CH-3 Evolutionary Psychology – Psychology and Life : Exam Guide

Chapter 3: Evolutionary Psychology 1) Nature is to nurture as heredity is to A) evolution. B) aggression. C) environment. D) natural selection. Answer: C Rationale: Nature refers to the effects of an individual's biology, including his/her genetic makeup. Nurture refers the features of the environment within which the individual was raised. To discover the causes of behaviour, it is useful to be able to discriminate the forces of heredity from the forces of the environment. 2) Marge firmly believes that her grandson is aggressive toward other children because his uncle who lives overseas was the same way, and his late grandfather was too. What does Marge most likely believe? A) nature is more important than nurture in determining aggression. B) nurture is more important than nature in determining aggression. C) the environment is more important than genes in determining aggression. D) both the environment and genes contribute to aggression. Answer: A Rationale: Since it is very unlikely that the grandson was exposed to the uncle and grandfather to learn aggressive behaviour, most likely Marge is saying that aggression in her grandson was inherited, and that the uncle and grandfather shared this gene. 3) A previously mild-mannered individual has become violent and hostile since moving to a low rental district. What is the most likely cause of this change in behaviour? A) nature. B) biology. C) nurture. D) heredity. Answer: C Rationale: Nurture refers to the effects of the environment on the behaviour of the individual; in this case the therapist likely believes that all people are equally predisposed to aggression and that the particular environment in which they were raised creates more or less aggression in them. 4) Stewart believes that he is more aggressive than most people because he watched a great deal of violent television as a child. What does Stewart most likely believe to be the primary source of his aggression? A) nature. B) nurture. C) biology. D) heredity. Answer: B Rationale: Nurture refers to the effects of the environment on the behaviour of the individual; in this case Stewart is attributing his aggression to environmental causes. 5) Which one of Darwin’s colleagues believed that change over time was the result of selective pressure from the environment? A) Lamarck B) Wallace C) Lyell D) Galton Answer: B Rationale: Wallace sent Darwin a manuscript in 1858 that also say change over time as resulting from selective pressure from the environment. 6) Who wrote the book, The Origin of Species ? A) Sigmund Freud. B) Charles Darwin. C) Sir Charles Sherrington. D) Peter and Rosemary Grant. Answer: B Rationale: Charles Darwin wrote The Origin of Species in 1859. 7) Who was the author of a manuscript that described change over time in the traits of animals as being the result of selective pressure from the environment? A) Wallace B) Darwin C) Lyell D) Lamarck Answer: A Rationale: In 1858, Wallace sent a draft of his manuscript to Darwin, outlining change over time as the result of selective pressure from the environment. 8) How did Charles Darwin explain the variety of species he observed during his exploration of the Galápagos Islands? A) bipedalism. B) encephalization. C) natural selection. D) behaviour genetics. Answer: C Rationale: Natural selection is Darwin's theory that traits that allow animals to adapt to their environment will allow individuals within a species that possess those traits to reproduce more successfully than others without the traits. 9) According to Charles Darwin’s research on the Galápagos Islands, which factor differentiated finches that survived from those that didn't survive? A) the shape of their beaks. B) the nesting sites they chose. C) their speed and endurance in flight. D) their ability to camouflage their eggs. Answer: A Rationale: Darwin noted that the beak shape of the finches affected survival because some beaks were more or less suited to the food sources available on the island. 10) An individual found a species of giraffe on a remote island, where every giraffe had the same neck length. A drought had apparently afflicted the island as the leaves below the level that the giraffes could reach were almost depleted. What would likely happen to the neck length of this species of giraffe over many generations if the environmental conditions continued? A) Neck length will increase. B) Neck length will decrease. C) Neck length will not change. D) Neck length will not change but leg length will. Answer: C Rationale: For natural selection to occur, there needs to be variation in the trait. The question clearly said that all the neck lengths were the same, so individuals with longer necks could not have been selected for. The question didn't mention anything about leg length (the option below), and although it is possible that leg length will increase if there is variation in that trait, there was no basis to assume this was so. As a result, the current alternative is the best answer. 11) Which statement suppports the theory of natural selection? A) organisms prefer natural environments to artificial habitats. B) each organism has the ability to choose which of nature's laws it will follow. C) organisms that are well adapted to their environment will produce more offspring. D) organisms that are well adapted to their environment will produce fewer offspring. Answer: C Rationale: Over time, those organisms which are suited to their environment will become more numerous because they will better adapt and survive. Thus, they will be able to produce more offspring who will also have a good chance of surviving because they, too, will be suited to their environment. 12) There are two types of guinea pigs that live in a dark brown environment. Their predators are birds of prey that fly overhead. One type of guinea pig has white fur and the other type has dark brown fur. What would one expect to happen to fur colour in the guinea pig population over many generations? A) They would all have a light brown fur colour from mixing the dark brown with white. B) They would all have dark brown fur. C) They would all have white fur. D) There would be no change in fur colour over generations. Answer: B Rationale: The guinea pigs with the white fur would be much more visible to the birds of prey, and so they would reproduce less than the guinea pigs with the brown fur. After many generations of more brown guinea pigs being born than white ones, coupled with more white ones being eaten, the population would be all dark brown. 13) In evolutionary terms, how is an individual's success measured? A) By the amount of territory an individual controls. B) By the degree of comfort an individual attains. C) By the number of offspring an individual produces. D) By the level of intelligence an individual acquires. Answer: C Rationale: If the species is well adapted to the environment it inhabits, it will produce and support more offspring who will in turn survive, produce, and support more offspring of their own. 14) A finch lives in an environment in which seeds of all types are plentiful. Under these circumstances, which statement about beak size would be true? A) It would be irrelevant to survival. B) It would enhance chances of survival. C) It would detract from chances of survival. D) It would enhance chances of survival, but not the offspring's chances. Answer: A Rationale: The size of the beak becomes relevant to survival when seeds are of specific size and shape and do or do not allow the bird to easily consume them. 15) One explanation for new species is that they emerge when two populations from an original species become geographically separate. What has contemporary research shown us with respect to this view? A) geographically isolating a species brings about its extinction. B) it is not possible to geographically isolate members of a species from one another. C) there are many examples of new species that have emerged without geographic isolation. D) new species rarely have ancestors in common with the original species. Answer: C Rationale: Modern researchers have discovered that there are other influences on the emergence of two species from one than the influence of geographically different environments. For instance, different chemical cues may emerge for recognizing appropriate mates. If over time cues become distinct for two different groups of the same species, two different populations of the same species may emerge in the same geographical area. 16) Which statement best exemplifies sexual selection? A) A crab has claws to make a safe shelter. B) A crab has claws to defend against predators. C) A crab has claws to compete with other male crabs D) A crab has claws to catch food. Answer: C Rationale: This is an instance of male-male competition, one of the mechanisms of sexual selection, whereby the males of a species compete with other males and the victor gains access to the female(s). The other choices are all examples of natural selection because the trait of claws serves survival function and not a reproductive function. 