CH-8 Memory – Psychology and Life : Exam Guide

Chapter 8: Memory 1) What is the definition of memory? A) the capacity to visualize. B) the capacity to feel and emote. C) the capacity to perceive events. D) the capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information. Answer: D Rationale: Memory is the capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information. 2) When driving in a car, why do stores along the roadside seem familiar? A) Memory enables us to have effortless continuity of experience from one day to another. B) Memory enables us to remember the important events of our lives. C) Objects that move are more readily encoded. D) A keen awareness of one’s surroundings has adaptive value. Answer: A Rationale: This is an example of implicit memory—the encoding or retrieval of information without conscious effort. 3) On their way to their 25th high school reunion, a husband asks his wife if she can remember the name of the "class clown" the year that they graduated. What term best captures the wife’s attempt to retrieve this information? A) partial-report procedure. B) the savings method. C) procedural memory. D) explicit use of memory. Answer: D Rationale: Explicit uses of memory occur when you consciously engage in an effort to encode or retrieve information. 4) The professor has become so adept at reviewing students' papers that spelling errors just seem to jump out at him. Which term best explains this phenomenon? A) the savings method. B) iconic memory. C) an explicit use of memory. D) an implicit use of memory. Answer: D Rationale: At first, the professor probably used explicit memory to learn the spelling of words; however, over time, the words are effortlessly remembered, without his conscious effort to retrieve this information 5) After waking from a nap, a student rides his bike to the library, where he studies for his test and then talks with some friends. Which activity is most closely tied to his procedural memory? A) talking with his friends. B) studying for his test. C) napping. D) riding his bike. Answer: D Rationale: Procedural memories are memories of how to do things or how to get things done. 6) Martha is on a picnic with her poetry group. They first share what they did on the previous weekend, and then recite some of their favourite poems. A few of them take a break and consider a swim, while others plan what they’ll do for their next meeting. Which of these activities would be an example of procedural memory? A) Sharing what they did on the previous weekend. B) Reciting poems. C) Considering swimming. D) Planning a future meeting. Answer: B Rationale: Procedural memory is memory for how things are done. It is used to acquire, retain, and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills. 7) Which error is most likely to be the result of knowledge compilation? A) When asked for the capital of Canada, Sara mistakenly says "Toronto." B) Sara needs to stop at the post office, but forgets as she drives her normal route home from school. C) After taking a course in Chinese, Sara forgets the rule for future perfect tense in Russian. D) Sara finds it difficult to learn her lines for an upcoming play. Answer: B Rationale: As you practice the route home more and more, you are able to drive there without conscious effort. What was originally a list of declarative facts about how to get home becomes, over time, unconscious, automatic performance of a sequence of actions. This process is called knowledge compilation. It takes conscious effort to interrupt or change this sequence, as stopping at the post office would do. 8) Tim’s friend suffered a bike accident and is unconscious in the hospital. The nurses are asking Tim for her parent’s phone number, and although Tim is now calm, he cannot remember it without looking at the phone and pretending to dial it. Tim’s fingers remember the number when memory efforts fail. What concept does this scenario illustrate? A) declarative retrieval. B) procedural interference. C) procedural dominance. D) knowledge compilation. Answer: D Rationale: Knowledge compilation is at work when after repeated practice, a list of declarative facts about your friend’s parent’s phone number becomes unconscious, automatic performance of a sequence of actions when you dial. This process is called knowledge compilation. It makes it harder to share your procedural knowledge with others. 9) What process is occurring when information is initially turned into a representation in memory? A) Storage B) Retrieval C) Encoding D) Rehearsal Answer: C Rationale: Encoding is the process by which a mental representation is formed in memory. 10) Peter is writing his Introductory Psychology midterm and is struggling to find the correct answer in his mind. Which process of memory is eluding Peter? A) consolidation B) encoding C) retrieval D) storage Answer: C Rationale: Retrieval is the recovery of stored information from memory. 11) A relative is showing his vacation slides. Where are the viewers’ visual images first stored for a very brief time? A) In procedural memory B) In short-term memory C) In iconic memory D) In echoic memory Answer: C Rationale: This is a memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief periods of time, at most a few seconds. It is a type of sensory memory. 12) While Krista is jogging in the park, the scene of a family enjoying a picnic catches her eye. After Krista turns away, what will happen to the image of the family? A) It will immediately recede. B) It will last for about one-half second. C) It will last for about three seconds. D) It will last for about five seconds. Answer: B Rationale: A visual memory of this short duration is a part of sensory memory and is called an icon. 13) Pete’s roommate is looking in the fridge and calling out to Pete the things he will need to buy at the grocery store. Although the list of items Pete hears is coming at him pretty fast, he notices that he still has a brief ability to hear the last word said. What type of memory is being described? A) procedural B) iconic C) echoic D) flashbulb Answer: C Rationale: Echoic memory is a sensory memory that allows auditory information to be stored as a virtual identical copy to the original stimulus for a brief duration. 14) In George Sperling’s classic research on iconic memory, participants were presented with arrays of three rows of letters and numbers. In which procedure were they asked to recall only one row in the display? A) savings B) analytic-report C) holistic D) partial-report Answer: D Rationale: In the whole-report procedure, participants could typically recall four items. In the partialreport procedure, the participants were quite accurate no matter if asked to report the first, second, or third row. He concluded that all three rows were in iconic memory, but the image fades quickly, explaining the whole-report difficulty. 15) To determine if iconic memory has a large capacity, what did researcher George Sperling need to do? A) compare the performance of participants in the partial-report procedure with those in the whole-report procedure. B) determine how participants performed in the whole-report procedure. C) compare the performance of participants in the whole-report procedure with previous studies of memory. D) compare the performance of participants on iconic memory tasks with the performance of participants on eidetic imagery tasks. Answer: A Rationale: The partial-report procedure demonstrated that iconic memory has a large capacity. However, it fades quickly, so if asked to report all three rows, participants could not do so before the memory faded. 16) How does iconic memory differ from eidetic imagery? A) Iconic memory is akin to looking at a photograph. B) Iconic memory lasts for much longer periods of time. C) Iconic memory lasts for much shorter periods of time. D) Iconic memory allows one to recall specific details of a picture that is no longer present. Answer: C Rationale: Eidetic imagery is "photographic memory." People with photographic memory can recall details much longer than would be true of iconic memory. Researchers have found that about 8 percent of children have this ability, but that almost no adults have it. 17) Which statement about "photographic memory" is supported by research? A) This type of memory ability is actually quite rare in adults. B) It is more common to experience eidetic imagery. C) This type of memory ability is actually not at all rare in adults. D) Individuals with photographic memory, likely lack iconic memory. Answer: A Rationale: There is no satisfactory theory as to why eidetic imagery fades over time, but almost no adults have been found to have this type of "photographic memory." It has been found to exist in about 8 percent of preadolescent children, however. 18) Breanna is bragging because she just had her memory span tested and was able to remember 4 out of 10 items. What can be accurately said about Breanna’s performance? A) Breanna should be very pleased as most people only remember 1 or 2 items. B) Breanna’s performance was within the average range. C) Breanna performed slightly below average. D) Breanna shouldn’t be bragging because the average individual will remember 10 items. Answer: C Rationale: Miller found that most people remember between 5 and 9 items in a test of memory span. 19) As part of a classroom demonstration, the teacher is reading a list of digits to test memory span. How many numbers will most students recall? A) one to two B) three to five C) five to nine D) ten to twenty Answer: C Rationale: Miller (1956) suggested that the capacity of short-term memory is seven items, plus or minus two. 20) Who discovered that the memory span of the average individual is 7 items, plus or minus 2? A) John Watson B) Endel Tulving C) George Miller D) Alan Baddeley Answer: C Rationale: Miller (1956) found that most individuals in a memory span test remember 7 items, plus or minus 2. 21) A student has taken a summer job answering telephone calls for sales orders. He quickly learns that it is pretty easy to remember a customer's seven-digit phone number, but it is much more difficult to keep track of a sixteen-digit credit card number. According to the conclusions of researcher George Miller, why is the student having difficulty with longer strings of numbers? A) the capacity of sensory memory is quite limited. B) memory span covers only five to nine items. C) retroactive interference has taken place D) the information has not been transferred to his sensory memory. Answer: B Rationale: This characterizes people's performance on memory tasks involving random lists of numbers, letters, words, or almost any other kind of familiar or meaningful item. 22) A father has sent his daughter to the grocery store. As his daughter leaves, the father can hear her repeating, "a dozen eggs and a loaf of bread" over and over again. What type of memory strategy is the daughter using? A) the method of loci. B) elaborative rehearsal. C) chunking. D) maintenance rehearsal. Answer: D Rationale: This is a memorization technique that helps us keep information from fading out of STM. 23) Imagine that a directory assistance operator has just given Katie a telephone number. Surprisingly, as Katie hangs up to dial the number the telephone rings and it is a telemarketer. Although it takes Katie only 18 seconds to get him off the line, she has been prevented from rehearsing the number during that time. Based on a study that is described in the textbook, what will likely happen if Katie attempts to dial the number now? A) She will forget all or almost all of the number. B) She will remember only the last half of the number. C) She will remember only the digits in the middle part of the number. D) She will recall the majority of the numbers. Answer: A Rationale: She has been prevented from rehearsal by the distraction of the telemarketer. Performance suffered from lack of rehearsal and from interference of the distractor. 24) For most individuals who read this question, which of the following would probably be seen as a single "chunk" of information? A) 59482574 B) KUZ-HG C) glasses, slippery D) "I love you." Answer: D Rationale: A chunk is a meaningful unit of information. It can be a single letter, a number, a group of letters or numbers, or even a group of words or a sentence. 25) A father sends his son to the corner store to pick up some groceries. Instead of remembering each individual item, the son groups the items according to food group. Which memory strategy is the son using? A) peg word B) method of loci C) chunking D) enrichment Answer: C Rationale: Chunking is the process of taking single items of information and recoding them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle. 26) The textbook describes a famous research participant, S.F., who was able to memorize eighty-four digits, though his memory for letters was about average. What lesson can be learned from this study? A) Individuals like S.F. are unique, and the strategies used by S.F. are not applicable to the majority. B) Anyone can structure and recall information as S.F. did, but the structure must be similar to the one used by S.F. C) Information can only be structured if it is linked to rules, meaning, or codes in long-term memory. D) Anyone can structure and recall information according to its personal meaning. Answer: D Rationale: We can all use chunking in many different ways, whether or not we can match new stimuli to things in LTM. The participant known as S.F. used his LTM to convert long strings of random numbers into meaningful chunks. He was a runner and noticed that numbers could be grouped according to running times for different distances. 27) Lucy was asked how many windows there are in her house. To answer the question, Lucy formed a mental picture of her house. According to Alan Baddeley, which component of working memory would be used to form the mental image? A) central executive B) navigational pilot C) visuospatial sketchpad D) phonological loop Answer: C Rationale: The visuospatial sketchpad uses spatial and visual information to form mental pictures of things from which details can be estimated. 28) Which component of working memory is used when deciding to attend to certain portions of a psychology lecture? A) phonological loop B) navigational pilot C) visuospatial sketchpad D) central executive Answer: D Rationale: This resource is responsible for controlling attention and coordinating information. We rely on the central executive to apportion mental resources to different aspects of the task. 29) Alex and Jacob are thinking of all the words that rhyme with ‘pat’. According to Baddeley, which component of working memory would they be using to accomplish this task? A) the central executive. B) a visuospatial sketchpad. C) a phonological loop. D) procedural memory. Answer: C Rationale: The phonological loop holds and manipulates speech-based information. 