of all the cosmetic surgical procedures performed today in the U.S., Botox injection is the most common. Answer: True Rationale: According to statistics from various sources, including the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, Botox injection is consistently among the most commonly performed cosmetic procedures in the United States. Its popularity is due to its effectiveness in reducing wrinkles and lines on the face. 146. People are seldom ambivalent in their feelings about aging; most believe older adulthood to be filled with only negative events. Answer: False Rationale: According to the text, most people are ambivalent about aging, seeing both positive and negative aspects of older adulthood. 147. Older adulthood is more complex than earlier developmental stages because the people in this stage vary so substantially from each other. Answer: True Rationale: Older adulthood encompasses a diverse range of individuals with varying health statuses, socioeconomic backgrounds, life experiences, and cognitive abilities. This diversity leads to increased complexity compared to earlier developmental stages, where individuals may be more homogeneous in terms of life circumstances and experiences. 148. According to the text, most adults over the age of 85 are frail. Answer: True Rationale: Frailty is a condition characterized by decreased physiological reserve and increased vulnerability to stressors. While frailty becomes more common with advancing age, not all adults over the age of 85 are frail. However, statistics and research suggest that a significant proportion of individuals in this age group may experience frailty to some degree. The Physical Aspects of Aging 149. Pathological aging factors are those factors that involve infectious diseases, such as pneumonia. Answer: False Rationale: Pathological aging factors are those things that affect aging that are associated with earlier events (such as an accident) or lifestyle choices (such as previous illnesses or bad health habits like smoking). 150. Hearing loss that results from working in a noisy factory environment is a good example of a pathological aging factor. Answer: True Rationale: Pathological aging factors refer to conditions or diseases that can accelerate the aging process or lead to negative health outcomes in older adults. Noise-induced hearing loss, resulting from exposure to loud environments over time, is an example of a pathological aging factor that can contribute to sensory decline in older individuals. 151. Regular exercise can allow older adults to double, or even triple, their strength. Answer: True Rationale: Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of regular exercise, particularly resistance training, in improving muscle strength and function in older adults. With appropriate exercise programs, older individuals can experience significant gains in strength, often doubling or even tripling their baseline strength levels. 152. Older adults typically are an inch or more shorter than they were during their early adult life. Answer: True Rationale: Age-related changes in the musculoskeletal system, including bone density loss and changes in posture, can lead to a decrease in height among older adults. It is not uncommon for individuals to lose an inch or more in height as they age due to compression of spinal discs and changes in joint flexibility. 153. Older individuals adapt less well to changes in temperature than younger adults. Answer: True Rationale: Age-related physiological changes, such as decreased ability to regulate body temperature and reduced sensitivity to temperature changes, can make older individuals more susceptible to thermal discomfort and less efficient at adapting to temperature fluctuations compared to younger adults. 154. Older adults typically sleep better, and sleep longer, than younger adults do. Answer: False Rationale: About half of the people over age 65 who live at home and about two-thirds of those in nursing homes and other long-term care facilities suffer from sleep problems, which often involve insomnia or sleep apnea. Older adults also sleep less and spend less time in deep sleep than younger adults. 155. A high-salt diet can contribute to the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: False Rationale: The text makes no mention of a link between salt intake and Alzheimer’s disease, but does note that salt intake is linked to the development of high blood pressure, which is called hypertension. 156. Older adults have trouble ignoring irrelevant stimuli and this, more than vision problems, contributes to their problems with driving a car. Answer: True Rationale: Age-related cognitive changes, including difficulties with attention and selective attention, can impact older adults' ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli while driving. While vision problems can certainly affect driving ability, research suggests that cognitive factors, such as distractibility and reduced attentional control, may play a significant role in driving performance among older adults. 157. Unless a brain disease is involved, the brains of older adults typically become slightly larger and heavier with advancing age. Answer: False Rationale: Brain size typically declines with age. At age 90, a typical person’s brain is about 10% smaller than it was at age 30. 158. Pneumonia is a good example of a chronic health condition. Answer: False Rationale: Pneumonia is an infectious disease that, if treated successfully, is cured. Chronic diseases, on the other hand, are lasting and recurrent. A good example of a chronic disease is arthritis or diabetes. 159. Adults require more calories as they age because their bodies become less efficient at producing energy from food. Answer: False Rationale: Older adults require about 20% fewer calories than they did when they were younger, although they do require the same number of nutrients. 160. Atherosclerosis is a condition caused by fat cells that are deposited in the walls of arteries, and this condition is more common in Western, than in Eastern, cultures. Answer: True Rationale: Atherosclerosis is a condition characterized by the accumulation of fatty deposits, cholesterol, and other substances in the walls of arteries, leading to narrowing and hardening of the arteries. While lifestyle factors such as diet and physical activity influence the development of atherosclerosis, it is generally more prevalent in Western cultures due to higher rates of obesity, sedentary lifestyles, and dietary habits rich in saturated fats and processed foods compared to Eastern cultures. 161. Studies often show that mistakes in prescribing and dispensing prescription drugs are quite frequently made, both by health-care professionals and by older adults themselves. Answer: True Rationale: Studies consistently reveal instances of errors in prescribing and dispensing prescription drugs, indicating that such mistakes are prevalent among both healthcare professionals and older adults. Factors such as complex medication regimens, communication issues, and cognitive decline can contribute to these errors. The Causes of Aging 162. The term senility refers to the normal aging not connected with the occurrence of disease in an individual, and to the universal biological process of aging. Answer: False Rationale: Senility is a synonym of dementia, and refers to disease-related aging processes. Senescence is the term used to refer to the normal process of aging. 163. Theories of aging that focus on how external factors damage our body are usually referred to as biological clock theories. Answer: False Rationale: Wear and tear theories of aging are called stochastic theories. 