17) Which scenario provides the best example of sexual selection? A) A rabbit has white fur for camouflage. B) A rabbit has white fur to attract female rabbits. C) A rabbit has white fur for increased thermal properties. D) A rabbit has white fur because foxes cannot perceive the colour white. Answer: B Rationale: This is an instance of female choice, a mechanism of sexual selection whereby the female chooses to mate with males who possess an extreme version of a trait, such as the whiteness of a rabbit's fur. The other examples are all instances of natural selection because the trait of white fur serves a survival function and not a reproductive function. 18) A moose uses its antlers to compete with other males for access to females. Which term best describes this phenomenon? A) natural selection B) male dominance C) sexual selection D) survival of the fittest Answer: C Rationale: A trait that is used by males competing for access to females is an example of one of the two means by which sexual selection can operate. 19) A rabbit has white fur for camouflage. Why did the white fur most likely evolve? A) Due to chance B) Due to genetics C) Due to natural selection D) Due to sexual selection Answer: C Rationale: Traits that change over time and help with survival evolved via natural selection, whereas traits that change over time and help with reproduction evolved via sexual selection. 20) What is the best definition of sexual selection? A) A theory of selecting a mate based on features that are attractive that leads to an increase in those features. B) A theory of survival whereby only individuals with features that are suited for the environment are able to survive. C) A theory of female choice that explains how males may possess features that impede their survival but attract females. D) A theory of male-male competition that explains how males may possess features that allow them to compete with other males for access to females. Answer: A Rationale: Sexual selection is a theory that can explain the traits of animals that cannot be explained by natural selection. Traits that may not help survival, and yet perpetuate in the species due to male-male competition or female choice. 21) Which trait would have most likely evolved through sexual selection? A) A peacock's flamboyant plumage. B) A giraffe's long neck. C) A shark's razor sharp teeth. D) A turtle's shell. Answer: A Rationale: This trait would be used to attract females and serves no other purpose. In fact, the plumage would likely make the peacock more obvious to predators and make it harder for the peacock to escape from predators. 22) What evolutionary prediction was tested by Young, Critelli, and Keith (2005) when they asked male students about their age preference for females within a number of social scenarios? A) Males would show an evolved predisposition for younger females for long-term mating, but that age would be less relevant for a brief sexual encounter. B) Males would show an evolved predisposition for older females for long-term mating, but that age would be less relevant for a brief sexual encounter. C) Males would show an evolved predisposition for younger females for a brief sexual encounter, but that age would be less relevant for long-term mating. D) Males would show an evolved predisposition for older females for a brief sexual encounter, but that age would be less relevant for long-term mating. Answer: A Rationale: This prediction relies on the idea that a younger female would have more reproductive years ahead than an older female. 23) As discussed in the text, Young, Critelli and Keith (2005) asked male introductory psychology students about the age preference for females in a number of social scenarios. What was found to be the mean age of preference for marriage? A) 16.87 years B) 17.76 years C) 18.95 years D) 19.92 years Answer: A Rationale: Male students between 18 and 19 years of age reported that they preferred females with a mean age of 16.87 years. 24) A 19-year old male is describing his ideal mate for marriage. He reports various physical and character traits that are important to him. What is he likely to say is the ideal age for his mate, based on the research of Young, Critelli, and Keith (2005)? A) Almost 17 years. B) The same age as himself. C) Almost 19 years. D) Older than himself. Answer: A Rationale: Young et al. (2005) found that males between 18 and 19 years of age reported that they preferred females with a mean age of 16.87 years for marriage. 25) In the first psychology textbook that was published in 1890, what did William James argue? A) That physical traits existed for some adaptive function. B) That psychological traits existed for some adaptive function. C) That physical traits evolved but psychological traits did not. D) That only the fittest individuals within a species pass on their genes. Answer: B Rationale: James was the first to suggest that mental abilities existed for the same adaptive reasons as physical characteristics. 26) In 1890 a textbook stated that complex mental functions have an adaptive significance for the ancestors of the organisms that are currently displaying them. Who is likely to be the author of this text? A) Charles Darwin B) Herbert Spencer C) Edward Thorndike D) William James Answer: D Rationale: William James argued in his 1890 textbook that complex mental functions evolved, and that the traits that we see today served some adaptive function for our ancestors. 27) Members of a species who possess the range of physical and psychological attributes best adapted to the environment are most likely to survive. Which term best captures this concept? A) natural selection. B) genotypical structure. C) phenotypical structure. D) survival of the fittest. Answer: D Rationale: To the extent that attributes that foster survival can be passed from one generation to the other and these adaptations match environmental stresses, the species is likely to survive. 28) It is acceptable to subject people to terrible working conditions and poor pay because the fittest individuals will survive. Which term best captures this philosophy? A) social evolution. B) genetic determinism. C) social Darwinism. D) discrimination. Answer: C Rationale: Social Darwinism justifies poor working conditions and pay by applying the principles of natural selection to human society and social systems. 29) Adam is having a discussion with his aunt about applying the principles of natural selection to human social systems. Which topic are they most likely discussing? A) genetic determinism. B) social Darwinism. C) sexual selection. D) eugenics. Answer: B Rationale: Social Darwinism applies the principles of natural selection to human social systems. In this way, proponents of social Darwinism can justify having workers with terrible pay and working conditions. 30) Who started the eugenics movement and believed that genius was inherited? A) Charles Darwin B) Herbert Spencer C) Lewis Terman D) Sir Francis Galton Answer: D Rationale: Sir Francis Galton argued that genius was inherited and started the eugenics movement. 