30) How is working memory best characterized? A) A biological process occurring in the brain. B) A physical area within the cerebral cortex. C) A conduit for information coming from and going to long-term memory. D) A mechanism that operates apart from short- and long-term memory. Answer: C Rationale: Working memory allows you to do an efficient search for information from preexisting memories. It provides a foundation for the moment-to-moment fluidity of thought and action. 31) As described in the textbook, researchers recruited college undergraduates for a study based on experience sampling. Participants were asked how challenging they found each task, and the extent to which their minds wandered from the tasks. What did the researchers discover? A) people with lower working memory capacity reported less mind wandering overall. B) people with lower working memory capacity could not complete the tasks. C) when tasks were challenging, people with higher working memory capacity reported less mind wandering than people with lower working memory capacity. D) people with higher working memory capacity were distracted by mind wandering much of the time. Answer: C Rationale: This suggests that people with higher working memory capacity are better able to use the central executive component of working memory, particularly to keep attention focused on challenging tasks for which they need working memory the most. 32) What memory process is required when taking a multiple-choice test? A) recognition B) recall C) encoding D) storing Answer: A Rationale: Recognition is the realization that a certain stimulus event is one that you have seen or heard before. Recall is the reproduction of the information to which you were previously exposed. 33) The last time Bev and Sue were in the city, they had a great meal, but now neither of them can remember the restaurant's name. Sue is looking at on-line restaurant listings in the hope that seeing the name will jog her memory. Which term best captures this approach to remembering? A) recall B) recognition C) word identification D) word stem completion Answer: B Rationale: With recognition cues, part of the work has already been done for you; they are much more useful in retrieving memories than are recall cues. With recall cues, you are provided much less data with which to search for the information you are trying to retrieve. 34) In general, what can be concluded when comparing recall and recognition memory tests? A) only recognition requires a search using retrieval cues. B) only recall requires a search using retrieval cues. C) the retrieval cues for recall are more useful. D) the retrieval cues for recognition are more useful. Answer: D Rationale: Both recall and recognition requires searching through memory using cues. However, the cues for recognition are much more useful and they have been provided for you. 35) What are the two types of declarative memory first proposed by Endel Tulving? A) implicit and explicit B) procedural and automatic C) implicit and episodic D) episodic and semantic Answer: D Rationale: Tulving proposed two types of declarative memory systems: episodic, or memory for personal experiences, and semantic memory, or memory for general knowledge. 36) Who first proposed the distinction between episodic and semantic types of declarative memories? A) Alan Baddeley B) George Miller C) Endel Tulving D) B. F. Skinner Answer: C Rationale: Tulving first proposed the distinction between episodic and semantic types of declarative memory. 37) Now middle-aged, a man can still remember his exploits on the football field when he was in high school and he is more than willing to discuss these memories with his children. Which type of memory is being described? A) semantic B) procedural C) sensory D) episodic Answer: D Rationale: Episodic memory is composed of memories of personal experiences. The type of memory described in the question would fall in this category. 38) Over his lifetime, a physicist has learned many mathematical equations and facts. Where is this information primarily stored? A) In semantic memory B) In procedural memory C) In episodic memory D) In sensory memory Answer: A Rationale: Semantic memories are generic or categorical memories. They do not require retrieval cues that make reference to the episodes, the original learning contexts, in which the memory was acquired. 39) A student is taking a history test. One of the questions asks for the name of the founder of the American Red Cross. She is sure that she knows the name, but cannot retrieve it from memory. Which memory strategy would be most useful? A) Use the alphabet as a cue. B) Try to remember the context in which she learned the name. C) Move on to the next item on the test and return to this one later. D) Follow her instincts and write the first name that comes to mind. Answer: B Rationale: Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding. This is called coding specificity. 40) Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon? A) levels-of-processing effect. B) encoding specificity. C) serial position effect. D) contextual distinctiveness. Answer: B Rationale: Sometimes if we are having difficulty retrieving information, it is helpful to try to remember it in the context in which we first learned it. 41) Abby is participating in an experiment in which she has to learn a list of words in a red room and then is tested either in the same red room or in a blue room. What are the investigators most likely studying? A) memory span. B) rehearsal. C) encoding specificity. D) metamemory. Answer: C Rationale: Encoding specificity is the principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if the cues available at the time of recall are consistent with the cues that were present during encoding. 42) When Mika sees the supermarket cashier while she is in the ticket line at the theater, Mika recognizes her but cannot remember how she know her. To what can this phenomenon most likely be attributed? A) a repressed memory. B) the absence of an engram. C) encoding specificity. D) the existence of a prototype. Answer: C Rationale: Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval (where you are trying to remember something) matches the context of encoding (where you first learned it). 43) A student has an upcoming test. Based on the principle of encoding specificity, what approach to studying the classroom material should the student take? A) Study with a group of peers. B) Study as he typically does, listening to music while lying in bed. C) Study under conditions that will be similar to those under which he will be tested. D) Study by repeating the material in the same order during each study session. Answer: C Rationale: Memories will then be retrieved more easily because the contexts will be similar. Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding. 44) In an experiment by Endel Tulving and Donald Thomson that is described in the textbook, participants were given a list of word pairs to learn and were instructed to remember the second word of each pair only. Later they were asked to either recognize any second word of a pair that appeared on a list presented to them, or to recall the second word after being given the first word of the pair. What were the findings? A) They were better at recognizing the words from the list they generated. B) They were better at recalling the second words after being provided with the first words. C) They were equally successful at recognition and recall tasks. D) They were better at recovering memories when the context for remembering was changed. Answer: B Rationale: The researchers suggested that what mattered most was the context; when the context (the word pair) was changed, it was hard to recover the memory representation. 45) In a study that is mentioned in the textbook, scuba divers learned lists of words while they were either on a beach or under water. Under which condition did the divers demonstrate better recall? A) under water. B) on the beach. C) under water, when the words had been learned under water. D) under water, even when the words had been learned on the beach. Answer: C Rationale: Performance was nearly 50 percent better when context at encoding matched context at recall, whether or not the material had anything at all to do with water or diving. 46) In a study presented in the textbook regarding encoding specificity, questions were posed in either Mandarin or English. When were the participants most successful? A) When the questions were related to mathematics rather than history. B) When the answer was easier to describe in their native language. C) When the answer matched the language in which the question was posed. D) When the original researchers were not present. Answer: C Rationale: It is easiest to recall information when the original context in which you encoded it is present. 47) As preparation for a test, a student reads the textbook chapter. Later, while going over the material with his study group, he seems to recall the material at both the beginning and the end of the chapter, but he remembers little from the middle. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon? A) primacy effect B) recency effect C) contextual distinctiveness D) serial position effect Answer: D Rationale: This effect demonstrates the tendency of people to most easily recall items of recency (the last few items on the list) and items of primacy (the first few items on the list). The recency and primacy effects have been found in a wide variety of test situations. 48) A professor describes a graph that plots how often words from various positions in a list were recalled. What topic is the professor most likely discussing? A) procedural memory. B) encoding specificity. C) the serial position effect. D) flashbulb memories. Answer: C Rationale: The serial position effect is a characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of the beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items from the middle of the list. 49) How are primacy and recency effects best explained? A) as a function of motivation. B) as a function of distinctiveness. C) as a function of attention. D) as a function of proportionality. Answer: B Rationale: The last item on the list of things to be remembered shares the most overlapping context with your current situation. The first item stands out because it establishes a new context. The middle items lack distinctiveness and are thus remembered less well. 50) Given what is known about the serial position effect and distinctiveness, what approach should be taken in preparing for a test on a textbook chapter? A) spend more time studying the beginning of the chapter, and attempt to make it distinctive from other parts of the chapter. B) spend more time studying the middle of the chapter, and try to make it distinctive from other parts of the chapter. C) spend more time studying the end of the chapter, and try to make it distinctive from other parts of the chapter. D) spend equal amounts of time on each part of the chapter, and try to minimize the distinctiveness of each from the other parts of the chapter. Answer: B Rationale: Material in the middle will become more memorable if it is made more distinctive. Material at the beginning is already distinctive because it establishes a new context, and material at the end is more memorable because it overlaps most closely with your current experiences. 51) In research that is described in the textbook, participants tried to learn lists of letters under two conditions. In one condition, each pair of letters was separated by two digits that had to be read. In the other condition, the first pair had four digits and the last pair had zero digits. What did the researchers discover? A) poorer memory for the early items on the list when those items had been made more separate. B) better memory for the items on the list with proportional spacing. C) that the recency effect arose because the last few items were not very distinctive. D) that making items distinctive made little difference in the performance of the participants. Answer: B Rationale: Participants did better remembering the letters on lists that provided proportional spacing— the first pair of letters was separated by four digits and the last pair by zero digits. Proportional spacing works by making the letters more contextually distinctive and thus easier to remember. 52) A researcher is conducting a study of memory. When it comes time for assessing what has been remembered, what should the researcher keep in mind? A) the depth of processing will depend on the type of judgments participants are asked to make about experimental materials. B) recall using short-term memory will be difficult to discriminate from recall using working memory. C) implicit memory cannot be easily measured. D) tests for implicit and explicit memory tend to obtain similar results. Answer: A Rationale: Consider the word "grape." Participants might be asked about its physical properties, about words that rhyme with it, or about its relationship to "fruit." The deeper the processing required, the more likely the word is to be remembered. 53) A memory researcher is a believer in the levels-of-processing theory of memory. With which statement is she most likely to agree? A) The more deeply information is processed, the more likely it is to be committed to memory. B) Recognition memory is typically superior to recall memory. C) Ultimately, all information is processed by memory to approximately the same degree or level. D) Only information that is processed at the highest or most superficial level will be remembered. Answer: A Rationale: The type of processing you perform on information when encoding it will have an influence on your memory of it. If processing involves more analysis, interpretation, comparison, and elaboration, it should result in better memory. 54) What is one difficulty with the levels-of-processing theory? A) there is uncertainty as to how processing information at different levels is related to memory. B) very little research has validated the levels-of-processing approach. C) there is uncertainty as to what constitutes "deep" and "shallow" processing. D) the levels-of-processing theory has very little practical value in the real world. Answer: C Rationale: Depth of processing is often defined experimentally by asking participants to make different types of judgments about a word. They might be asked to make a physical judgment, a rhyme judgment, or a meaning judgment, assuming that each requires a different level of processing 55) In a study of implicit memory, a researcher is using “m_ss_l_” to determine if the participants will respond with the word "missile." What term best characterizes the type of task that is being implemented? A) vowel completion B) word completion C) stem completion D) fragment completion Answer: D Rationale: The participant is given fragments of a word and asked to complete the fragments with the first word that comes to mind. A physical match is being made between the original word and the word at testing. 