164. If aging is caused by processes that allow cells to divide a limited number of times, this view would be a good example of a biological clock theory of aging. Answer: True Rationale: This statement aligns with the biological clock theory of aging, also known as the cellular senescence theory, which suggests that aging is influenced by the limited capacity of cells to divide over time due to the shortening of telomeres. This theory implies a finite lifespan for cells and is a prominent perspective in explaining the aging process. Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age 165. The major decline in intellectual function that occurs with aging involves tasks involving speed. Answer: True Rationale: Research indicates that a significant aspect of cognitive decline with aging involves tasks related to processing speed. As individuals age, they typically exhibit slower cognitive processing, affecting tasks such as reaction time, information processing, and decision-making abilities. 166. Most studies find little or no difference in the short-term memory performance of young and older adults. Answer: True Rationale: Numerous studies indicate that there is often minimal disparity in short-term memory performance between young and older adults. While there may be slight declines in certain aspects of memory with age, overall short-term memory function tends to remain relatively stable across different age groups. 167. Semantic memory is usually affected to a greater degree by aging than is episodic memory. Answer: False Rationale: Semantic memory is largely unaffected by aging, but episodic memory does appear to decline with advancing age. 168. The general conclusion of the Seattle Longitudinal Study is that most cognitive abilities remain intact through most adulthood, although some decline is noticeable by age 65 and this decline accelerates at about age 85. Answer: True Rationale: The Seattle Longitudinal Study, conducted over several decades, has provided substantial evidence supporting the notion that most cognitive abilities typically remain stable throughout adulthood. However, there is a recognized pattern of cognitive decline that becomes more pronounced around age 65, with an acceleration of decline typically observed around age 85. 169. Wisdom is seen equally often among young adults and older adults. Answer: False Rationale: Wisdom is related to age in that it is seldom seen in early adulthood and becomes much more commonly seen in later adulthood. 170. Developing dementia is part of the normal aging processing, which means that even healthy adults will eventually develop dementia if they live long enough. Answer: False Rationale: Dementia is typically the result of disease processes or brain injury. If adults do not develop these health problems, they do not experience dementia, no matter how old they become. 171. The two most common specific sources of dementia are strokes and Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: True Rationale: Strokes and Alzheimer's disease are indeed among the most prevalent causes of dementia. Strokes, which result from disrupted blood flow to the brain, can lead to vascular dementia, while Alzheimer's disease is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Together, these conditions account for a significant portion of dementia cases. 172. Alzheimer’s disease is now the fifth leading cause of death among people age 65 and over. Answer: True Rationale: Alzheimer's disease ranks as one of the leading causes of death among individuals aged 65 and older. Its progressive nature and impact on cognitive function contribute to increased mortality rates in older populations. As life expectancy rises and the population ages, Alzheimer's disease continues to have a significant public health impact. 173. Alzheimer’s disease can now be cured, although the therapy consists of taking a combination of several types of new drugs called “drug cocktails.” Answer: False Rationale: At the present time, there is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, although drugs that address some of its symptoms and drugs that appear to slow down the progress of the disease are available and new drug treatments are on the horizon. Short Answer questions: Aging Today 174. Give two examples of common ageist stereotypes, one reflecting a negative view and one reflecting a positive view of aging. Answer: Negative View: Stereotype: Older adults are technologically inept and resistant to change. Positive View: Stereotype: Older adults are wise and experienced. 175. With respect to the proportion of people over age 65, describe the changes expected in the U. S. population over the next 50 years. Answer: The proportion of people over age 65 is expected to increase significantly in the U.S. population over the next 50 years due to factors such as increased life expectancy and the aging of the baby boomer generation. 174. What does it mean to say that most view older adulthood with ambivalence? Answer: To say that most view older adulthood with ambivalence means that society holds conflicting attitudes towards aging, encompassing both positive and negative perceptions. 175. How do most people in the U.S. view the use of cosmetic surgery to help people look younger or more attractive? Answer: Most people in the U.S. view the use of cosmetic surgery to help people look younger or more attractive positively, considering it as a viable option to enhance one's appearance and confidence. 176. Describe 3 important ways in which the “young-old” are different from the “old-old.” Answer: 1. Health Status: The young-old generally have better physical health compared to the old-old, who may experience more chronic health issues. 2. Independence: The young-old are typically more independent in terms of activities of daily living compared to the old-old, who may require more assistance or care. 3. Social Engagement: The young-old are more likely to engage actively in social activities and maintain a wider social network compared to the old-old, who may experience social isolation due to various factors such as mobility limitations or loss of friends and family. 177. Identify two societal challenges that likely will result from the changing demographics of older adults in the U. S. population. Answer: 1. Healthcare Costs: With an increasing proportion of older adults in the population, there will be a greater demand for healthcare services, potentially leading to increased healthcare costs and strains on healthcare systems. 2. Pension and Social Security Systems: The changing demographics will put pressure on pension and social security systems as there will be fewer younger workers contributing to support a larger aging population, possibly leading to issues with sustainability and adequacy of these systems. The Physical Aspects of Aging 178. Give two examples of diseases that result primarily from pathological aging factors and an example of a disease that does not result from such factors. Answer: • Diseases primarily resulting from pathological aging factors include Alzheimer's disease and osteoporosis. • An example of a disease not primarily resulting from such factors is influenza. 179. Describe 3 ways in which muscles, bones, and mobility change as adults age. Answer: • Muscle mass typically decreases. • Bone density tends to decline, leading to increased risk of fractures. • Mobility can be affected by reduced flexibility and strength, resulting in decreased balance and coordination. 180. Define what is meant by the term “reserve capacity” and give an example for how older adults adapt to a reduction in this ability. Answer: • Reserve capacity refers to the body's ability to cope with stressors or challenges. • An example of adaptation to a reduction in reserve capacity in older adults is through regular exercise, which helps maintain muscle strength and cardiovascular health, thus enhancing the body's ability to handle physical demands. 