31) Sara believes that people who have a mental or physical disability should not be permitted to have children because only biologically superior people should reproduce. Which term is most reflective of Sara’s belief? A) genetic determinism. B) eugenics. C) social Darwinism. D) sexual selection. Answer: B Rationale: The eugenics movement advocates improving the human species by applying evolutionary theory. As such, biologically superior people are encouraged to reproduce among themselves, while biologically inferior people are discouraged from having children. 32) Mark believes that one's destiny is set at birth according to the genes that the person inherits. Mark further believes that anything that happens to the child over time will have no effect on his or her destiny. What misuse of Darwinian theory is Mark advocating? A) eugenics B) social Darwinism C) genetic destiny D) genetic determinism Answer: D Rationale: Genetic determinism is a theory that the genes, and not the environment, influence the behaviours of an individual. 33) Jenny has just given birth to a baby boy. She hopes to expose her son to as many opportunities as possible to help shape his behaviour. Which theory best reflects Jenny’s belief? A) genetic determinism. B) social Darwinism. C) environmental determinism. D) eugenics. Answer: C Rationale: Environmental determinism is a theory that states that the environment, and not the genes, contributes to the behaviours of an individual. 34) Which psychological perspective supports environmental determinism? A) Cognitive B) Behaviourism C) Psychoanalytic D) Humanistic Answer: B Rationale: The behaviourists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner argued that behaviour is determined by the environment. 35) Bruce believes that when one is born, the mind is like a tabula rasa. Which statement is Bruce most likely to make when his first son is born? A) "I will teach you everything I know." B) "I hope you inherited your mother's good temper!" C) "Maybe he'll be smart like my late grandfather." D) "He's going to be good with cars. Everyone in our family is good with cars." Answer: A Rationale: John Locke proposed the theory of tabula rasa, which says that we're born with brains that are like blank slates of clay that can be written on by the environment. 36) Why is imprinting important for many species of animals? A) It helps them to learn who their mother is. B) It ensures that they stay close to their mother early in life. C) It makes predators unaware of their location. D) It allows animals to communicate the locations of important events in their environment. Answer: B Rationale: Imprinting is a type of learning in which the young animal follow and form an attachment to the first moving object that they see. Usually this is the mother, and staying close to the mother would have an adaptive advantage. 37) Which research project would likely be of the most interest to someone who studies ethology? A) Looking at the factors that affect a rat's ability to find food in a maze. B) Examining the communication system of honey bees. C) Researching the symbol-acquisition skills of pigeons. D) Exploring the salivation response of dogs to cues for food. Answer: B Rationale: Ethology is the scientific study of animals and their behavioural processes. It often studies animals in their natural environment and investigates behaviour that is relevant to the animal's daily survival. 38) Stella was the first one that the duckling saw upon hatching, and as a result, the duckling follows Stella everywhere. Stella wonders not only what caused the duckling to attach to her over everything else that was in the barn at the time of the hatching, but she also wonders why ducklings have evolved the ability to learn this attachment so quickly. Which ethologist would most likely sympathize with Stella's questions? A) Konrad Lorenz B) Nikolaas Tinbergen C) Karl von Frisch D) B. F. Skinner Answer: B Rationale: Tinbergen was interested in the causes of behaviour, and he proposed different levels of explanation for behaviours. The major divisions were between proximate and ultimate behavioural causes, such as the two examples in the above question. 39) Craig witnessed a car accident. The car hit the curb and flipped over, and suddenly caught on fire. Without thought for his own safety, Craig dove toward the burning car to pull the driver out to safety. Which term best reflects Craig's behaviour? A) selflessness B) inclusive fitness C) exclusive fitness D) altruism Answer: D Rationale: Altruistic behaviour is prosocial behaviours that a person carries out without concern for their own well-being. 40) A researcher discovers that more people are willing to risk their own lives to save a close relative than a distant relative, friend, or stranger. Which statement about this scenario is true? A) It supports the theory of inclusive fitness. B) It is an example of reciprocal altruism. C) It is an example of inclusive altruism. D) It is not true altruism since only certain individuals are rescued. Answer: A Rationale: Inclusive fitness is the sum of the overall direct and indirect effects of an individual's behaviours. As such, an individual's success in evolutionary terms is also determined by the success of one's relatives, in particular, closer relatives. 41) Which situation is an example of inclusive fitness? A) An alligator eats her young as a way to survive when food is scarce. B) A man rescues his best friend from a burning building. C) A seagull risks her cover by warning her offspring, but not other gulls, or an approaching predator. D) A dog finds a stray kitten and takes care of it. Answer: C Rationale: Inclusive fitness refers to the overall direct and indirect effects of an individual's behaviours. A prediction of this idea is that animals should engage is more altruistic behaviours for a close relative than for a distant relative or a non-relative. 42) On Tuesdays, Julie buys coffee for herself and her friend, Jason. On Thursdays, Jason buys coffee for both of them. Which term best describes this scenario? A) reciprocal altruism. B) inclusive fitness. C) altruism. D) inclusive altruism. Answer: A Rationale: Reciprocal altruism is the idea that people perform altruistic behaviours because they expect that others will do the same for them in the future. Taking turns with bringing the coffees is an example of this. 43) Which term refers to the idea that people perform altruistic behaviours because they expect that others will perform similar behaviours for them in the future? A) altruism. B) inclusive fitness. C) reciprocal altruism. D) selective altruism. Answer: C Rationale: Reciprocal altruism is the idea that people perform altruistic behaviours because they expect that others will return the favour in the future. This idea can explain altruistic behaviours performed for non-kin. 44) What research evidence suggests that a mechanism to recognize cheaters has evolved in humans? A) Subjects had a better memory of those individuals who had been categorized as cheaters. B) Subjects became aggressive toward individuals who had been categorized as cheaters. C) Subjects can be taught to recognize cheating behaviour in another. D) Subjects who are good at cheating are also better at detecting cheaters. Answer: A Rationale: Chiappe and colleagues (2004) found that students who studied fictitious social situations where cheating was a factor had a better memory of those individuals who had been categorized as cheaters than non-cheaters. Additionally, they were more likely to categorize the cheater as someone important to remember and to look at them longer. 45) Jake and his sister fight constantly. According to Trivers' theory, how should this behaviour be characterized? A) Somewhat abnormal, since brothers and sisters share genetic material. B) abnormal, given that it is a brother-sister pair and not two brothers or two sisters. C) normal, because each sibling wants the limited resources that the parents can offer. D) normal, because as children age they fight to get the attention of the parents. Answer: C Rationale: According to Trivers, sibling rivalry is a normal result of siblings laying claim to their fair share of the limited parental resources. This conflict is predicted to escalate if the parental resources are divided unequally. 