56) Researchers of implicit memory have investigated the relationship between encoding and retrieval by using priming based on physical features or meaning. What were the conclusions? A) physical priming works best. B) priming works best with fragment completion tasks. C) the form of priming that works best is independent of how information is initially encoded. D) priming works best when processes at encoding and retrieval match. Answer: D Rationale: This type of research supports the idea of transfer-appropriate processing. That is, if you use a certain type of processing (e.g., physical matching or meaning) to encode information, the information will be retrieved most efficiently if retrieval is based on the same type of analysis (physical matching or meaning). 57) Which statement best characterizes proactive interference? A) early childhood memories are extremely difficult to retrieve. B) existing retrieval cues facilitate memory. C) previously acquired information makes it more difficult to acquire new information. D) newly acquired information makes it more difficult to remember previously acquired information. Answer: C Rationale: Proactive interference occurs when past memories make it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information. 58) Which of the following is an example of proactive interference? A) Jazmin calls her new boyfriend by her old boyfriend's name. B) Jazmin calls her old girlfriend by her new girlfriend's name. C) After learning Spanish, Jazmin finds it difficult to remember her previously-learned Italian verbs. D) After learning how to play racquetball, Jazmin finds that her prior squash skills are diminished. Answer: A Rationale: The old information interfered with the newly acquired information. 59) When does retroactive interference occur? A) When previously acquired information makes it more difficult to acquire new information. B) When the acquisition of new information makes it harder to remember older information. C) When retrieval cues are phonologically based. D) When information does not move from short-term memory to long-term memory. Answer: B Rationale: Retroactive interference occurs when the formation of new memories makes it more difficult to recover older memories. 60) Which scenario is an example of retroactive interference? A) The teacher finds it more difficult each year to learn and remember student names. B) The ability to play the piano makes it difficult to learn and remember how to strike the keys on a harpsichord. C) The student has learned a new locker combination, but can't remember the old one. D) Since the move to a different city, it has been difficult to remember the new postal code. Answer: C Rationale: In retroactive interference, newly acquired information interferes with retrieval of old information. 61) Students at Northwestern University studied many of Ebbinghaus's original lists in an attempt to replicate his studies of memory. After many trials with many lists, what did the students discover? A) an effect opposite to that found by Ebbinghaus. B) no effect of interference, probably due to improved learning techniques. C) proactive interference that was similar to that experienced by Ebbinghaus. D) that actual words began to look like nonsense syllables. Answer: C Rationale: What the students had learned earlier interfered proactively with their recall of current lists of nonsense syllables. 62) A student is trying to commit to memory, for the first time, the various parts of the neuron. If she uses an elaborative rehearsal strategy to accomplish this task, what will she do? A) write down the parts of the neuron repeatedly. B) read aloud about the different parts of the neuron. C) repeat the different parts of the neuron in her mind after reading about them. D) imagine that the neuron is a person and that the body parts are similar to the neuron parts. Answer: D Rationale: While you are rehearsing, you invent a story line that makes the information less arbitrary. You incorporate details into a story line and supplement your story with visual images that give you codes for both verbal and visual memory. You have elaborated on the material to enrich the encoding. 63) Imagine that Lil is fourth in line to give a short speech in class this morning. If the "nextin-line" effect is present, what can be predicted? A) Lil will remember very little about the first speech. B) Lil will remember very little about the speech that precedes her speech. C) Lil will remember very little about the speeches that follow her speech. D) Lil will have equal recollection of the three speeches given while in line that morning. Answer: B Rationale: The origin of this effect seems to be a shift in attention toward preparing to make your own remarks or to say your own name. 64) What is one way to counter the next-in-line effect? A) breathe deeply and control the level of anxiety in order to better remember information. B) tell oneself to be aware of the effect. C) use elaborative rehearsal as a defense against the effect. D) ask to be placed last in line. Answer: C Rationale: Elaborative rehearsal keeps your attention focused on the person in front of you and enriches your encoding of what they're saying. 65) Certain strategies or devices encode a long series of facts, associating those facts with familiar and previously encoded information to enhance subsequent retieval. Which term refers to these memory strategies? A) anagrams. B) mnemonics. C) engrams. D) stereotypes. Answer: B Rationale: Mnemonics are devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information. 66) An actor is using the method of loci to help remember the lines for a play. What does this method emphasize? A) sound associations. B) rhymes. C) stories. D) familiar locations. Answer: D Rationale: This method uses the locations of things with which you are familiar to elaborate information so that it can be more easily retrieved. In this case, you associate items in a list with a sequence of places with which you are familiar. (You remember the parts of the neuron by associating each part with a place on your way home from school.) 67) What do most mnemonic devices seem to have in common? A) They use visual imagery. B) They use kinesthetic imagery. C) They provide efficient retrieval cues. D) They operate unconsciously. Answer: C Rationale: The key to learning arbitrary information is to encode the information in such a way that provides you with retrieval cues that are consistently and reliably helpful. 68) When trying to learn a list of items that will need to be remembered later, a person associates each item with one of a series of rhymes, such as "one is a bun," "two is a shoe", "three is a tree" and so on. Which memory technique is being used? A) the method of loci B) the peg-word method C) metamemory D) feelings-of-knowing Answer: B Rationale: This is similar to the "method of loci" technique, except that the items are associated with a series of cues instead of familiar locations. 69) What has metamemory research shown about an individual's "feelings-of-knowing"? A) They are not related to familiarity with the retrieval cue. B) They can be fairly accurate. C) They are no more accurate than would be expected by chance. D) They are an example of intuition, a relatively unreliable sensation. Answer: B Rationale: You are basing the probability that you will be able to recognize the correct answer on your prior familiarity with the retrieval cue (Maple Leaf Rag). 70) Hannah is asked to name the composer of the "Maple Leaf Rag." She has prior familiarity with the "Maple Leaf Rag" so she thinks that she will be able to recognize the correct alternative when given multiple choices. Which theory undelies Hannah’s belief? A) accessibility hypothesis. B) linguistic relativity hypothesis. C) cue familiarity hypothesis. D) contextual distinctiveness hypothesis. Answer: C Rationale: The cue familiarity hypothesis suggests that people base their feelings of knowing on their familiarity with the retrieval cue. 71) In trying to prepare for an exam, Chase forms visual images and makes stories that use concepts in creative ways. Which memory technique is being described? A) encoding specificity. B) metamemory. C) chunking. D) elaborative rehearsal. Answer: D Rationale: When we are first learning material, we can enhance what we are learning in order to enrich both encoding and later retrieval of the information. Forming visual images or making up stories or sentences that use concepts in creative ways can help give structure to unstructured materials that must be memorized. Elaborative rehearsal allows you to use what you know already to make new material more memorable. 72) Roy is studying for a test on the Civil War. When asked if he feels as though he knows the important information related to the Battle of Gettysburg, ideas related to the battle immediately enter his consciousness, and he feels confident in his knowledge. Which hypothesis explains Roy’s "feeling-of-knowing"? A) availability B) good-match C) accessibility D) similarity Answer: C Rationale: We base our judgments about how much we know on the accessibility of partial information from memory. In this case, his feelings-of-knowing come from the many ideas related to the battle that come to mind when he is asked about the Battle of Gettysburg. 73) Two-year-old Susie has just discovered that the soft, furry, four-legged creatures that she loves so much are "cats." Which term characterizes her mental representation of this category? A) prototype. B) concept. C) schema. D) stereotype. Answer: B Rationale: First, the child learned that this furry creature belongs to a category of similar creatures. "Cat" names the set of mental representations of experiences with cats that she has gathered together in her memory. This set of mental representations of a category is called a concept. 74) Which term is most likely to be classified as a basic level concept? A) mammal B) living creature C) dog D) Dalmatian Answer: C Rationale: The basic level emerges through your experience of the world; you are more likely to encounter "dog" than its more specific (a particular breed) or less specific (a living animal) alternatives. 75) What term characterizes the average or most typical member of a conceptual category? A) schema. B) prototype. C) exemplar. D) engram. Answer: B Rationale: A prototype is the most representative example of a category. 76) Concepts may be combined into larger units or "knowledge packages" that encode complex generalizations about experiences. Which term refers to these conceptual frameworks? A) engrams. B) basic level concepts. C) schemas. D) prototypes. Answer: C Rationale: Schemas are general conceptual frameworks, or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations. 77) A child thinks of a restaurant as a place where you go when you are hungry, where you order your food at a counter, and where mommy pays for it before you get it. Which term best characterizes this child's mental representation of a restaurant? A) schema. B) engram. C) prototype. D) memory hierarchy. Answer: A Rationale: Schemas are conceptual frameworks about our experiences regarding the way our environments are structured. In this case, the individual concepts of ordering at the counter, being hungry, and playing in the playground are put together into a restaurant schema 78) In his impressive studies of memory, what did Sir Frederic Bartlett discover about participants who were asked to remember stories? A) They were amazingly accurate in their recollections of details. B) They were likely to include distortions in their reproductions. C) They were more accurate in their story telling when a researcher was present. D) They were consistent in maintaining the cultural themes of the original stories. Answer: B Rationale: Readers tended to reproduce stories by using familiar words from their culture in the place of unfamiliar words. In his studies, plots were often changed to eliminate references to supernatural forces that were unfamiliar in the participants' culture. 79) In trying to explain rugby to a friend, David finds himself using terminology from Canadian football, with which he is most familiar. What did Bartlett call this reconstructive process? A) assimilating B) leveling C) sharpening D) accommodating Answer: A Rationale: Assimilating refers to changing the details to fit the participant's own background or knowledge. 80) In a study that is described in the textbook, college students were asked to either perform or imagine performing actions. On a future memory test, what did the researchers find? A) The students sometimes believed that they had performed actions that they had only imagined. B) The students remembered performing only bizarre actions. C) The students remembered performing only ordinary actions. D) The students tended to believe that they had imagined actions they had actually performed. Answer: A Rationale: If you imagine doing something, you may mistakenly come to believe that you actually did it. 81) In a study by Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues on eyewitness memory, participants were shown a film of a car accident. When tested a week later, what factor was found to influence the participant's memory of whether or not they had seen broken glass after the accident? A) if they had seen pictures of the accident. B) If they were asked which car had a broken window. C) the words used to describe the impact of the two cars. D) the reports given by other eyewitnesses. Answer: C Rationale: The estimates of whether or not the accident scene contained broken glass depended on whether the participants had been asked if they saw the cars "smash," or if they had been asked if they saw the cars "contact" one another. In fact, there was no broken glass, but about a third of the first group (smash) reported seeing glass, while only 14 percent of the other group (contact) did so. 82) John and Jan have witnessed an accident. Afterwards, while discussing what was seen, John introduces some inaccurate information into his description of the events. If John and Jan are like many of the participants in research on eyewitness memory, what will likely happen if they are questionned at some future date? A) Both John and Jan will have little memory of the accident. B) Jan’s memory is likely to be accurate and John’s memory will be inaccurate. C) John’s memory is likely to be more accurate than Jan’s memory. D) Jan’s memory is likely to be affected by John’s inaccurate observations. Answer: D Rationale: Eyewitnesses' memories for what they have seen have been shown to be quite vulnerable to post-event information. 