181. Describe how the sleep patterns of adults typically change with age, noting the kinds of sleep problems that are most often seen among elderly populations. Answer: • As adults age, they tend to experience changes in sleep patterns characterized by lighter sleep, more frequent awakenings, and shorter sleep duration. • Common sleep problems among elderly populations include insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome. 182. Which aspects of vision appear to be most directly involved in the development of problems linked to poorer driving among older adults? Answer: • Aspects of vision most directly involved in driving problems among older adults include reduced visual acuity, impaired depth perception, and decreased peripheral vision. 183. Describe how the brain of a 30-year-old would likely be different from the brain of a 90-year-old. Answer: • The brain of a 30-year-old typically exhibits higher processing speed, better memory retention, and faster cognitive function compared to that of a 90-year-old. • Conversely, a 90-year-old's brain may show signs of reduced volume, decreased synaptic density, and potential cognitive decline, such as slower reaction times and impaired memory retrieval. 184. Identify the 3 most common chronic health problems faced by older adults in the United States today. Answer: The three most common chronic health problems faced by older adults in the United States today are cardiovascular disease (including heart disease and stroke), arthritis, and diabetes. 185. Why are older adults often overweight, but undernourished? Answer: Older adults are often overweight but undernourished due to factors such as decreased appetite, changes in metabolism, dental problems affecting chewing, limited income for purchasing nutritious foods, and social isolation leading to poor dietary choices. 186. Identify and describe 3 reasons why prescription drugs are sometimes misused by older adults. Answer: Prescription drugs are sometimes misused by older adults due to factors such as polypharmacy (taking multiple medications), cognitive decline affecting medication management, inadequate communication between healthcare providers, and the desire to self-medicate for untreated pain or mental health issues. The Causes of Aging 187. What is the primary distinction between the meaning of the terms senescence and senility? Answer: The primary distinction between the meaning of the terms senescence and senility is that senescence refers to the natural process of aging, encompassing physical, psychological, and social changes over time, while senility specifically refers to a state of cognitive decline or impairment associated with aging. 188. Describe an example of a stochastic theory of aging. Answer: An example of a stochastic theory of aging is the Free Radical Theory, which suggests that aging is caused by accumulated damage to cells and tissues over time due to the effects of free radicals generated during normal metabolism. This theory proposes that random damage from oxidative stress contributes to aging processes such as tissue degeneration and chronic diseases. 189. Describe an example of a biological clock theory of aging. Answer: An example of a biological clock theory of aging is the Telomere Shortening Theory. This theory proposes that aging is influenced by the shortening of telomeres, the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes, with each cell division. As telomeres progressively shorten, cells reach a point where they can no longer divide, leading to cellular senescence and contributing to the aging process. Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age 190. Identify the major cognitive decline that occurs with advancing age and provide an example for how this decline might affect the job performance of an older worker. Answer: Major Cognitive Decline: One of the significant cognitive declines that occur with advancing age is a decrease in processing speed. This means that older adults typically take longer to process information and react to stimuli compared to younger individuals. Example: In a job where quick decision-making is crucial, such as customer service or emergency response, an older worker's slowed processing speed may result in delays in responding to customer inquiries or handling urgent situations, potentially leading to decreased job performance. 191. How do older adults typically accommodate their slower cognitive processing speed? Give an example for how an older typist might be able to maintain her typing ability, in spite of her slower reaction times. Answer: Accommodation for Slower Processing Speed: Older adults often compensate for their slower cognitive processing speed by relying more on accumulated knowledge and experience, adopting strategies to simplify tasks, and utilizing aids or tools to assist in cognitive tasks. Example: An older typist, experiencing slower reaction times, may compensate by employing touch typing techniques, where muscle memory guides keystrokes rather than relying solely on rapid cognitive processing. Additionally, using typing software with predictive text features can assist in maintaining typing ability despite slower cognitive processing speed. 192. Explain the difference between sensory memory and short-term memory and provide an example of each. Answer: Difference Between Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory: • Sensory Memory: Sensory memory refers to the initial stage of memory where sensory information from the environment is briefly registered and retained in its original sensory form. It acts as a buffer, holding sensory information for a very brief duration. • Short-Term Memory: Short-term memory, also known as working memory, is the temporary storage system that actively holds and manipulates information for short periods, typically up to 20-30 seconds. It plays a crucial role in tasks requiring immediate processing or retention of information. Example of Sensory Memory: When you briefly see a car passing by, the image of the car lingers in your sensory memory for a fraction of a second before fading away. Example of Short-Term Memory: Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it without writing it down utilizes short-term memory. 193. Which type of memory system is most likely to experience the greatest degree of age-related decline? Give an example of the kind of information typically processed in this memory system. Answer: The memory system most likely to experience the greatest degree of age-related decline is episodic memory. Episodic memory involves the recollection of specific events or experiences from one's past, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast yesterday or recalling details of a recent vacation. 194. How does a cross-sectional study differ from a longitudinal study? Answer: A cross-sectional study compares different groups of individuals at a single point in time to assess differences between them. In contrast, a longitudinal study follows the same group of individuals over an extended period, assessing changes within that group over time. 195. According to the longitudinal data generated by the Seattle Longitudinal Study, describe the typical pattern of cognitive decline associated with advancing age. Answer: The Seattle Longitudinal Study's longitudinal data indicates that cognitive decline associated with advancing age typically follows a pattern of gradual decline across multiple cognitive domains, such as processing speed, memory, and reasoning. However, the rate and extent of decline can vary between individuals, and some cognitive abilities may remain stable or even improve with age. 196. Describe the typical way in which wisdom is measured and studied in research situations. Answer: Wisdom is often measured and studied in research situations through various psychometric assessments and qualitative evaluations. These may include standardized tests designed to assess components of wisdom such as emotional regulation, empathy, reflection, tolerance for divergent values, and the ability to resolve conflicts. Additionally, researchers may use self-report questionnaires, interviews, and case studies to gather data on individuals' wisdom-related traits and behaviors. 