46) Who wrote a book called "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis", in which it was argued that some of the most complex human behaviour could be explained by a synthesis of cellular biology, physiology, ethology, comparative psychology, behavioural ecology, and population biology? A) Edward O. Wilson B) David M. Buss C) Martin Daly D) Margo Wilson Answer: A Rationale: Edward O. Wilson published the book "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis" in 1975. 47) Which author suggested that much of the resistance to Edward O. Wilson's book stemmed from a misunderstanding about evolutionary psychology? A) Margo Wilson B) Martin Daly C) Herbert Spencer D) David Buss Answer: D Rationale: David Buss (2004) argued that evolutionary psychology does not imply that behaviour is genetically predetermined, or unchangeable, nor does it imply optimal design. Instead, evolutionary psychology serves as a way to understand complex human behaviour. 48) Frank and Joan have been married for a few years, each bringing with them a child from their previous marriage. Although the children are close in age, they fight constantly, and when they do, Frank always blames Joan's child and Joan always blames Frank's child. Which term is most consistent with this scenario? A) reciprocal altruism. B) the Cinderella Effect. C) Trivers theory. D) genetic determinism. Answer: B Rationale: The Cinderella Effect is the finding that children living with one biological parent and a stepparent are at a greater risk for abuse. In evolutionary terms, this is because a step-child would use up some of the step-parent's limited resources and take away those resources from their own biological child. 49) When Wilson and Daly (2004) showed undergraduate men photographs of attractive females, what did they discover? A) The men preferred a large, immediate payment over a delayed, small payment. B) The men preferred a smaller, immediate payment over a delayed, larger payment. C) The men showed no preference between a small immediate payment or a large delayed payment. D) The men showed the same preferences as women who were shown photographs of attractive men. Answer: B Rationale: Men tended to discount the future more when they were presented with attractive female faces less attractive female faces. It is suggested that the attractive faces creating a mating opportunity mindset that leads to more present-orienting responses in young men. 50) What is the primary argument against evolutionary psychology? A) It places too much emphasis on the environment. B) It places too much emphasis on genetic factors. C) It minimizes the influence of heritable factors. D) It focuses too much on how learned behaviours become inherited. Answer: B Rationale: It has been argued that evolutionary psychology discounts the role of the environment on behaviour, and instead emphasizes the genetic influences on behaviour. 51) John and Marsha are applying for a job at Nuclear Inc. During the interview process, they learn that the job pays very well, but that there are health risks involved in the job. According to Wilson and Daly, who is more likely to accept the job? A) John, because men are traditionally the breadwinners. B) John, because men are more likely to engage in risky behaviour. C) Marsha, because a woman's status increases exponentially if she has a well-paying job. D) Marsha, because women are more concerned with their status relative to same-sex rivals. Answer: B Rationale: Wilson and Daly found that undergraduate men are more likely than women to indicate a job preference that didn't take into consideration their long-term health. Evolutionary psychology predicts that men are more likely to engage in risky behaviour than women. 52) In which way did Harlow's monkeys violate the main assumption of behaviourism? A) the wire mother with food was preferred. B) the cloth mother without food was preferred. C) neither mother was preferred as the monkeys spent equal time with each. D) monkeys imprinted on the mother that was first seen Answer: B Rationale: Behaviourism would argue that the monkeys should prefer the fake mother that offered food reinforcement, but this was not found. 53) Other than Harlow's study, what source encouraged the study of the evolution of behaviour? A) genetics B) cognitive revolution C) behaviourism D) comparative psychology Answer: B Rationale: The cognitive revolution re-introduced the concept of the mind as a processor of information. The idea that the mind was shaped by evolution to process some kinds of information fit nicely with theories of cognition. 54) What was missing from Darwin's theory that led people at the time to question it? A) It lacked evidence from the real world. B) It lacked a means of explaining the traits of some species that clearly impede their survival. C) It lacked a valid theory of inheritance. D) It failed to account for how learned behaviours can then become inherited in later generations. Answer: C Rationale: At the time Darwin published his theory, it was unknown about genes and their mode of action. As a result, he could not adequately explain how traits may change across generations. 55) Which area of research is most commonly linked with Gregor Mendel? A) how human intelligence is inherited. B) ethnic and racial differences. C) identical and fraternal twins. D) the physical features of garden peas. Answer: D Rationale: Mendel did studies with garden peas to show that the physical features of the peas that emerged from different seeds could be predicted from the physical features of the plants from which the seeds had been obtained. 56) From a genetic perspective, which term best characterizes both hair colour and body build? A) genotype. B) phenotype. C) adaptations. D) selective advantage. Answer: B Rationale: The outward characteristics of an individual—those that can be directly observed—are known as the phenotype. 57) As a new mother looks upon her new baby, she sees her mother's chin, her spouse's hands, and her own skin tone. What term best describes the characteristics that the new mother is observing? A) selective advantage. B) adaptations. C) phenotype. D) genotype. Answer: C Rationale: The outward characteristics of an individual, those that can be directly observed, are known as the phenotype. 58) Although both parents have brown eyes, their baby has blue eyes. Which term refers to the fact that both parents must have had blue eyes as part of their genetic makeup? A) phenotype B) genotype C) archetype D) biotype Answer: B Rationale: The genotype is the genetic structure that an organism inherits from its parents. Blue eyes must have been part of the parents' genotype for the baby to end up with blue eyes. 59) In the vocabulary of evolutionary theory, what does one inherit from their parents? A) a genotype B) a phenotype C) a behavioural repertoire D) outward appearance Answer: A Rationale: Your genotype is your genetic structure. It determines your development and behaviour. It is not directly observable except as it can be inferred from your phenotype (your outward appearance and behaviour). 60) What is the correct sequence for the process of natural selection? A) Competition, environmental pressure, reproductive success, selection of the fittest phenotype B) selection of the fittest phenotype, competition, reproductive success, environmental pressure C) reproductive success, selection of the fittest phenotype , environmental pressure, competition D) environmental pressure, competition, selection of fittest phenotype, reproductive success Answer: D Rationale: This is from Figure 3.2. Natural selection begins with environmental pressure, followed by competition for resources, then selection of the fittest phenotype, then reproductive success to those individuals with the fittest phenotype, then frequency of that genotype increases. 