83) Which statement about post-event information and memory inaccuracy is true? A) It occurs only when the person who gives misleading post-event information is a stranger. B) It can happen whether the misinformation comes from a stranger or a friend. C) It occurs only when the individual is not trained to be accurate. D) Its incidence depends on the individual's level of motivation and personality characteristics. Answer: B Rationale: In one study, when participants interacted with strangers, 29 percent reported information that they had actually obtained from their co-witness. When the co-witness was a friend or romantic partner, 58 percent reported such information. 84) What can be concluded about eyewitnesses' memories from the influential studies carried out by Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues? A) They are reliable under most circumstances. B) They are vulnerable to post-event information. C) They are often reliable despite the effects of post-event information. D) They are reliable, but only when the witness is motivated. Answer: B Rationale: They demonstrated that participants often report information they acquired after the actual event. After events, eyewitnesses have many opportunities to acquire new information that can make it difficult for them to retrieve their original memories. 85) For Karl Lashley, to what does the engram refer? A) physical memory representation in the brain. B) the psychological basis of memory. C) the strategies utilized by the mind to memorize information. D) the part of the mind that is responsible for encoding. Answer: A Rationale: The engram is the physical memory trace for information in the brain. 86) After conducting many studies in search of the engram, what did Lashley conclude about the engram? A) It is not located in the brain. B) It will most likely never be found. C) It will be found in certain localized regions of the brain. D) It is widely distributed throughout the entire cortex. Answer: D Rationale: Lashley found that memory impairment from brain lesioning was proportional to the amount of tissue removed. It was not affected by where in the cortex the tissue was removed. 87) What factor most likely contributed to Lashley's inability to determine the location of the memory trace? A) he focussed primarily on the cortex. B) even simple situations involve a variety of types of memory. C) he was using rats as participants rather than humans. D) he chose to study a very simple measure of learning. Answer: B Rationale: Neuroscientists now believe that memory for complex sets of information is distributed over many neural systems even though discrete types of knowledge are separately processed and localized in the brain. Because of the widespread distribution of areas of the brain responsible for memory, even simple tasks call on a variety of types of memories and do not allow identification of a single engram. 88) Which statement about memory is founded on research? A) Memory for complex sets of information is found in specific parts of the neural system. B) Memory for complex sets of information is found primarily in the hippocampus. C) Memory for particular types of knowledge is localized in specific regions of the brain. D) Memory for particular types of knowledge is distributed across many brain regions. Answer: C Rationale: Neuroscientists now believe that memory for complex sets of information is distributed across many brain regions, even though discrete types of knowledge are separately processed and localized in limited regions of the brain. 89) Which brain structure is most closely associated with procedural memory, memories acquired by repetition, and classically conditioned responses? A) amygdala B) hippocampus C) cerebellum D) striatum Answer: C Rationale: The cerebellum is essential for procedural memory, memory acquired by repetition, and classically conditioned responses. 90) Robyn’s grandfather seems particularly good at recalling many of the colors and smells associated with his childhood experiences. Which part of the brain is responsible for these memories? A) cerebellum. B) striatum. C) cerebral cortex. D) amygdala. Answer: C Rationale: This outermost part of the brain is responsible for sensory memories and associations between memories. 91) The textbook describes the case of Nick A., a patient who was tragically injured by a fencing foil. What is one interesting aspect of his memory deficit? A) he has no recall of the actual cause of his injury. B) his injury has resulted in Korsakoff’s syndrome. C) his procedural memory is intact, though declarative knowledge is absent. D) He is amnesic for his sense of self, alone. Answer: C Rationale: Nick can no longer form explicit memories for events after his injury, however, his procedural memory is intact. 92) In a study that is described in the textbook, amnesic and control individuals were tested for explicit and implicit memory ability. What did the results indicate? A) amnesics perform as well as controls on tests of implicit memory. B) amnesics perform as well as controls on tests of explicit memory. C) amnesics perform as well as controls on tests of declarative memory. D) amnesics perform as well as controls on tests of working memory. Answer: A Rationale: Some implicit memory processes are spared when people acquire anterograde amnesia. 93) Which statement best characterizes Alzheimer's disease? A) It has a sudden onset with slow deterioration. B) It has a mild onset with steady deterioration. C) It has a slow onset with mild progression. D) It has an erratic onset with accompanying physical changes. Answer: B Rationale: In early stages the only observable symptom may be memory impairment, but the course is steady deterioration. 94) Which of the following is a recent advance that is important to our understanding of Alzheimer's disease? A) The discovery that PET scans can eliminate sticky deposits called plaques. B) The manufacture of a radioactive marker that attaches itself to plaques. C) The finding that amyloid plaques mask or hide the presence of Alzheimer's disease. D) The theory that links Alzheimer's disease to low levels of ambient radioactivity. Answer: B Rationale: This radioactive marker becomes visible through PET scans and may provide a mechanism for early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. 95) Using positron emission tomography to study episodic memory, what did Endel Tulving and his colleagues demonstrate? A) episodic memory is the equivalent of declarative memory. B) the hippocampus is primarily responsible for the repression of episodic memories. C) encoding and retrieval processes may be located in different areas of the brain. D) male and female brains are anatomically distinct. Answer: C Rationale: There is a difference in the activation between the two hemispheres in coding and retrieval of episodic information. There is very high activation in the left prefrontal cortex for encoding episodic information and in the right prefrontal cortex for retrieval. 96) A study described in the textbook outlined how memory processes unfold over time. In this study, a team of researchers asked participants to retrieve autobiographical memories while undergoing fMRI scans. What did the researchers discover? A) the same brain areas that are most active during encoding are most active during retrieval. B) as elaboration takes place, areas responsible for encoding become increasingly more active than those for retrieval. C) early in the process, before participants elaborated their memories, the hippocampus was active. D) acetylcholine levels increased as the degree of elaboration increased. Answer: C Rationale: These structures were active as participants searched their episodic memories. When memories were elaborated, areas such as the visual cortex became more active as participants enriched their memories with visual images. 97) When Sperling conducted his classic research on sensory memory, he found that participants using the partial-report method demonstrated better recall than participants using the whole-report recall method. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Sperling's classic research indeed demonstrated that participants using the partial-report method showed better recall compared to those using the whole-report method. This finding supported the idea of a brief sensory memory storage that decays rapidly, allowing only a fraction of the information to be reported accurately. 98) Researchers have reported that iconic memory allows for very small amounts of information to be stored for brief durations. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Iconic memory actually has the capacity to store relatively large amounts of visual information for very brief durations, typically for less than a second. It acts as a buffer for visual stimuli before they are processed into short-term memory. 99) Both sensory memory and short-term memory have large capacity, but are limited by very short durations. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: While sensory memory does indeed have a large capacity to briefly hold sensory information, short-term memory has a more limited capacity compared to sensory memory. However, short-term memory can retain information for longer durations than sensory memory, typically for about 20 to 30 seconds without rehearsal. 100) Eidetic imagery is the technical term for photographic memory. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Eidetic imagery, commonly referred to as "photographic memory," is the ability to vividly recall images, sounds, or objects with high precision after only a brief exposure. It is considered the closest approximation to photographic memory in psychological literature. 101) George Miller suggested that four (plus or minus two) was the "magic number" that characterized people's memory performance on random lists of meaningful, familiar items. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: George Miller's famous paper "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information" proposed that the capacity of short-term memory is about seven items, give or take two. However, this refers to the capacity of shortterm memory for chunks of information, not necessarily random lists of meaningful, familiar items. 102) You probably know that a good way to keep you friend's telephone number in mind is to keep repeating the digits in a cycle in your head. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement reflects the process of rehearsal, a common mnemonic strategy used to maintain information in short-term memory. Repeating the digits in a cycle helps to prevent them from decaying from short-term memory before they can be encoded into long-term memory. 103) The research on working memory has helped to solidify the belief that short-term memory is not a process, but is a particular place where memories go. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Research on working memory has contributed to the understanding that short-term memory is not just a passive storage place, but rather an active, dynamic process involved in the manipulation and temporary storage of information. Working memory involves the integration of short-term memory with attentional processes and other cognitive functions. 104) A researcher who is interested in determining an individual's working memory span is likely to ask the participant to memorize a very long list of items, then test recognition of those items over a series of trials. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Determining an individual's working memory span typically involves tasks that require the participant to actively manipulate and maintain information in memory, rather than just testing recognition. For example, tasks like digit span or operation span tests involve remembering and recalling sequences of digits or performing operations while holding information in memory. 105) Multiple choice questions on a test are good examples of the recognition method of retrieval. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Multiple-choice questions provide a set of options among which the correct answer is present, requiring the test-taker to recognize the correct response among the alternatives. This aligns with the recognition method of retrieval, where the individual identifies information from a set of options rather than freely recalling it from memory. 106) Episodic memories are specific events that you have personally experienced. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Episodic memories involve personally experienced events, situations, or episodes that occurred at a specific time and place. These memories are tied to autobiographical information and are part of one's personal history. 107) If people are given a list of unrelated words and are asked to learn them in order, they will likely show evidence of both the primacy effect and the recency effect. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The primacy effect refers to the tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list, while the recency effect refers to the tendency to better remember items presented at the end of a list. In a list learning task, participants often exhibit both effects, with better recall for items at the beginning and end of the list. 108) The levels-of-processing theory suggests that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more difficult it will be to remember. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The levels-of-processing theory suggests that the deeper the level at which information is processed (e.g., semantic processing rather than shallow visual or phonological processing), the more likely it is to be remembered. Deeper processing leads to more elaborate encoding, which enhances memory retention. 109) Anagrams and word fragment completion tasks are used to assess implicit memory. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Anagrams and word fragment completion tasks are often used to assess implicit memory because they require participants to complete tasks without explicit awareness of prior exposure to the information. Implicit memory involves the unconscious influence of past experiences on current behavior or performance. 110) You are having trouble remembering the title of the musical, My Fair Lady, until I say, "the rain in Spain." My hint is an example of priming. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Priming occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, often making it easier to recognize or process the second stimulus. In this case, the hint "the rain in Spain" facilitates the recall of the title "My Fair Lady" by activating related concepts. 111) Trying to memorize a list of all of the prime ministers of Canada is an example of an implicit use of memory. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Memorizing a list of prime ministers of Canada involves explicit memory because it requires conscious effort and awareness of the task. Implicit memory, on the other hand, involves unconscious influences on behavior or performance without awareness of prior exposure to the information. 112) The famous memory researcher Hermann Ebbinghaus was his own and only subject; he performed the research tasks himself and measured his own performance. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted groundbreaking research on memory, particularly on the nature of forgetting and the learning curve, using himself as the sole subject. He designed experiments, memorized lists of nonsense syllables, and measured his own performance to study the processes of memory. 113) You are certain that your history teacher is going to ask you for the date of the Battle of Hastings, so you keep repeating "1066" in your head as you walk into the classroom. This rote repetition is an example of elaborative rehearsal. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Rote repetition involves simple, mechanical repetition of information without engaging in deeper processing or making meaningful connections. Elaborative rehearsal, on the other hand, involves encoding information in a more meaningful way by relating it to existing knowledge or forming associations with other information. 114) The peg-word method is a means of remembering the order of a list of names or objects by associating them with some sequence of places with which you are familiar. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The peg-word method is indeed used to remember the order of a list of items, but it involves associating each item with a specific, predefined peg word rather than places. The method relies on creating vivid mental images of the items interacting with the peg words to aid in recall. 115) "Three-on-three basketball," "light blue," and "animals" are good examples of basic level categories. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: "Three-on-three basketball," "light blue," and "animals" are more specific than basic-level categories. Basic-level categories are more general and include terms like "sports," "colors," and "living things." 116) The physical memory trace for information in the brain is known as the engram. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The term "engram" refers to the physical or neural representation of a memory in the brain. It is considered the physical substrate of memory storage, representing the changes in neural circuits that occur when a memory is formed. 117) Alzheimer's disease is a biological condition in which memory function gradually breaks down. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, reasoning, and behavior. One of the hallmark features of Alzheimer's disease is the deterioration of memory function, particularly episodic memory, as the disease affects brain regions involved in memory processing. 118) Availability of information through memory processes without conscious effort is called _________, whereas conscious effort to encode and recover information through memory processes is called _________. Answer: implicit memory: explicit memory Rationale: Implicit memory refers to the unconscious retrieval of information stored in memory, such as skills or conditioned responses, without deliberate effort. On the other hand, explicit memory involves the conscious and intentional recollection of specific information, facts, and events. 119) Memory for procedures for doing things is known as _________ memory, whereas memory for facts and events is called _________ memory. Answer: procedural: declarative Rationale: Procedural memory is responsible for knowing how to perform certain actions or procedures, such as riding a bike or typing on a keyboard, while declarative memory pertains to the memory of facts, events, and experiences that can be consciously recalled and verbalized. 120) Taking single items of information and grouping them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle is known as _________. Answer: chunking Rationale: Chunking is a cognitive process where individual pieces of information are grouped together into larger units or "chunks" to aid in memory retention and recall. This strategy allows for more efficient encoding and retrieval of information by reducing cognitive load. 121) The phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive are three components of _________. Answer: working memory Rationale: Working memory is a cognitive system responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information needed for tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning. Its components include the phonological loop (for auditory information), visuospatial sketchpad (for visual and spatial information), and central executive (for coordinating and controlling cognitive processes). 122) Memories emerge most efficiently when cues received at the time of recall match those present at the time of encoding. This principle is known as _________. Answer: encoding specificity Rationale: Encoding specificity principle suggests that memory recall is most effective when the retrieval cues match the cues present during the encoding of the memory. This principle underscores the importance of environmental context and cues in facilitating memory retrieval. 123) A person is given a list of items to recall. According to the ________ effect, recall of items at the beginning and end of the list should be better than recall of items appearing in the middle. Answer: serial position Rationale: The serial position effect refers to the tendency for people to recall items presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list more accurately than items presented in the middle. This phenomenon is attributed to differences in how items are encoded and retrieved from memory. 124) When past memories make it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information, you have experienced ________ interference. Answer: proactive Rationale: Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the encoding and retrieval of new information. Past memories disrupt the formation and recall of new memories, leading to decreased performance on tasks requiring memory retrieval. 125) Strategies or devices that use familiar information during encoding of new information to enhance retrieval are called _________. Answer: mnemonics Rationale: Mnemonics are memory aids or techniques that help in encoding and retrieval of information by associating new information with familiar concepts, images, or patterns. These strategies make use of existing cognitive structures to facilitate the formation and recall of memories. 126) The most representative or average member of a category is called a(n) _________. Answer: prototype Rationale: A prototype is a mental representation of the most typical or characteristic example of a category. It serves as a cognitive reference point used to classify and identify new instances within that category based on their similarity to the prototype. 127) Researchers have discovered very high brain activity in the _________ for encoding of episodic information. Answer: left prefrontal cortex Rationale: Studies using neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI have shown increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex during the encoding of episodic memories. This brain region is involved in various cognitive processes, including encoding, retrieval, and manipulation of episodic information, particularly related to verbal and semantic aspects of memory. 128) One day a young friend of yours comments that he is losing his memory. When you ask him which type of memory he feels he is losing, he looks puzzled and says that "memory is memory." Your smile indicates to him that he is about to learn something. Help your friend distinguish between the various types of memory, including explicit and implicit memory, declarative and procedural memory, iconic memory, and short -term and long-term memory. Answer: Memory is the capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information. Discuss the difference between retrieval of information through the use of conscious effort and retrieval of information without conscious effort. Discuss memory of facts and events versus memory of how to do things. Define iconic memory. Explain the part that short-term memory plays, and the way that it is related to working memory. Then describe the role that long-term memory plays in encoding, storage, and retrieval. 129) Psychologists who study sensory and short-term memory have their work cut out for them, because information in these systems doesn't last very long. Give a detailed example of a research study that has been done in each area, then describe the characteristics of sensory and short-term memory, including the four components of working memory. Answer: Define sensory memory including iconic memory. Discuss Goerge Sperling's research. Define short-term memory and memory capacity. Discuss maintenance rehearsal and Peterson and Peterson's experiment. Define chunking. Include the four components of working memory as suggested by Baddeley. 130) While at the zoo, you linger in front of the elephant house. Dumbo, an elephant, is reputed to have a pretty good memory. Presumably, this means that Dumbo can retrieve information from long-term memory. In the context of "having a good memory," describe the role that retrieval cues play in memory, and explain the importance of the match between encoding and retrieval. Answer: Define and discuss the following concepts: recall and recognition; the importance of episodic and semantic memories in retrieval; encoding specificity; context dependent memory; and the serial position effect. Include a brief description of the levels of processing theory as well as transfer-appropriate processing. 131) Describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Define each of these processes and discuss the complexity of the interactions among them. Answer: This is an overview of memory processes with a brief description of what each term means and a description of its importance and of how the processes interact. For example, "If information is properly encoded, it will be retained in storage for a long period of time." To be able to encode, we must first retrieve what we know. To retrieve, we must first be able to encode and store information effectively. Inclusion of the complexity of the interaction is the focus of the question. 132) Your best friend is always in trouble at home because she does not remember to do her homework, turn in class assignments, or to do the things her mother asked her to do after school. She is always late for school because she constantly forgets to bring what she needs for the day. You have been studying memory in psychology class. What techniques for better encoding and retrieval of information can you share with her? Answer: Discuss retrieval cues and the importance of context. Describe how levels of processing relate to becoming more organized. Discuss elaborative rehearsal and mnemonics, including examples of effective mnemonics. 133) How is long-term memory structured? Discuss categories and concepts, and basic level hierarchies. What are schemas? How do we use our memory structures to categorize objects in the world? Answer: Mental representations of the categories are called concepts, and they can be organized hierarchically. Schemas are clusters of knowledge about objects, people, and situations. People use concepts in memory to categorize objects by encoding a prototype or by coding many different exemplars. 134) How is memory a reconstructive process? What evidence suggests that we may not remember events as exact replications of the real events? Answer: General memories are used to reconstruct what is likely to have happened. Evidence includes Bartlett’s study using “The War of the Ghosts” story, flashbulb memories, and eyewitness studies. 135) What are the different types of amnesia? What memory abilities are preseved in someone with amnesia? Answer: Retrograde and anterograde amnesia. Some amnesiacs maintain some implicit memory functions. 1) Memory is: A) a capacity for learning. B) a system that allows people to retain information over time. C) an ability of humans only. D) unchangeable. Answer: B Rationale: Memory refers to the cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time. It allows individuals to retain and recall past experiences, knowledge, and skills. 2) What is the system or process by which the products or results of learning are stored for future use? A) cognition B) memory C) perception D) sensation Answer: B Rationale: Memory is the system or process by which information acquired through learning is stored for future use. 3) What are the components of the information processing model in order? A) retrieval, encoding, storage B) encoding, capturing, retrieval C) capturing, encoding, retrieval D) encoding, storage, retrieval Answer: D Rationale: According to the information processing model, the process of memory involves three stages: encoding (processing information into memory), storage (retaining encoded information over time), and retrieval (recovering information from memory). 4) The process of selective looking, listening, smelling, and feeling is called ____________. A) retention B) cognition C) recognition D) attention Answer: D Rationale: Attention refers to the process of selectively focusing on certain aspects of the environment while ignoring others. It involves selective looking, listening, smelling, and feeling. 5) Memory is classically defined as: A) a capacity for learning. B) the ability to retain information over time. C) an ability of humans only. D) unchangeable. Answer: B Rationale: Memory, classically defined, refers to the ability of an organism to retain learned information and recall it at a later time. 6) The step in the memory process that actually makes our memories available to us is: A) retrieval. B) encoding. C) rehearsal. D) storage. Answer: A Rationale: Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory, making it available for use. 7) A system that allows people to retain information over time is called: A) memory. B) cognition. C) computer. D) intelligence. Answer: A Rationale: Memory is the system or faculty of the mind that allows individuals to retain and recall information over time. 8) In what way are sensory memory and long-term memory similar? A) Storage in both is essentially permanent. B) Retrieval from both is immediate. C) Both have a large capacity. D) Both make exclusive use of semantic retrieval cues. Answer: C Rationale: Sensory memory and long-term memory both have a large capacity for holding information. Sensory memory holds information briefly, while long-term memory can store information for extended periods. 