197. Explain the difference between dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: Dementia is a broad term used to describe a decline in cognitive abilities that interfere with daily life and functioning. Alzheimer's disease, on the other hand, is a specific type of dementia characterized by progressive memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. While Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia, there are other causes such as vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. 198. Give an example of an environmental cause of dementia. Answer: An example of an environmental cause of dementia is exposure to toxins such as heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury), pesticides, and industrial chemicals. Prolonged exposure to these substances, either through occupation, environmental pollution, or other means, can contribute to cognitive decline and increase the risk of developing dementia later in life. 199. Describe the typical progression of symptoms seen in cases involving Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: In Alzheimer's disease, the typical progression of symptoms often starts with mild memory loss and difficulty in recalling recent events. As the disease advances, individuals may experience more pronounced cognitive decline, including challenges with language, reasoning, problem-solving, and spatial orientation. Behavioral changes such as agitation, mood swings, and withdrawal from social activities may also occur. In later stages, individuals may require assistance with basic activities of daily living as their cognitive and physical abilities decline further. 200. What is the typical treatment for Alzheimer’s disease today? How does this treatment work? Answer: The typical treatment for Alzheimer's disease primarily involves medications aimed at managing symptoms and slowing down cognitive decline. These medications include cholinesterase inhibitors like donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine, which work by increasing levels of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning, in the brain. Another class of drugs includes memantine, which regulates glutamate, another neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory processes. Additionally, non-drug interventions such as cognitive stimulation, physical exercise, and social engagement are often recommended to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. 201. Describe the typical way in which older adults compensate for their diminishing abilities, using the example of pianist Arthur Rubinstein to illustrate your points. Answer: As older adults experience diminishing abilities, they often compensate through a variety of strategies, including relying on accumulated knowledge and expertise, simplifying tasks, and using external aids. Pianist Arthur Rubinstein, for instance, adapted his playing style as he aged, focusing on interpretation rather than technical prowess. He compensated for physical limitations by employing techniques such as strategic pedaling and using arm weight to achieve desired effects, allowing him to continue delivering captivating performances despite aging-related challenges. Additionally, he adjusted his repertoire to suit his abilities, showcasing his strengths while minimizing the impact of weaknesses, thus demonstrating the adaptive strategies commonly employed by older adults to maintain functionality and pursue their passions. Essay Questions: Aging Today 202. Discuss how today’s ageist stereotypes of men and women differ and comment on who is more negatively affected by these stereotypes, old men or old women. Answer: Today's ageist stereotypes of men and women often differ in how they are portrayed. For men, there's often an emphasis on maintaining vitality, success, and power. Aging men might face stereotypes such as being past their prime, losing physical strength, or being less relevant in professional or social spheres. On the other hand, ageist stereotypes for women frequently revolve around appearance, with emphasis on youthfulness, beauty, and maintaining a certain standard of attractiveness. Older women may be stereotyped as less capable, less desirable, or even invisible in society. As for who is more negatively affected, it's difficult to make a blanket statement. Both old men and old women face distinct challenges stemming from ageist stereotypes. Old men might struggle with the pressure to remain productive and dominant, especially in spheres traditionally dominated by men. Meanwhile, old women may contend with societal devaluation due to age-related beauty standards and diminishing roles. The intersectionality of ageism with factors such as race, socioeconomic status, and sexuality further complicates this assessment. 203. Comparing the view of aging held by most people in the U. S. today to views held in colonial times and to views held in other cultures, answer the question: Do people in the U. S. today view aging as a more positive, or a more negative, process than it was viewed in other times and in other contexts? Answer: In contemporary U.S. society, there's a mixed perception of aging, combining both positive and negative aspects. On one hand, advancements in healthcare, lifestyle choices, and cultural shifts have led to an increased emphasis on maintaining health and vitality in old age. There's a growing appreciation for wisdom, experience, and the contributions of older individuals to society. This positive view of aging is evident in movements promoting active aging, intergenerational connections, and age-inclusive policies. However, alongside these positive trends, ageism persists, manifesting in stereotypes, discrimination, and systemic inequalities against older adults. The negative aspects of aging, such as declining health, loss of independence, and societal devaluation, are still prevalent in U.S. culture. Comparing this to colonial times, aging was often revered as a sign of wisdom and experience, particularly among Native American and indigenous cultures. Elders held significant roles in decision-making and were respected for their knowledge. However, European colonizers brought their own biases, often associating aging with decline and diminished value. In various other cultures, views on aging vary widely. Some cultures venerate and celebrate aging, considering it a natural part of life's journey, while others may hold more negative views due to economic, social, or religious factors. Overall, it's challenging to assert whether people in the U.S. today view aging more positively or negatively compared to other times and contexts. While there are certainly more opportunities for older adults today in terms of healthcare, technology, and social engagement, ageism remains a pervasive issue that colors perceptions of aging in contemporary society. 204. Identify two examples of positive ageist stereotypes and two examples of negative ageist stereotypes that are commonly held around the world. Answer: Positive ageist stereotypes: 1. Wisdom and experience: Older individuals are often stereotyped as wise and knowledgeable due to their life experiences. 