61) Which two major adaptations in the evolution of the human species were favoured by natural selection? A) fire and the wheel. B) reading and writing. C) language and emotion. D) bipedalism and encephalization. Answer: D Rationale: Human evolution favoured two major adaptations: bipedalism and encephalization. 62) A genetics professor has asked the students to simplify the process of natural selection into a sequence of steps. Which sequence is correct? A) competition for resources, reproductive success, frequency of genotype increases, selection of fittest genotype, environmental pressure B) reproductive success, competition for resources, frequency of genotype increases, environmental pressure, selection of fittest genotype C) selection of fittest genotype, competition for resources, environmental pressure, reproductive success, frequency of that genotype increases D) environmental pressure, competition for resources, selection of fittest genotype, reproductive success, frequency of genotype increases Answer: D Rationale: Only those who can reproduce can survive; the environment presents challenges to survival that must be met. The species who best adapt to the challenges survive to pass their genetic material on to their offspring, who in turn pass the genotype on...and the species continues, survives, and increases. 63) Why was bipedalism an important contributor to human evolution? A) It led to complex thinking and reasoning. B) It allowed humans to swim. C) It enabled tool use. D) It allowed humans to explore new environments. Answer: D Rationale: Bipedalism, or walking upright, would have let us explore new environments and exploit new resources. We would have spotted predators and prey from a greater distance, and been able to carry tools, weapons, and other survival aids as we traveled. 64) Kelly has Huntington's disease, which results in involuntary movements and abnormal mental processes. What is the cause of Kelly's disease? A) a mutation in one gene. B) too many chromosomes. C) too few chromosomes. D) three #21 chromosomes Answer: A Rationale: Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder in which a mutation in one gene causes a change in the amount of the Huntington protein found throughout the body and brain. These abnormal levels of the protein cause the physical and mental symptoms. 65) Which sequence of words accurately lists genetic materials from smallest to largest? A) single cell, gene, DNA, chromosome B) gene, chromosome, single cell, DNA C) gene, DNA, chromosome, single cell D) DNA, gene, chromosome, single cell Answer: C Rationale: Genes are segments of the DNA. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, and each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. 66) Which structure is a segment of DNA? A) A chromosome. B) A gene. C) A double helix. D) DNA-R Answer: B Rationale: Each cell contains 46 chromosomes, and each chromosome is made up of strands of DNA. Small segments of DNA are genes. 67) Which statement about sex chromosomes is most accurate? A) They contain 23 pairs of genes. B) They are identical for males and females. C) They determine eye and hair colour. D) They code the development of male or female physical characteristics. Answer: D Rationale: An X chromosome is inherited from your mother and either an X or a Y from your father. The XX combination codes for the development of the female and the XY for the male. 68) Which statement is true with respect to sex chromosomes? A) Humans inherit a Y chromosome from the father and either an X or Y from the mother. B) Humans inherit an X chromosome from the mother and either an X or Y from the father. C) Humans inherit an X chromosome from the father and either an X or Y from the mother. D) Humans inherit a Y chromosome from the mother and either an X or Y from the father. Answer: B Rationale: Females are XX, so females always give an X to their offspring. Males have sperm that are X or Y, so they can contribute either to the offspring. 69) Which pairs of sex chromosomes are typical of human males and females, respectively? A) XY, XX B) XX, XY C) YY, XX D) XX, YY Answer: A Rationale: Males have XY chromosomes, and females have XX for their sex chromosomes. 70) What was the goal of the Human Genome Project? A) To identify all of the human genes. B) To verify Darwin's theory of natural selection. C) To show research support for the major events in human evolution. D) To discover the sources of genetically transmitted diseases Answer: A Rationale: The Human Genome Project achieved the goal of providing a complete sequencing of the human genome in 2003. 71) On which scale is heritability measured? A) -1.0 to +3.1. B) 0 to 1. C) 0 to 10. D) 1 to 100. Answer: B Rationale: Heritability measures closer to 0 suggest that the attribute is largely a product of the environment, and an estimate near 1 suggest the attribute is largely a product of genetic influences. 72) Dr. Tulip discovered that adopted individuals have intelligence levels that are closer to those of their biological parents than those of their adoptive parents. Which statement best explains this finding? A) Intelligence is correlated with, but not caused by biology B) Intelligence is primarily environmentally determined C) Intelligence is heritable D) Intelligence is not determined by the environment Answer: C Rationale: Adoption studies is a tool used by researchers to tease apart the effects of the environment and genes. 73) Dr. Spencer determined that the heritability of creativity was nearly 0. What does this finding indicate? A) creativity is largely a product of environmental influences. B) creativity is largely a product of genetic influences. C) creativity is equally determined by genetic and environmental influences. D) the heritability of creativity was not measurable. Answer: A Rationale: Heritability ranges on a scale from 0 to 1, with 0 meaning that the trait has no genetic influence. 74) Which field of study focuses on the causal link between inheritance and behaviour? A) evolutionary psychology. B) sociobiology. C) human behaviour genetics. D) genetic psychology. Answer: C Rationale: Human behaviour genetics is the field of study that examines the genetic aspect of individual differences in specific behaviours and traits. 75) Amy is reading an article titled "Scientists Find Creative Gene". What information should the article provide if it is a reputable media report? A) The definition of creativity. B) A description of how creativity develops. C) The consequences of being non-creative. D) The contexts in which creativity has helped the human species survive. Answer: A Rationale: Creativity may mean multiple things to different people. It is important to know how the scientists define the term because different creative behaviours may have different genetic bases. 76) Dr. Stayner is assessing pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic twins on attention span. What is Dr. Stayner most likely investigating? A) techniques to improve attention span. B) if one twin learns ADHD from the other twin. C) the heritability of attention span. D) screening tools for attentional problems. Answer: C Rationale: One way to assess the heritability of a trait is to compare MZ and DZ twins on the trait. Since MZ twins share 100% of their genetic material, and DZ twins only 50%, yet environmental influences would presumably be constant across both pairs, any difference between pairs can be attributed to heritable factors. In knowing these variables are used to calculate the heritability estimates of a trait. 77) Suppose the heritability estimate of mathematical ability is 0.90, and two mathematical geniuses have children. What does one know for certain about the mathematical ability of the children? A) The majority of the children from this couple will be mathematical geniuses as well. B) The children will require practice to become mathematical geniuses like their parents. C) Practice will have little influence on whether the children become mathematical geniuses or not. D) No predictions can be made with respect to the mathematical abilities of the children. Answer: C Rationale: A trait with a high heritability estimate does not mean that everyone in the family will have the trait. It just means that environmental experiences will have little impact on how the trait will manifest. 