9) A visual image held in the sensory register is _____________. A) an icon B) a pictograph C) a trace D) a symbol Answer: A Rationale: In the sensory register, a visual image is referred to as an icon. Icons represent visual images that are briefly stored in sensory memory. 10) The auditory equivalent of the icon is the ____________. A) echo B) vibration C) sound wave D) neural trace Answer: A Rationale: In the sensory register, the auditory equivalent of the visual icon is called an echo. An echo represents briefly stored auditory information in sensory memory. 11) An echo usually stays in the sensory registers for __________. A) one-quarter of a second B) one second C) several seconds D) 40 seconds Answer: C Rationale: An echo, which represents auditory information in sensory memory, typically lasts for several seconds before fading away. 12) The process we use to notice important stimuli and ignore irrelevant ones is ______. A) encoding B) attention C) masking D) chunking Answer: B Rationale: Attention is the cognitive process that allows individuals to selectively focus on certain stimuli while filtering out others, enabling them to notice important information and ignore irrelevant ones. 13) Attention is the process of ________. A) storing information B) representing information C) selectively noticing stimuli D) recognizing visual sensations Answer: C Rationale: Attention involves selectively noticing and focusing on specific stimuli while disregarding others, allowing individuals to allocate cognitive resources effectively. 14) Iconic and echoic memory are types of _______ memory. A) working B) sensory C) short-term D) long-term Answer: B Rationale: Iconic memory pertains to visual sensory memory, while echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory, both of which are types of sensory memory responsible for briefly holding sensory information. 15) Unprocessed stimulation from the environment is first held in: A) short-term store. B) sensory memory. C) long-term store. D) intermediate store. Answer: B Rationale: Unprocessed sensory information from the environment is first held in sensory memory, where it is briefly retained before either being discarded or transferred to short-term memory for further processing. 16) Sensory store memory: A) holds information for as long as you rehearse it. B) holds information for about 30 seconds. C) holds information for one or two seconds. D) processes information for permanent encoding. Answer: C Rationale: Sensory memory holds information for a very brief duration, typically ranging from one to two seconds, before the information either decays or is transferred to other memory systems for further processing. 17) Which of the following statements concerned with sensory memory is true? A) Sensory memory affects both vision and hearing. B) Sensory memory affects only vision. C) Sensory memory affects only touch. D) Sensory memory affects only hearing. Answer: A Rationale: Sensory memory is responsible for briefly holding sensory information from all modalities, including vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. 18) The sensory memory associated with the visual sense is called the: A) iconic memory system. B) echoic memory system. C) optical memory system. D) occipital memory system. Answer: A Rationale: The sensory memory system associated with the visual sense is called iconic memory, which briefly holds visual information before further processing. 19) Which of the following statements about the visual sensory memory system is false? A) The codes in it are of a semantic type. B) The codes in it are quite similar to the original sensation. C) Its traces last for 1 to 2 seconds, maximally. D) Its codes seem susceptible to disturbance by other visual stimuli. Answer: A Rationale: The codes in iconic memory are not of a semantic type; rather, they are visual representations that closely resemble the original sensory experience. Semantic memory involves the encoding and retrieval of general knowledge and concepts. 20) Iconic memory and echoic memory represent what many theorists call: A) precepts. B) imaginal systems. C) sensory memory systems. D) rapid retrieval systems. Answer: C Rationale: Iconic memory and echoic memory are both types of sensory memory systems, which briefly hold visual and auditory information, respectively, before further processing. 21) The process by which we notice stimuli selectively is called: A) attention. B) recognition. C) saving. D) recalling. Answer: A Rationale: Attention is the cognitive process that allows individuals to selectively focus on specific stimuli while filtering out others, enabling them to notice and process relevant information. 22) You looked up a friend’s address for a letter you wrote. Suddenly the phone rings— wrong number. Even though you were interrupted for only a few seconds, you’ve forgotten the address. Which memory system failed you? A) permanent memory B) long-term memory C) sensory memory D) short-term memory Answer: D Rationale: Short-term memory, also known as working memory, is responsible for holding a limited amount of information temporarily. In this scenario, the interruption caused the information about the friend's address to decay from short-term memory before it could be transferred to long-term memory for more permanent storage. 23) Information selected from sensory memory is transferred to conscious awareness or: A) primary memory. B) short-term memory. C) factual memory. D) long-term memory. Answer: B Rationale: Information selected from sensory memory is transferred to short-term memory, also known as primary memory, where it is further processed and can enter conscious awareness. 24) What we are thinking of at any given moment, or what we commonly know as “consciousness,” is ____________. A) long-term memory B) short-term memory C) secondary memory D) cognitive dissonance Answer: B Rationale: Short-term memory, also referred to as working memory, is the system responsible for holding and manipulating information that is currently in conscious awareness. 25) If the most recent theories regarding the capacity of short-term memory are correct, then _____________. A) five sentences should be easier to remember than five words B) five sentences should be as difficult to remember as five words C) five sentences should be more difficult to remember than five words D) five sentences and five words should both be easier to remember than five letters, because the words and sentences both have inherent meaning Answer: C Rationale: According to recent theories, short-term memory has a limited capacity, typically around 5 to 9 items or chunks of information. Remembering five sentences would likely exceed this capacity, making it more difficult than remembering five individual words. 26) Students in a psychology experiment were exposed to three notes of music for a very short period of time and then asked to recall them. If the instructions to recall the notes came immediately, the students usually succeeded. If the instructions came more than three seconds after the notes were played, the students were much less successful. The MOST plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that, in the latter case, _____________. A) the echo never made it to the sensory registers B) the echo faded after being stored in short-term memory C) the echo was already stored in long-term memory D) the echo faded before being stored in short-term memory Answer: D Rationale: In this scenario, the delay in providing instructions for recall allows the sensory memory trace (echo) to decay before it can be transferred to short-term memory for further processing, resulting in poorer recall performance. 27) What is the capacity of short-term memory? A) 5, plus or minus 2 pieces of information B) 11, plus or minus 2 chunks C) 15, plus or minus 2 engrams D) 3, plus or minus 2 numbers Answer: A Rationale: The capacity of short-term memory is often estimated to be around 5 to 9 items, with Miller's famous estimate being 7 ± 2 pieces of information. 28) Students in a psychology experiment were exposed to three nonsense syllables for a very short period of time and then asked to recall them. If the instructions to recall the syllables came immediately, the students were usually successful. If the instructions came even one second after the syllables were shown, the students were much less successful. The MOST plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that, in the latter case, _____________. A) the icon never made it to the sensory registers B) the icon was already stored in short-term memory C) the icon faded after being stored in short-term memory D) the icon faded before being stored in short-term memory Answer: D Rationale: Similar to the previous scenario, the delay in providing instructions for recall allows the sensory memory trace (icon) to decay before it can be transferred to short-term memory for further processing, resulting in poorer recall performance. 29) The working memory is known as the _____________ memory. A) tertiary B) primary C) short-term D) long-term Answer: C Rationale: Working memory, often used interchangeably with short-term memory, refers to the system responsible for holding and manipulating information for short periods, typically around 5 to 30 seconds. 30) Many years ago, telephone numbers had only four or five digits. Even now, no more than seven digits are used for phone numbers. The most reasonable psychological explanation for this is that ________________. A) there is a direct relationship between the number of items in the sensory registers and their retention B) there is an inverse relationship between the number of items in the sensory registers and their retention C) there is a direct relationship between the number of items in short-term memory and their retention D) there is an inverse relationship between the number of items in short-term memory and their retention Answer: D Rationale: The limitation on the number of digits in telephone numbers reflects the capacity constraints of short-term memory. Since short-term memory has a limited capacity, people are more likely to remember shorter sequences of numbers (around 7 ± 2 items) compared to longer sequences. Therefore, phone numbers are typically kept within this range to facilitate easier recall. 31) Information in short-term memory is retained ________. A) for about 60 seconds B) as long as it is rehearsed C) for several seconds without rehearsal D) up to several minutes Answer: B Rationale: Information in short-term memory is typically retained as long as it is actively rehearsed or manipulated. Without rehearsal, information in short-term memory may decay rapidly. 32) The capacity of STM is _______ items. A) unlimited B) 7, plus or minus 2 C) 12 D) 22 Answer: B Rationale: The capacity of short-term memory is often estimated to be around 7 ± 2 items, according to Miller's classic research. 33) Memory span is _______ and is associated with _______ memory. A) the duration that information is stored; short-term B) the number of items stored; long-term C) the number of items stored; short-term D) the duration that information is stored; long-term Answer: C Rationale: Memory span refers to the number of items or chunks of information that can be held in short-term memory at any given time. It is associated with short-term memory rather than long-term memory. 34) What is the capacity of short-term memory? A) five, plus or minus two letters B) seven, plus or minus two chunks C) five, plus or minus two engrams D) seven, plus or minus two numbers Answer: B Rationale: Short-term memory typically has a capacity of around 7 ± 2 chunks of information, according to research by George A. Miller. 35) What is the capacity of short-term memory? A) 7 bits of information B) 7 chunks of information C) 12 letters, if measured by Sperling’s partial report technique D) 16 letters, if measured by Sperling’s partial report technique Answer: B Rationale: The capacity of short-term memory is often described as being around 7 ± 2 chunks of information, regardless of the type of information being processed. 36) Information that has been transferred out of sensory memory enters: A) long-term memory. B) short-term memory. C) savings. D) either short-term or long-term memory depending on the level at which it is processed. Answer: B Rationale: Information that has been transferred out of sensory memory typically enters short-term memory, where it can be further processed and potentially transferred to long-term memory for more permanent storage. 37) Most normal adults have a memory span: A) of between 5 and 9 items. B) that averages 7. C) of 7, plus or minus 2. D) all of the above. Answer: D Rationale: Most normal adults have a memory span of around 7 items, plus or minus 2, which falls within the range of 5 to 9 items. 38) The short-term memory capacity (digit-span) in a normal adult is about: A) 9 items. B) 7 or 8 items. C) 4 or 5 items. D) 14 or 15 items. Answer: B Rationale: The typical short-term memory capacity (digit-span) in a normal adult is around 7 ± 2 items, so it ranges from about 5 to 9 items. 39) Encoding is: A) recalling information. B) recognizing information. C) representing information. D) remembering information. Answer: C Rationale: Encoding refers to the process of representing information in memory, such as transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored and recalled later. 40) Verbal and visual codes are types of _______ encoding. A) primary B) secondary C) short-term D) long-term Answer: C Rationale: Verbal and visual codes are types of encoding used in short-term memory to represent information. These codes help individuals retain and manipulate information in short-term memory. 41) The average memory span consists of _______ items. A) five B) six C) seven D) nine Answer: C Rationale: The average memory span, as commonly observed, consists of approximately seven items, plus or minus two, in short-term memory. 42) Memory span is a characteristic of: A) long-term memory. B) short-term memory. C) sensory memory. D) semantic memory. Answer: B Rationale: Memory span refers to the number of items or chunks of information that can be held in short-term memory at any given time. 43) Information in short-term memory is coded _______. A) abstractly B) visually only C) acoustically only D) acoustically and visually Answer: D Rationale: Information in short-term memory can be encoded acoustically (based on sound) and visually (based on appearance), allowing for more effective retention and manipulation. 