2. Dependability and reliability: Older adults are sometimes viewed as dependable and reliable, based on assumptions of maturity and stability. Negative ageist stereotypes: 1. Frailty and weakness: Older adults may be stereotyped as frail and physically weak, leading to assumptions about their inability to engage in certain activities. 2. Technological incompetence: There is a stereotype that older adults struggle with technology, leading to perceptions of incompetence or inability to adapt to modern tools and devices. 205. Do you think older adults in the United States today are treated better, or worse, than older adults in other cultures? Explain your answer. Answer: The treatment of older adults varies greatly across cultures, and it would be difficult to make a blanket statement about whether older adults in the United States are treated better or worse than those in other cultures. In some cultures, older adults are highly respected and revered, valued for their wisdom and experience. In others, they may face discrimination or neglect. Similarly, in the United States, older adults may experience both positive and negative treatment depending on factors such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and geographic location. Therefore, it's essential to analyze the specific cultural context and societal attitudes toward aging when comparing treatment of older adults across different cultures. 206. Why is the period of older adulthood often divided into 3 or more age-defined periods, such as the young-old, and old-old? What advantages does dividing this developmental stage into periods provide for researchers and scholars studying this stage of the lifespan? Answer: The period of older adulthood is often divided into multiple age-defined periods, such as young-old, old-old, and oldest-old, to acknowledge the diversity and complexity of experiences within this stage of life. Dividing older adulthood into these subcategories allows researchers and scholars to: 1. Capture developmental differences: By recognizing different age groups within older adulthood, researchers can better understand and analyze the unique developmental challenges, needs, and characteristics associated with each stage. For example, the health concerns and social dynamics of the young-old may differ significantly from those of the oldest-old. 2. Tailor interventions and services: Understanding the distinct needs of various age groups within older adulthood enables professionals in fields such as healthcare, social services, and gerontology to develop targeted interventions and services that address specific concerns and promote well-being across the lifespan. 3. Facilitate comparative studies: Dividing older adulthood into periods allows for comparative studies examining how factors such as health, cognition, social relationships, and quality of life evolve across different age groups. This comparative approach enhances our understanding of age-related changes and trajectories. Overall, dividing older adulthood into age-defined periods enhances the precision and depth of research and scholarship in gerontology and related fields, facilitating a more nuanced understanding of the aging process and its implications for individuals and societies. 207. Describe the major ways in which the “young-old” differ from the “old-old.” To what degree do biological and social forces contribute to these changes? Answer: The "young-old" typically refer to individuals aged around 65 to 74, while the "old-old" are typically considered those aged 75 and above. There are several notable differences between these two groups. Firstly, in terms of biological factors, the "young-old" generally experience fewer age-related health issues and physical limitations compared to the "old-old." They may still be relatively active, healthier, and more independent, often experiencing fewer chronic health conditions. Socially, the "young-old" are more likely to be engaged in various activities, potentially still working part-time, volunteering, or pursuing hobbies actively. They may also maintain a larger social network and have more opportunities for social interaction compared to the "old-old," who may face increased social isolation due to factors like mobility limitations or the loss of peers and friends. However, as individuals transition into the "old-old" age group, biological factors become more prominent contributors to health decline and functional limitations, often requiring more assistance with daily activities and healthcare needs. Socially, the "old-old" may face greater challenges in maintaining social connections and accessing resources due to increased frailty and mobility issues. Biological and social forces both play significant roles in these changes. Biological factors such as age-related declines in physiological functions, increased susceptibility to chronic illnesses, and declining mobility contribute to the differences between the "young-old" and "old-old." Socially, access to healthcare, economic resources, social support networks, and opportunities for engagement also influence the transition from the "young-old" to the "old-old" age group. Overall, while biological changes are inevitable with aging, social factors can mitigate or exacerbate the impact of these changes on individuals' health, well-being, and quality of life. 208. Describe how the proportion of older adults in the U.S. population is expected to change over the next several decades and explain how this change is likely to affect U.S. social and economic policies. Answer: Over the next several decades, the proportion of older adults in the U.S. population is expected to increase significantly due to demographic shifts driven by factors such as increased life expectancy and the aging of the baby boomer generation. This demographic phenomenon, often referred to as the "aging population," will have profound implications for U.S. social and economic policies. With a larger proportion of older adults, there will be increased demand for healthcare services, long-term care facilities, and social services tailored to the needs of older individuals. This will likely lead to significant pressure on healthcare systems and government budgets as policymakers grapple with financing and delivering adequate care to an aging population. Additionally, there may be challenges associated with providing retirement security, ensuring access to affordable housing, and addressing issues such as elder abuse and age discrimination. From an economic perspective, the aging population will impact labor markets, productivity, and government spending. The retirement of a large cohort of baby boomers will strain pension systems and social security programs, potentially necessitating reforms to ensure their long-term sustainability. Moreover, as older adults make up a larger share of the population, there may be implications for consumer spending patterns, housing markets, and economic growth. To address these challenges, policymakers will need to implement a range of strategies, including healthcare reforms, workforce development initiatives, social safety net enhancements, and measures to promote healthy aging and independent living. Failure to adequately address the needs of an aging population could lead to disparities in health outcomes, economic insecurity, and social fragmentation, ultimately undermining the well-being of both older adults and society as a whole. 