78) Which group of rhesus monkeys studied by Newman et al. (2005) showed the highest levels of aggression, as measured by competition for food? A) The monkeys with low-activity variation of the gene who were raised without maternal care. B) The monkeys with low-activity variation of the gene who were raised by their mother. C) The monkeys with high-activity variation of the gene who were raised without maternal care. D) The monkeys with high-activity variation of the gene who were raised by their mother. Answer: B Rationale: Monkeys who had the low-activity variation of the gene and who also had been raised by mothers showed the most aggressive behaviour. 79) Newman et al. (2005) conducted a study on the nature of aggression among male rhesus monkeys. What did the monkeys’ level of aggression depend upon? A) genetics. B) environment. C) neither genetics nor environment. D) both genetics and environment. Answer: D Rationale: There was a variation in a gene that affected the levels of neurotransmitters in the brains of the monkeys; some had a high-activity variation, some a low-activity variation. The aggression shown by the mothers of the monkeys also had an effect on the participants' levels of aggression. The nature of aggression was affected by the reciprocal interaction of parental behaviour and neurotransmitter activity. 80) After bipedalism and encephalization, what was the most important evolutionary milestone for the human species? A) Tool use B) Weaponry C) Music D) Language Answer: D Rationale: Language was also a huge evolutionary milestone for our species, after bipedalism and encephalization. 81) In the Stone Age, a father-son pair was hunting together for the first time. The father was able to tell his son how to use the weapon, how to track the prey, and how to launch their attack. What aspect of this scenario is the greatest evolutionary advantage conferred on early humans? A) weaponry B) tools C) hunting in pairs D) language Answer: D Rationale: Language allowed humans the advantage of benefiting from the experience of others. We could communicate the location of food, shelter, danger, and instructions on how to make and use tools and weapons, and stories to increase social bonds. 82) Stephanie is reading an article titled "Language as a By-Product of Brain Growth". Who was the most likely author of this article? A) Steven Pinker B) Robin Dunbar C) Paul Broca D) Noam Chomsky Answer: D Rationale: Noam Chomsky and Stephen Jay Gould both argued that language was a by-product of the natural selection process for a bigger human brain. Steven Pinker argues that language is an adaptation that was selected for directly. 83) Jason is reading an article titled "Language as a Side Effect of Brain Growth". Who is the most likely author of this article? A) Noam Chomsky B) Steven Pinker C) Robin Dunbar D) Terrance Deacon Answer: A Rationale: Noam Chomsky and Stephen Jay Gould both argued that language was a by-product of the natural selection process for a bigger human brain. 84) Marcy often engages in gossip when she is with her two best friends, but she is much less compelled to gossip when she is with a larger group of her classmates that she doesn't know as well. Which theory best explains this scenario? A) social gossip hypothesis B) group cohesion hypothesis. C) cultural evolution hypothesis. D) reciprocal grooming hypothesis. Answer: A Rationale: Robin Dunbar proposed that language evolved to facilitate social cohesion among groups. This is consistent with our level of comfort for engaging in gossip when we're around our close friends or just acquaintances. 85) What researcher argued that language evolved to facilitate social cohesion among small groups? A) Noam Chomsky B) Stephen Jay Gould C) Steven Pinker D) Robin Dunbar Answer: D Rationale: Robin Dunbar proposed the social gossip hypothesis for the evolution of language, arguing that language functions as a form of social grooming. 86) Greg is so happy that Lisa agreed to marry him. Now he can publically announce their engagement to all the other individuals who were courting Lisa, and this should help prevent them from continuing to court her. According to Terrance Deacon, which hypothesis best explains Greg’s beliefs? A) the social gossip hypothesis B) the social contract hypothesis C) the mate selection hypothesis D) the language evolution hypothesis Answer: B Rationale: The social contract hypothesis states that language developed to facilitate clear marriage contracts between mates. This contract would ensure that when one mate was away for an extended period of time, others would be aware that their mate was off limits. 87) Grace had known her husband as an acquaintance for years, but they had never spoken, other than saying "hi". One night they ended up talking for a very long time and began to see each other in a romantic way. This scenario is consistent with which theory on the development of language? A) The social contract hypothesis. B) The social gossip hypothesis. C) language may have been used as a screening tool for mate selection. D) repeated exposure to an individual may have been used as a screening tool for mate selection. Answer: C Rationale: A theory of language development that is related to mate selection, stating that individuals who have a better grasp of language can use it to woo potential mates better than those not as proficient. Furthermore, potential mates can use language as a way to judge the quality of the suitor. 88) According to Levitin's research, where in the brain is music processed? A) In the right hemisphere. B) In the left hemisphere. C) Throughout the brain. D) Within the frontal lobes. Answer: C Rationale: Levitin's research suggested that music is represented by neural networks distributed throughout the brain, much like how our memories are stored. 89) Individuals suffering from Alzheimer's disease have severe memory deficits, but can often sing along with old songs on the radio. According to Cuddy and Duffin (2005), which statement about music and memory can be made? A) It is very atypical for someone with Alzheimer's disease to retain memory for music. B) Retaining musical memory is often the case in someone with Alzheimer's disease. C) Music is processed in the right hemisphere. D) Music is felt as much in the body as it is in the mind. Answer: B Rationale: Cuddy and Duffin (2005) found that patients with Alzheimer's disease that lose memories from much of their life often recall music and lyrics. 90) Which term best describes the inability to recognize or identify different tunes? A) anosmia B) amusia C) anti-musicality D) tone deafness Answer: B Rationale: Amusics are individuals that are unable to process music at all. 91) Which author referred to music as "auditory cheesecake"? A) Steven Mithen B) Isabelle Peretz C) Steven Pinker D) Daniel Levitin Answer: C Rationale: Steven Pinker argued in his book How the Mind Works (1997) that music evolved as an aftereffect of developing language. Music essentially tricks the language system into thinking it is something beneficial. 92) Paulina is so fearful of snakes that it affects her daily life. She has to be careful what books she reads or movies she watches, because the presence of a snake induces an uncomfortable fearful response. Which term best characterizes Paulina’s behaviour? A) phobia. B) paranoia. C) generalized anxiety. D) obsessive-compulsive. Answer: A Rationale: A phobia is a persistent and irrational fear that disrupts one's life and is disproportional to the reality of the threat. 93) Brian has a phobia of balloons. He can't tolerate the squeaky sound of the rubber of balloons. If he is near a balloon, all he can think about is the panic he'll feel when the balloon pops. According to Dominic Murphy, what is the most likely cause of Brian's phobia? A) evolutionary history. B) conditioning. C) genetics. D) a biological sensitivity to loud noises. Answer: B Rationale: Murphy (2005) suggested five categories of phobias, with one category being for 'other', such as phobias related to features of our modern world. The source of these phobias, which wouldn't be related to our evolutionary history, may be caused by conditioning from having been paired with an aversive stimulus. 