44) Information is grouped for storage in short-term memory through the process of __________. A) rote rehearsal B) cueing C) chunking D) categorizing Answer: C Rationale: Chunking involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units, which helps in organizing and storing information in short-term memory. 45) Chunking is a means of _______________. A) immediately forgetting irrelevant details B) organizing information into meaningful units C) arranging details into a hierarchy from most important to least important D) storing long-term memories Answer: B Rationale: Chunking involves organizing information into meaningful units or chunks, which facilitates memory by reducing the cognitive load and enhancing the capacity of short-term memory. 46) Most people cannot store the following list of letters in short-term memory. GOTOYOURBEDROOM However, if the letters are grouped meaningfully into words, they fit short-term’s memory span: Go to your bedroom. This illustrates _________. A) chunking B) backward masking C) verbal coding D) selective attention Answer: A Rationale: This scenario demonstrates chunking, as the individual reorganizes the list of letters into meaningful units (words), thereby improving the capacity of short-term memory to retain and process the information. 47) Chunking aids: A) understanding. B) perception. C) retention. D) encoding. Answer: C Rationale: Chunking aids retention by allowing individuals to organize and group information into meaningful units, which enhances the capacity and efficiency of short-term memory. 48) Information is grouped for storage in short-term memory through a process called _______. A) chunking B) categorizing C) rehearsal D) cueing Answer: A Rationale: Information is grouped for storage in short-term memory through the process of chunking, which involves organizing individual items into larger, more manageable units. 49) Chunking is a means of _______. A) immediately forgetting irrelevant details B) organizing information into meaningful units C) arranging details into a hierarchy from most important to least important D) storing long-term memories Answer: B Rationale: Chunking is a cognitive strategy used to organize and group information into meaningful units, which facilitates encoding and retention in short-term memory. 50) A soldier was injured when a mortar exploded next to him. Although he recovered from his wounds, he is not able to recall information from years ago. What term is used to describe this soldier’s condition? A) retroactive amnesia B) retrograde amnesia C) proactive amnesia D) anteretrograde amnesia Answer: B Rationale: The soldier's inability to recall past memories following the traumatic event is characteristic of retrograde amnesia, which involves the loss of memories from the past, typically before the onset of the amnesic condition. 51) Why is implicit memory so difficult to study? A) It does not operate on a conscious level. B) It is a more recently identified type of memory. C) It is concerned with the identification of only certain words and objects. D) People with perfectly intact memories are often the focus of study. Answer: A Rationale: Implicit memory operates below the level of conscious awareness, making it difficult to study directly through introspection or self-report measures. Its effects can be observed indirectly through tasks such as priming or procedural learning. 52) Which type of memory is concerned with remembering the day your parents bought you a car? A) implicit memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) procedural memory Answer: C Rationale: Episodic memory involves the recollection of personal experiences and events, such as specific incidents from one's own life, like the day one's parents bought a car. 53) Which memory system provides us with a very brief image of all the stimuli present at a particular moment? A) long-term memory B) sensory memory C) primary memory D) short-term memory Answer: B Rationale: Sensory memory provides a very brief storage of sensory information from the environment, allowing individuals to briefly retain a snapshot of all stimuli present at a given moment. 54) Your memories of personal information such as what you wore to work yesterday, what you ate for breakfast this morning, or who your spouse is, are stored in ______. A) procedural memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) eidetic memory Answer: C Rationale: Episodic memory involves the recollection of specific personal experiences and events, including autobiographical details such as what one wore, ate, or experienced on a particular day. 55) The type of memory that is most like an encyclopedia or a dictionary is __________. A) emotional memory B) episodic memory C) procedural memory D) semantic memory Answer: D Rationale: Semantic memory stores general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and meanings, similar to the way an encyclopedia or dictionary organizes information. 56) Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called __________. A) elaborative rehearsals B) flashbulb memories C) eidetic images D) eyewitness images Answer: B Rationale: Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed recollections of significant events, often associated with strong emotional reactions, such as the memory of learning about a shocking or emotionally charged event. 57) The portion of long-term memory that stores specific information that has personal meaning is called __________ memory. A) emotional B) episodic C) semantic D) procedural Answer: B Rationale: Episodic memory stores personal experiences and events, including specific details and contextual information that are personally significant to an individual. 58) Your street address, telephone number, and social insurance number are stored in: A) numerical memory. B) short-term memory. C) long-term memory. D) sensory memory. Answer: C Rationale: Information such as one's street address, telephone number, and social insurance number, which are retained over a long period and have personal significance, are stored in long-term memory. 59) Steve was recalling his first day in college, including walking into the wrong class, dropping his books as he left, and the long line at the registrar’s office he encountered when he had to switch classes. These memories are examples of: A) semantic memory. B) implicit memory. C) procedural memory. D) episodic memory. Answer: D Rationale: These memories represent specific personal experiences and events from Steve's life, making them examples of episodic memory. 60) Which statement concerning long-term memory is TRUE? A) Information in long-term memory is stored permanently. B) Rehearsal is one of the primary methods by which information is moved from short-term to long-term memory. C) The longer information is in short-term memory, the more likely it will be stored in longterm memory. D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: All of the statements are true concerning long-term memory. Information in long-term memory is typically considered to be stored permanently, rehearsal can facilitate the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory, and prolonged maintenance of information in short-term memory increases the likelihood of its consolidation into long-term memory. 61) An individual’s semantic memory contains: A) memories about events. B) background knowledge about words, symbols, concepts, and rules arranged as hierarchies of information in categories and subordinate categories. C) autobiographical information about one’s previous experiences. D) the order and sequence of information from specific to general. Answer: B Rationale: Semantic memory refers to the long-term memory system responsible for storing general knowledge, including facts, concepts, and meanings about the world, organized hierarchically. 62) Connie lost her keys. She searches her memory for when she last had them, and goes to that place in the hope that it will help her remember where she misplaced them. Connie is ________ activating her _________. A) unconsciously; semantic memory B) consciously; semantic memory C) unconsciously; episodic memory D) consciously; episodic memory Answer: D Rationale: Connie is consciously activating her episodic memory by recalling specific events or experiences related to the last time she had her keys. 63) Your memories of personal information such as what you wore to work yesterday or what you ate for breakfast this morning are stored in _______________. A) procedural memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) eidetic memory Answer: C Rationale: Memories of personal experiences and events, such as what one wore or ate on a particular day, are stored in episodic memory. 64) Information that was either unintentionally committed to or unintentionally retrieved from memory is known as ___________ . A) eidetic memory B) procedural memory C) implicit memory D) explicit memory Answer: C Rationale: Implicit memory refers to memory for information that was acquired or retrieved unintentionally and is typically demonstrated through performance rather than conscious recollection. 65) Scott remembers all of the details of his wedding seven years ago. This information is most likely stored in _______ memory. A) iconic B) episodic C) semantic D) short-term Answer: B Rationale: Memories of specific personal events, such as Scott's wedding, are stored in episodic memory, which involves the recollection of autobiographical experiences. 66) Semantic memory is organized __________. A) in chunks B) sequentially and chronologically C) hierarchically D) chronologically Answer: C Rationale: Semantic memory is organized hierarchically, with related concepts and information grouped into categories and subordinate categories based on their meanings and relationships. 67) Flashbulb memories _______. A) are not subject to periodic revision B) concern events that are highly significant C) are almost always highly accurate D) include a memory’s main subject, but not the background events Answer: B Rationale: Flashbulb memories are memories of highly significant and emotionally charged events, but their accuracy and subject to periodic revision can vary. 68) Flashbulb memories ______________. A) are not subject to periodic revision B) usually concern events that are emotionally charged C) are almost always highly accurate D) usually concern events from early childhood Answer: B Rationale: Flashbulb memories typically concern events that are emotionally charged or highly significant, but their accuracy and susceptibility to revision are variable. 69) Flashbulb memories are: A) eidetic memories. B) clear and vivid memories of where one was and what one was doing when a special event occurred. C) photographic memories. D) visual images that are extremely difficult to describe. Answer: B Rationale: Flashbulb memories are clear and vivid recollections of the circumstances surrounding highly significant events, such as where one was and what one was doing when the event occurred. 70) Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called _______. A) eidetic images B) elaborative rehearsals C) flashbulb memories D) eyewitness images Answer: C Rationale: Flashbulb memories are memories of highly significant events that are vividly remembered and often associated with strong emotional reactions. 71) “Iconic” and “echoic” are to sensory memory as “episodic,” “semantic,” and “procedural” are to _______ memory. A) long-term B) short-term C) procedural D) semantic Answer: A Rationale: Just as iconic and echoic memory are types of sensory memory, episodic, semantic, and procedural memory are types of long-term memory, representing different aspects of stored knowledge and experiences. 72) What theory of forgetting attributes it to the mere passage of time? A) decay B) proactive interference C) repression D) retroactive interference Answer: A Rationale: The decay theory of forgetting suggests that memories fade or decay over time due to the mere passage of time without rehearsal or use. 73) Deciding what information to store and how to represent it is known as: A) remembering. B) decoding. C) encoding. D) recall. Answer: C Rationale: Encoding refers to the process of selecting and organizing information for storage in memory, including deciding what information to store and how to represent it. 74) Which of the following is an example of semantic memory? A) events B) concepts C) time D) place Answer: B Rationale: Semantic memory involves the storage of general knowledge about the world, including concepts, meanings, and categories. 75) Which of the following is an example of episodic memory? A) words B) concepts C) symbols D) events Answer: D Rationale: Episodic memory involves the recall of specific events or experiences from one's personal past, such as remembering a particular event or occurrence. 76) An individual’s memory can be distorted by: A) exposure to new information. B) unconscious reconstruction. C) being asked leading questions. D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Memory can be influenced and distorted by various factors, including exposure to new information, unconscious reconstruction of memories over time, and suggestive questioning or leading cues. 77) Retrieval cues ______. A) are important in helping us remember items stored in long-term memory B) are aids in rote rehearsal in short-term memory C) can be helpful in both long-term and short-term memory D) have been recently shown to be inefficient in accessing available information in memory Answer: A Rationale: Retrieval cues are cues or prompts that facilitate the recall of information stored in long-term memory by providing associations or triggers linked to the target memory. 78) Which of the following is an example of semantic memory? A) events B) concepts C) time D) place Answer: B Rationale: Semantic memory involves the storage of general knowledge about concepts, meanings, and categories, making concepts an example of semantic memory. 79) Long-term memory is sometimes unreliable because of _______ of information. A) reconstruction B) retention C) coding D) chunking Answer: A Rationale: Long-term memory can be unreliable due to the process of reconstruction, where memories are often reconstructed or altered based on prior experiences, beliefs, or suggestions. 