209. Explain the reasoning used in the text’s statement that the “very old” are often healthier than those in the “middle-aged-old” age group. Why would this be? Answer: The statement that the "very old" are often healthier than those in the "middle-aged-old" age group can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, individuals who reach advanced ages like 85 and above often possess a unique set of characteristics that contribute to their longevity and health. Surviving to such an advanced age may indicate a certain level of resilience, genetic predisposition, and healthier lifestyle habits. Additionally, individuals who live into their late 80s and beyond may have benefited from advances in healthcare, disease management, and public health interventions throughout their lives. Moreover, the concept of selective survival plays a role in this phenomenon. Individuals who reach advanced ages without significant health issues may represent a "survivor" population that is inherently healthier and more robust compared to those who succumb to illness or mortality at younger ages. This selective survival effect may contribute to the perception that the "very old" are healthier than individuals in the "middle-aged-old" age group. Furthermore, the "very old" may have different healthcare-seeking behaviors and attitudes towards health compared to younger age groups. They may be more proactive in managing their health, adhering to medical recommendations, and accessing preventive care services, which can contribute to better health outcomes. Overall, while there are exceptions and individual variations, the "very old" may often exhibit better health compared to the "middle-aged-old" due to a combination of genetic, lifestyle, healthcare-related factors, and the phenomenon of selective survival. The Physical Aspects of Aging 210. Describe 3 things that older adults can do to remain healthy and strong into old age. Answer: There are several habits older adults can adopt to maintain their health and strength as they age: 1. Regular Exercise: Engaging in regular physical activity, such as walking, swimming, or yoga, helps maintain muscle mass, flexibility, and cardiovascular health. Strength training exercises can also help prevent age-related muscle loss. 2. Balanced Diet: Eating a nutritious and well-balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains provides essential vitamins and minerals necessary for optimal health. Adequate hydration is also crucial for overall well-being. 3. Mental Stimulation: Keeping the brain active through activities like reading, puzzles, learning new skills, or socializing helps maintain cognitive function and may reduce the risk of cognitive decline associated with aging. 211. Suggest an explanation for why more older adults have heart attacks while shoveling snow or mowing the lawn than while sleeping. Include in your answer an explanation of reserve capacity. Answer: The increased incidence of heart attacks during physically strenuous activities like shoveling snow or mowing the lawn compared to during sleep can be attributed to several factors, including the sudden demand on the cardiovascular system and decreased reserve capacity. During sleep, the body is in a state of rest, and the cardiovascular system operates at a lower level of activity, requiring less oxygen and blood flow. In contrast, activities like shoveling snow or mowing the lawn demand sudden bursts of physical exertion, which can strain the heart, particularly in individuals with underlying cardiovascular conditions. Reserve capacity refers to the extra functional capacity of organs or systems beyond what is needed under normal circumstances. As people age, their reserve capacity diminishes, making it harder for the cardiovascular system to meet the increased demand during strenuous activities. This reduced reserve capacity increases the likelihood of experiencing a heart attack during such activities, especially if underlying cardiovascular issues are present. 212. Describe the particular sensory and cognitive changes that contribute to the difficulties older adults typically have with driving a car. Answer: Several sensory and cognitive changes associated with aging can contribute to the difficulties older adults often face when driving a car: 1. Vision Changes: As people age, visual acuity tends to decline, leading to difficulties with depth perception, peripheral vision, and low-light conditions. This can make it challenging to accurately judge distances, detect obstacles, or read road signs while driving. 2. Reaction Time: Aging can lead to slower reaction times, affecting the ability to respond quickly to unexpected events or hazards on the road, such as sudden stops or pedestrians crossing. 3. Cognitive Decline: Some older adults may experience cognitive changes, such as reduced attention span, memory decline, or difficulty processing information quickly. These changes can impair decision-making abilities while driving, making it harder to multitask, follow traffic rules, or navigate complex driving situations. Addressing these challenges may involve regular vision checks, adapting driving habits to accommodate slower reaction times, and considering alternative transportation options when necessary to ensure the safety of older drivers and others on the road. 213. Describe three common changes in the visual system that are age-related and suggest how each can be treated so that vision remains good. Answer: Three common age-related changes in the visual system include presbyopia, cataracts, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Presbyopia, the loss of near focusing ability, can be corrected with reading glasses, bifocals, or contact lenses. Cataracts, clouding of the lens, can be treated with surgery to remove the cloudy lens and replace it with an artificial one. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the deterioration of the macula, can be managed with lifestyle changes like quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy diet rich in antioxidants and vitamins, and regular eye exams to detect and treat early signs. 214. Describe two ways in which the brain changes as it ages and suggest how the brain likely compensates for these changes. Answer: Two common age-related changes in the brain include decreased synaptic density and reduced neuroplasticity. Decreased synaptic density refers to the loss of connections between neurons, which can affect cognitive functions. The brain likely compensates for this by employing neuroplasticity, the ability to reorganize neural pathways, to reroute functions through alternate pathways. Additionally, reduced neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to adapt and change, can be compensated for by engaging in mentally stimulating activities, such as learning new skills or hobbies, which can help maintain cognitive function and neural connectivity. 215. Comment on the accuracy of the statement: The human brain deteriorates with age. Answer: While it's true that certain aspects of brain function may decline with age, such as synaptic density and neuroplasticity, it's inaccurate to broadly state that the human brain deteriorates with age. The brain is remarkably adaptable and can compensate for age-related changes through various mechanisms such as neuroplasticity, the formation of new neural connections, and the recruitment of alternate brain regions to perform tasks. Furthermore, individuals can mitigate age-related cognitive decline through lifestyle factors like regular exercise, cognitive stimulation, and maintaining social connections, which can help preserve cognitive function well into old age. Therefore, while some decline in certain aspects of brain function may occur, it's not accurate to categorize the entire brain as deteriorating with age. 216. Describe how gender and ethnicity are linked to life expectancy. What might this pattern of results suggest about lifestyle differences among these groups of people? Answer: Gender and ethnicity are intricately linked to life expectancy, with variations observed across different demographics. Generally, women tend to outlive men, often attributed to biological factors such as hormonal differences and lower susceptibility to certain diseases. Additionally, ethnicity plays a significant role, with disparities existing between racial and ethnic groups. For instance, in the United States, African Americans tend to have shorter life expectancies compared to Caucasians, Hispanics, and Asians. This pattern of results suggests that lifestyle differences among these groups of people may contribute to the observed disparities in life expectancy. Factors such as socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, cultural practices, diet, and prevalence of chronic conditions vary among different genders and ethnicities, influencing overall health outcomes and life expectancy. 