94) What happened when Mineka and colleagues presented monkeys with a video of a monkey recoiling at the sight of a flower? A) The monkeys developed a fear of snakes. B) The monkeys developed a fear of flowers. C) The monkeys developed a fear of all types of foliage. D) The monkeys did not develop a fear of flowers. Answer: D Rationale: Mineka found that monkeys shown a video of a monkey recoiling from a snake were likely to show the same response when later presented with a snake. However, monkeys shown a video of a monkey recoiling from a flower did not show the recoiling behaviour later on when presented with a flower. This suggests that some stimuli are more likely to be accepted as threatening than others. 95) According to Andrew Elliot and colleagues (2007), what could hinder one’s performance on an exam? A) Drinking coffee immediately prior to the exam. B) Using a red pen to write the answers. C) Wearing a hat in the exam room. D) Exercising immediately before the exam. Answer: B Rationale: Elliot et al. (2007) found that exposure to the colour red had a negative impact on test scores. 96) Lia and Juan are discussing the history of drug use. Lia makes the claim that humans have used drugs for a very long time, as there is archaeological evidence for this. Given that Juan has accurately grasped the information in the text, what response is Juan most likely to make? A) He will agree with Lia, based on the work of Sullivan and Hagen (2001). B) He will agree with Lia, based on the work of Nesse and Berridge (1997). C) He will disagree with Lia, as there is no archaeological evidence for early drug use. D) He will disagree with Lia as drug use started in aboriginal cultures. Answer: A Rationale: Sullivan and Hagen (2001) argued that there is archaeological evidence for early human drug use. 97) The goal of evolutionary psychology is to understand the human mind and brain mechanisms over time in living organisms. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Evolutionary psychology indeed aims to understand human psychological traits and behaviors by considering how they have evolved over time in response to environmental pressures. By studying how natural selection has shaped the human mind and brain mechanisms, evolutionary psychologists seek to uncover the adaptive functions of various psychological traits. 98) Charles Darwin wrote The Origin of Species. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. Charles Darwin is indeed the author of the groundbreaking work "On the Origin of Species," which was published in 1859. In this seminal book, Darwin presented his theory of evolution through natural selection, which revolutionized the fields of biology and anthropology and significantly influenced various other disciplines, including psychology. 99) Imagine a species of finch living on a remote island where their food supply is abundant, with no chance of depletion. According to Darwin's theory of natural selection, the beak of this finch is likely to get smaller across generations. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: According to Darwin's theory of natural selection, organisms evolve traits that are advantageous for their survival and reproduction in their specific environment. In the case of the finches described, if their food supply is abundant and there's no pressure favoring larger beaks for accessing scarce food sources, there wouldn't be a selective advantage for smaller beaks. Instead, if the current beak size is already effective for accessing the available food, there may be no significant pressure for changes in beak size across generations. Thus, the statement is false. 100) Suppose that female rabbits suddenly develop a strong preference for males with white fur. Over generations, fur colour would become whiter as a result of male-male competition. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Darwin's theory of natural selection primarily operates through mechanisms such as mate choice and environmental pressures. In this scenario, if female rabbits developed a preference for males with white fur, it would lead to sexual selection, where white-furred males might have a reproductive advantage. However, male-male competition would not directly affect fur color unless there are other factors at play, such as white fur being inherently advantageous in competitive interactions. Therefore, while female preference may influence the traits passed on to future generations, it's not accurate to suggest that male-male competition alone would drive fur color becoming whiter over generations. 101) According to Young, Critelli, and Keith (2005), male undergraduates will prefer younger females to marry than females with which to have a brief sexual encounter. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement reflects findings from Young, Critelli, and Keith's research, suggesting that male undergraduates tend to prefer younger females for long-term relationships, such as marriage, as opposed to brief sexual encounters. 102) Sir Francis Galton argued that intelligence was inherited and started the eugenics movement. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Sir Francis Galton indeed argued that intelligence was inherited, and his work laid the foundation for the eugenics movement, which aimed to improve the human population's genetic quality through selective breeding. 103) In extreme environmental determinism, humans and all other organisms are said to be born with a tabula rasa. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Extreme environmental determinism posits that individuals, including humans, are born with a tabula rasa, or blank slate, meaning that all behavior and characteristics are solely determined by environmental factors rather than innate traits. 104) According to the idea of inclusive fitness, you are more likely to engage in altruistic behaviour to save your friend than your sibling. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Inclusive fitness theory suggests that organisms are more likely to exhibit altruistic behavior towards close genetic relatives, such as siblings, rather than unrelated individuals like friends, as altruistic actions toward relatives can still indirectly promote the passing on of shared genes. 105) There is some suggestion that an evolutionary mechanism is in place to ensure that we can recognize cheaters. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Evolutionary psychology proposes that humans possess cognitive mechanisms to detect and respond to cheaters or individuals who violate social norms, as cooperation and trust have been crucial for survival throughout human evolution. 106) According to the Cinderella Effect, stepchildren as treated the same as biological children in mixed-family marriages. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The Cinderella Effect suggests that stepchildren may be at a higher risk of maltreatment or abuse compared to biological children in mixed-family marriages, indicating that they are not treated the same as biological children in all cases. 107) Harlow and Suomi (1971) found that young monkeys preferred surrogate, fake mothers made of cloth without food more than fake mothers with food and without cloth. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Harlow and Suomi's research demonstrated that young monkeys preferred surrogate mothers made of cloth for comfort and attachment, even when those surrogates did not provide nourishment, highlighting the importance of social and emotional bonds in early development. 108) Harlow carried out studies on the garden pea to explore the relationship between parent and offspring. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Harlow's studies primarily focused on social isolation, maternal separation, and attachment in rhesus monkeys, not on plants like the garden pea, which is commonly associated with Gregor Mendel's experiments in genetics. 