80) The process of getting information out of memory is known as: A) retention. B) retrieval. C) reconstruction. D) reliable. Answer: B Rationale: Retrieval is the process of accessing or recalling stored information from memory, bringing it into conscious awareness or use. 81) The concept of a house would be stored in _______. A) the sensory registers B) short-term memory C) eidetic memory D) long-term memory Answer: D Rationale: Concepts such as the idea of a house are stored in long-term memory, which is responsible for retaining information over extended periods. 82) Our memories of general knowledge items such as the meanings of words or the dates of famous historical events are stored in _______. A) procedural memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) eidetic memory Answer: B Rationale: Semantic memory contains general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and meanings, such as the meanings of words or historical events. 83) Hermann Ebbinghaus found that memory is best immediately after we learn information, and we gradually forget more as time passes. What name is given to this observation? A) serial position curve B) mirage effect C) free recall curve D) curve of forgetting Answer: D Rationale: The observation that memory retention decreases over time after learning is known as the curve of forgetting. 84) When Rip Van Winkle returns to his native village, after 20 years of sleeping in the mountains, he goes immediately to the location of his former house and asks for his wife and children by name. The kind of memory that he is exhibiting is _______. A) procedural memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) eidetic memory Answer: C Rationale: Rip Van Winkle's ability to recall specific personal events, such as the names of his family members and the location of his house, demonstrates episodic memory, which involves memories of specific events or experiences. 85) On a TV game show, Jeannette is asked to name the state capital of Vermont. This information is most likely stored in ______. A) procedural memory B) semantic memory C) episodic memory D) eidetic memory Answer: B Rationale: Information such as state capitals is stored in semantic memory, which contains general knowledge about facts, concepts, and meanings. 86) Tim is studying for a test. After seven consecutive hours of studying, he finds he can remember what he just finished studying, but he can no longer remember what he studied five or six hours ago. Tim’s memory problems are BEST explained by __________. A) proactive interference B) retrograde amnesia C) memory diffusion D) retroactive interference Answer: D Rationale: Tim's difficulty in recalling information studied several hours ago but remembering recently studied information is consistent with retroactive interference, where new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. 87) Proactive interference of long-term memory means ___________. A) new material interferes with memory of old material B) new material has suppressed short-term memories C) old material interferes with memory of new material D) old material has eliminated memories of new material Answer: C Rationale: Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the encoding or retrieval of new information, making it difficult to remember new material. 88) Retroactive interference of long-term memory means __________. A) new material interferes with memory of old material B) new material has suppressed short-term memories C) old material interferes with memory of new material D) old material has eliminated memories of new material Answer: A Rationale: Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, disrupting the ability to retrieve old material. 89) Tim is studying for a test. After seven consecutive hours of studying he finds he can remember what he just finished studying, but he can no longer remember what he studied five or six hours ago. Tim’s memory problems are BEST explained by _____________. A) proactive interference B) memory diffusion C) retroactive interference D) retrograde amnesia Answer: C Rationale: Tim's difficulty in recalling information studied several hours ago but remembering recently studied information is consistent with retroactive interference, where new learning interferes with the recall of previously learned information. 90) “Old information inhibits one’s ability to remember newer information” defines _________. A) interference B) retroactive inhibition C) proactive inhibition D) suppression Answer: C Rationale: Proactive inhibition refers to the phenomenon where previously learned information inhibits the encoding or retrieval of new information, making it harder to remember newer material. 91) What kind of forgetting does the following incident illustrate? Ruth studied the names of learning theorists for her psychology class, after which she began studying the names of political theorists for her political science class. Much to her frustration, she found the names of the learning theorists were keeping her from being able to learn the names of the political theorists. A) decay B) proactive interference C) repression D) retroactive interference Answer: B Rationale: Ruth's difficulty in learning the names of political theorists due to the interference from previously learned information (names of learning theorists) suggests proactive interference, where old information interferes with the encoding or retrieval of new information. 92) The theory that states that we forget information because other information gets in the way is the _______ theory. A) signal detection B) trace decay C) interference D) inhibition Answer: C Rationale: The interference theory of forgetting suggests that forgetting occurs because other information interferes with the retrieval or encoding of the target information. 93) Kerry’s grandparents moved to a new neighbourhood last year. Today, Kerry can easily remember their address but messes up their old one. This illustrates: A) trace decay. B) interference. C) retroactive inhibition. D) proactive inhibition. Answer: C Rationale: Kerry's difficulty in remembering the old address after learning the new one suggests retroactive inhibition, where new learning interferes with the recall of previously learned information. 94) Retroactive interference of long-term memory means _______. A) new material interferes with memory of old material B) new material has suppressed short-term memories C) old material interferes with memory of new material D) old material has eliminated memories of new material Answer: A Rationale: Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, disrupting the retrieval of old material. 95) Proactive interference of long-term memory means ______. A) new material interferes with memory of old material B) new material has suppressed short-term memories C) old material interferes with memory of new material D) old material has eliminated memories of new material Answer: C Rationale: Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the encoding or retrieval of new information, making it harder to remember new material. 96) Little Tammy is talking to her grandfather. She loves to listen to him tell stories about when he was a child. He has very vivid recollections of his youth and enjoys telling people about his fond memories. Unfortunately, grandpa has a difficult time remembering what happened within the last few days or weeks. If there are no physiological problems, grandpa’s memory problems are best explained by ______. A) proactive interference B) memory diffusion C) retroactive interference D) retrograde amnesia Answer: A Rationale: Grandpa's difficulty in remembering recent events while having vivid recollections of distant memories suggests proactive interference, where old memories interfere with the encoding or retrieval of new memories. 97) Last week, Lisa took an abnormal psychology test and did not miss a question. However, when a guest speaker came to class a week later to talk about schizophrenia, she had trouble remembering some of the relevant class material. She remembered even less about the topic when she saw a news report on schizophrenia a month later. What memory phenomenon explains what Lisa is experiencing? A) mirage effect B) serial position curve C) free recall curve D) curve of forgetting Answer: D Rationale: Lisa's difficulty in remembering previously learned material over time, as evidenced by her decreasing recall of class material about schizophrenia, aligns with the curve of forgetting, which demonstrates that memory retention decreases over time without rehearsal. 98) Your tutor has “one last word” for you before she ends today’s session. She tells you to study material in the middle of your study session a little harder. What concept from memory research is the basis of her advice? A) serial position effect B) state-dependent learning C) transfer test D) imagery Answer: A Rationale: The tutor's advice to study material in the middle of the session harder is based on the serial position effect, which suggests that items presented in the middle of a list are often remembered less well than those at the beginning (primacy effect) or end (recency effect). 99) Reproducing what one has learned exactly as one learned it is required in the ______ method of testing memory. A) cued matching B) savings C) recognition D) serial recall Answer: D Rationale: Serial recall involves reproducing learned information in the exact order in which it was presented, requiring individuals to remember items exactly as they were learned. 100) The items on this test illustrate which method of testing memory? A) cued recall B) savings C) recognition D) free recall Answer: C Rationale: The items on this test require recognizing correct responses from among multiple options, indicating the use of the recognition method of testing memory. 101) A test that requires one to reproduce information in any order is a _______ test of memory. A) cued recall B) savings C) recognition D) free recall Answer: D Rationale: In a free recall test, individuals are asked to reproduce learned information in any order without the aid of cues or prompts. 102) A recognition test requires one to: A) reproduce material when provided a cue. B) profit from previous learning to relearn faster. C) pick the correct answer from among several possible ones provided. D) reproduce material without cues being provided. Answer: C Rationale: In a recognition test, individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked to identify whether it was encountered previously (as a target) or not (as a distractor) among several alternatives. 103) Which of the following is NOT true of schemas? A) They are a part of short-term memory. B) They can influence the amount of attention you pay to a given event. C) They help people retrieve information from memory. D) They help determine what you will recall. Answer: A Rationale: Schemas are mental frameworks or structures that organize and interpret information, influencing attention, encoding, retrieval, and recall processes. They are not specifically associated with short-term memory. 104) Which of the following is NOT a type of memory test? A) schemata B) savings C) recognition D) free recall Answer: A Rationale: Schemata are mental frameworks for organizing information and are not a type of memory test. The other options (savings, recognition, free recall) are indeed types of memory tests. 105) Christine has always had an unusually effective memory. She credits this to the fact that after seeing something just once, she can visualize the object in great detail, as if she were looking at a photograph of it. Christine’s ability is an example of ________. A) clairvoyance B) eidetic imagery C) episodic imagery D) mnemonics Answer: B Rationale: Christine's ability to vividly recall visual information after seeing it once aligns with eidetic imagery, commonly known as photographic memory. 106) Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called _______________. A) eidetic images B) elaborative rehearsals C) flashbulb memories D) eyewitness images Answer: C Rationale: Flashbulb memories refer to highly vivid and emotionally significant memories of specific events. They are often recalled with great detail and clarity, even years after the event occurred. 107) Randy is recovering from an automobile accident in which he injured his head. The only noticeable psychological symptom of his injury is that he cannot remember what happened immediately prior to the accident. Randy’s symptoms are typical of _____________. A) organic amnesia B) retrograde amnesia C) psychogenic amnesia D) proactive inhibition Answer: B Rationale: Randy's inability to recall events immediately prior to the accident is characteristic of retrograde amnesia, where memories of events preceding the injury are lost or impaired. 108) An explanation for the widespread storage of memories is that ____________. A) the hippocampus is one of the most easily damaged areas of the brain B) several different senses may be involved in memory C) some specific parts of the brain are necessary for the formation of memory D) the memory centre is located in the parietal lobes of both cerebral hemispheres Answer: B Rationale: The widespread storage of memories can be attributed to the involvement of multiple sensory modalities in memory encoding and retrieval processes, allowing memories to be stored in various brain regions beyond specific memory centers. 109) The hippocampus seems to be essential for __________. A) the recall of old memories B) maintaining one’s balance C) the formation of new long-term memories D) proactive and retroactive inhibition Answer: C Rationale: The hippocampus is crucial for the formation of new long-term memories, particularly declarative memories involving facts and events. It plays a central role in memory consolidation processes. 110) Some studies indicate that learning due to classical conditioning is stored in the _____________. A) medulla B) hippocampus C) cerebrum D) cerebellum Answer: D Rationale: Learning due to classical conditioning, which involves associations between stimuli and responses, is believed to be stored in the cerebellum. The cerebellum plays a key role in motor learning and coordination, including conditioned reflexes. 111) The hippocampus is instrumental in: A) the formation of short-term memory. B) the retrieval of memories from long-term memory. C) maintaining a constant level of information filtration by the sensory registers. D) transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Answer: D Rationale: The hippocampus plays a crucial role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory through a process called memory consolidation. It helps encode and consolidate newly acquired information into long-term memory for storage and retrieval. Test Bank for Psychology and Life Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo, Serge Desmarais, Tammy Ivanco 9780205037117, 9780205859139