217. Describe the current trend of prescription drug use among the U.S. older population. Explain two types of problems this trend is accelerating. Answer: The current trend of prescription drug use among the older population in the United States is marked by an increasing reliance on pharmaceuticals to manage various health conditions associated with aging. This trend is driven by factors such as the aging population, advancements in medical treatments, and the prevalence of chronic diseases among older adults. Two types of problems accelerated by this trend include: 1. Polypharmacy: The use of multiple prescription drugs concurrently, often without adequate coordination or oversight, can lead to polypharmacy. This increases the risk of adverse drug interactions, side effects, and medication errors, posing significant health risks to older adults. Polypharmacy can also contribute to medication non-adherence and unnecessary healthcare utilization. 2. Rising healthcare costs: The increased use of prescription drugs among the older population contributes to rising healthcare costs. Many older adults rely on Medicare to cover their prescription drug expenses, placing financial strain on the healthcare system. Additionally, high drug prices and out-of-pocket expenses for prescription medications can lead to medication non-adherence and compromise health outcomes among older adults, exacerbating healthcare disparities. The Causes of Aging 218. Distinguish between the terms senescence and senility. Then comment on the degree to which each is driven by biological forces. Answer: Senescence refers to the natural process of aging, encompassing the gradual deterioration of biological functions over time. It involves a range of changes at cellular, tissue, and organismal levels, leading to decreased resilience and increased vulnerability to diseases and death. Senescence is predominantly driven by biological forces, including genetic factors, cellular damage, and the progressive decline of physiological systems. Senility, on the other hand, specifically refers to the mental decline associated with old age, characterized by cognitive impairments such as memory loss, confusion, and disorientation. While senility can be influenced by biological factors such as neurodegeneration and brain aging, it is also influenced by environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and individual health history. In summary, while both senescence and senility are influenced by biological forces, senescence encompasses the broader spectrum of physical aging processes, whereas senility primarily pertains to cognitive decline in old age. 219. Suppose a researcher finds evidence that brain cells can only divide about 50 times before they die. Would this evidence provide better support for a stochastic, or a biological clock, theory of aging? Explain your answer. Answer: This evidence would provide better support for the biological clock theory of aging. According to this theory, aging is driven by an internal genetic program, often likened to a "biological clock," that determines the lifespan of cells and organisms. The finite limit on the number of times brain cells can divide before dying suggests a programmed mechanism regulating cellular senescence rather than random damage accumulation (stochastic theory). This predetermined limit on cell division aligns with the concept of a biological clock controlling the aging process. 220. Compare how stochastic theories of aging and biological clock theories of aging explain the aging process. What aspects of aging does each theory explain well and what aspects are not explained well? Answer: Stochastic theories of aging propose that aging results from the gradual accumulation of random cellular damage over time. This damage can be caused by various factors such as environmental toxins, radiation, and metabolic byproducts. Stochastic theories explain well the variability in aging rates among individuals and the role of chance events in determining lifespan. However, they struggle to account for the consistent patterns of aging observed across different species and the existence of species-specific lifespan limits. Biological clock theories of aging suggest that aging is governed by an internal genetic program that controls the timing of senescence and death. These theories emphasize the existence of intrinsic biological mechanisms, such as telomere shortening or hormonal changes, that regulate the aging process. Biological clock theories explain well the consistent patterns of aging observed within species and the programmed nature of certain age-related changes. However, they may struggle to explain the considerable variability in lifespan even among genetically similar organisms and the influence of external factors on aging. In summary, stochastic theories focus on the role of random damage accumulation in aging, while biological clock theories emphasize predetermined genetic factors. Each theory provides valuable insights into certain aspects of aging but may have limitations in explaining the full complexity of the aging process. Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age 221. How do memory processes change as a person ages? Which particular types of tasks are least likely to be affected by age-related memory declines and which are more likely to be affected? Answer: Memory processes undergo changes as individuals age. Generally, older adults may experience declines in memory performance compared to younger adults. However, not all types of memory are equally affected. For example, episodic memory, which involves remembering specific events or experiences, tends to decline with age. On the other hand, semantic memory, which pertains to general knowledge and facts, may be relatively well preserved. Tasks that rely on procedural memory, such as riding a bike or tying shoelaces, are also less likely to be affected by age-related declines compared to tasks requiring complex episodic memory retrieval, like recalling specific details of recent events. 222. Does advancing age appear to be more problematic for tasks involving sensory memory, tasks involving short-term memory, or tasks involving long-term memory? Explain your answer by giving examples. Answer: Advancing age appears to affect different types of memory differently. While sensory memory, which involves briefly retaining sensory impressions, may show some decline with age, it's often less affected compared to short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory, responsible for holding information temporarily, tends to decline more noticeably with age. For instance, older adults might have more difficulty remembering a series of numbers or a list of items compared to younger adults. Long-term memory, the ability to recall information stored over a longer period, can also be impacted by age, especially episodic memory, which relates to specific events and experiences. Older adults may find it challenging to recall detailed memories of past events. 223. Describe and give an example of 4 different types of abilities measured in the Seattle Longitudinal Study. Which of these abilities, if any, appear to experience the greatest degree of age-related decline? Answer: The Seattle Longitudinal Study measures various abilities across adulthood. Four types of abilities studied include: 1. Perceptual speed: This refers to the ability to quickly and accurately process sensory information. An example task might involve identifying and matching shapes or symbols in a limited amount of time. 2. Verbal ability: This encompasses skills related to language, such as vocabulary and verbal comprehension. An example task could be defining words or understanding written passages. 3. Inductive reasoning: This involves drawing logical conclusions from observed facts or patterns. An example task might require participants to identify the next item in a sequence based on a set of rules or patterns. 4. Spatial orientation: This pertains to understanding and mentally manipulating spatial relationships. An example task could involve mentally rotating objects or navigating through a maze. Of these abilities, perceptual speed tends to experience the greatest degree of age-related decline, with processing becoming slower and less accurate as individuals age. 224. Describe how the results on age-related effects on cognition are different, depending on whether one considers a cross-sectional versus a longitudinal approach to research. Answer: In a cross-sectional approach to research, different age groups are compared at a single point in time. This method often shows significant age-related differences in cognition, with older adults typically performing worse than younger adults. However, these differences might also be influenced by cohort effects, such as differences in education or societal changes over time. On the other hand, longitudinal studies follow the same individuals over an extended period, allowing researchers to directly observe changes in cognition as people age. Longitudinal studies tend to show more nuanced patterns, revealing that while some cognitive abilities decline with age, others remain stable or even improve. This approach provides a clearer understanding of individual trajectories of cognitive change and can better differentiate between normal aging and pathological decline. 225. What is wisdom? Why does it seem to develop only as adults become older? Answer: Wisdom is a complex trait encompassing deep understanding, sound judgment, emotional regulation, empathy, and a sense of perspective. It involves the integration of knowledge, experience, and reflection to navigate life's challenges effectively. Wisdom often seems to develop as adults become older due to several factors. Firstly, older adults typically have accumulated more life experiences, providing them with a broader perspective and a richer repertoire of strategies for coping with adversity. Secondly, as individuals age, they tend to engage in more reflective thought and introspection, which can foster the development of wisdom. Additionally, older adults often have a greater capacity for emotional regulation and empathy, which are essential components of wisdom. 226. Give two examples of how lifestyle choices made earlier in life might affect the degree of cognitive decline an individual would face in older adulthood. Answer: Lifestyle choices made earlier in life can significantly impact cognitive health in older adulthood. For instance, engaging in regular physical exercise throughout adulthood has been linked to better cognitive function and a reduced risk of cognitive decline later in life. Exercise promotes cardiovascular health, reduces inflammation, and stimulates the release of growth factors that support the health and plasticity of brain cells. Similarly, maintaining a cognitively stimulating lifestyle, such as pursuing education, engaging in intellectually challenging activities, or participating in social interactions, can build cognitive reserve. Cognitive reserve refers to the brain's ability to withstand age-related changes or pathology, and individuals with higher cognitive reserve tend to experience slower rates of cognitive decline as they age. Therefore, lifestyle choices that promote physical and cognitive health earlier in life can have a protective effect against cognitive decline in older adulthood. 227. How might diet during adulthood affect the development of dementia? Answer: Diet during adulthood can significantly impact the development of dementia. A diet high in saturated fats, refined sugars, and processed foods has been linked to an increased risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Conversely, a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats (such as those found in fish and nuts) may help protect against dementia by providing essential nutrients and antioxidants that support brain health. 228. How might a wife first notice that her husband is developing the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease? If the disease is confirmed, what changes to her lifestyle should she anticipate as her husband’s disease progresses? Answer: A wife might first notice her husband developing symptoms of Alzheimer's disease through subtle changes in behavior and memory lapses, such as forgetting important dates, repeating questions, or getting lost in familiar places. As the disease progresses, she may observe more severe symptoms like confusion, disorientation, mood swings, and difficulty with everyday tasks. If the disease is confirmed, she should anticipate significant lifestyle changes, including taking on more caregiving responsibilities, managing finances and legal matters, seeking support from healthcare professionals and support groups, and adapting their living environment to ensure safety and comfort for her husband. 229. If you were to examine the brains of patients who died from Alzheimer’s disease, what differences would you expect to see, compared to brains of healthy young adults? What might these structural differences indicate about the causes of Alzheimer’s disease? Answer: Examination of the brains of patients who died from Alzheimer's disease typically reveals significant structural differences compared to healthy young adults. These differences include the presence of beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles, as well as widespread neuronal loss and inflammation. These structural differences indicate underlying pathological processes associated with Alzheimer's disease, including abnormal protein aggregation, neuronal dysfunction, and neuroinflammation, which ultimately lead to cognitive decline and dementia. 230. Describe two possible causes for Alzheimer’s disease and speculate on what type of research you think will provide the best chances for developing a cure for this disease. Answer: Two possible causes of Alzheimer's disease include genetic predisposition, particularly mutations in genes such as APP, PSEN1, and PSEN2, which are involved in the production and processing of beta-amyloid protein, and environmental factors such as diet, exercise, and exposure to toxins, which can influence brain health and contribute to disease development. Research focusing on understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's pathology, identifying novel therapeutic targets, and developing interventions aimed at preventing or slowing down disease progression holds promise for developing effective treatments and ultimately finding a cure for Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, research exploring the role of lifestyle factors in modulating disease risk and progression, such as diet, exercise, cognitive stimulation, and social engagement, may offer valuable insights into preventive strategies for reducing the burden of Alzheimer's disease. Test Bank for Understanding Human Development Wendy L. Dunn, Grace J. Craig 9780205989522, 9780135164204, 9780205233878, 9780205753079