109) Your observable characteristics are known as your genotype. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Observable characteristics are known as phenotype, while genotype refers to the genetic makeup or genetic information of an organism, which may or may not directly manifest in observable traits. 110) DNA is organized into units called genes. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Genes are indeed the basic units of heredity, composed of segments of DNA that encode specific instructions for the synthesis of proteins or functional RNA molecules, contributing to the development and functioning of living organisms. 111) The human genome contains about four million genes. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The human genome is estimated to contain around 20,000 to 25,000 genes, not four million. 112) The extent to which monozygotic and dizygotic twins show similarity within pairs on particular traits or behaviours can be used to estimate the heritability of the trait. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement accurately reflects how twin studies, comparing the similarity of identical (monozygotic) twins who share 100% of their genes and fraternal (dizygotic) twins who share, on average, 50% of their genes, can be used to estimate the heritability of traits or behaviors. 113) After bipedalism and encephalization, perhaps the most important evolutionary milestone for humans was the advent of weapons. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: While the advent of tools and weapons has been significant in human evolution, it is not typically considered one of the most important milestones. Factors such as social cooperation, language development, and cultural evolution are often regarded as more pivotal. 114) Both Chomsky and Gould believe that language emerged as a by-product of the natural selection process for a larger brain. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Both Noam Chomsky and Stephen Jay Gould have proposed theories suggesting that language emerged as a by-product of evolutionary processes related to brain development, such as natural selection favoring larger brains. 115) According to the social gossip hypothesis, language evolved to announce mate relationships to others. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The social gossip hypothesis suggests that language evolved primarily for the purpose of exchanging social information, such as alliances, status, or group cohesion, rather than specifically for announcing mate relationships. 116) No species of non-human animal has ever been able to keep rhythm with music. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: There are documented cases of certain non-human animals, such as certain species of birds and mammals, demonstrating an ability to keep rhythm with music or auditory stimuli, challenging the notion that this ability is uniquely human. 117) Little Albert is presented with a rat and a flower followed by a very loud noise. According to Mineka, Little Albert is more likely to develop a fear to the rat than the flower. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Mineka's research on fear conditioning suggests that Little Albert would be more likely to develop a fear response to the neutral stimulus (the rat) that was paired with the aversive stimulus (the loud noise), demonstrating the process of classical conditioning. 118) You overhear Sheila tell a friend, “Never date a fraternity guy! Every one I dated cheated on me!” Sheila has committed the __________ fallacy. Answer: a. hasty generalization Rationale: Sheila's conclusion about all fraternity guys based on her limited experience with a few individuals represents a hasty generalization, as she hastily draws a broad conclusion without sufficient evidence. 119) Due to favorable adaptations to features of the environment, some members of a species reproduce more successfully than others. This captures the essence of the process called __________. Answer: natural selection Rationale: Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations, while less favorable traits decrease, leading to adaptation to the environment. 120) There are two means by which __________ can operate: male-male competition and female choice. Answer: sexual selection Rationale: Sexual selection refers to the process by which certain traits are favored and passed on to offspring due to their attractiveness to mates, often resulting from either competition between members of the same sex (male-male competition) or the choice of mates by one sex, usually females (female choice). 121) __________ is a theory that genes, and not the environment, contribute to the behaviors exhibited by an individual. Answer: Genetic determinism Rationale: Genetic determinism is the belief that genes play the primary role in determining an individual's behaviors, characteristics, and traits, with little influence from environmental factors. 122) Dr. Stiles is studying the behavior of ducks in the lab and in the wild. Most likely, Dr. Stiles is in the field of __________. Answer: ethology Rationale: Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments, including observations and experiments to understand behavior patterns, communication, and social interactions. 123) Harlow's study with young monkeys was surprising because the findings were contrary to the predictions of __________. Answer: behaviorism Rationale: Harlow's research challenged the behaviorist notion that attachment and behavior were solely determined by external rewards (such as food) and punishments, showing the importance of social and emotional factors in development. 124) The outward appearance of an organism is called the __________, while the genetic structure that an organism inherits from its parents is called the __________. Answer: phenotype; genotype Rationale: Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics or traits of an organism, while genotype refers to the genetic makeup or genetic information inherited from parents, which may or may not directly manifest in the phenotype. 125) The biological units of heredity are called __________. They are responsible for the transmission of traits and are tiny sections of __________. Answer: genes; chromosomes Rationale: Genes are the basic units of heredity, containing instructions for specific traits, and they are located on chromosomes, which are thread-like structures found in the cell nucleus containing DNA. 126) The relative influence of genetics versus environment in determining patterns of behavior is called __________. Answer: heritability Rationale: Heritability refers to the extent to which individual differences in observed traits or behaviors within a population can be attributed to genetic variation, as opposed to environmental factors. 127) While Noam Chomsky argues that language is a by-product of the natural selection process for a bigger brain, __________ believes that language evolved as an adaptation in its own right. Answer: Steven Pinker Rationale: Steven Pinker, a prominent cognitive psychologist, proposes that language evolved as an adaptation in its own right, rather than as a mere by-product of other evolutionary processes, emphasizing its role in facilitating communication, social interaction, and cognitive development. 128) One day, you take your teenage niece to the zoo and she becomes particularly fascinated with the birds in the aviary. She asks you why they all seem to have different shaped beaks. Use the research of Charles Darwin and Peter and Rosemary Grant to explain why animals look the way they do today, incorporating a discussion of natural selection. Answer: The theory of natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin suggests that organisms that are well-adapted to their environments will produce more offspring and therefore survive longer than those not so well-adapted. The Grants studied finches, their habits, environment, and population size. They took note of the ones that survived a terrible drought and why they survived when others didn't. 129) Explain Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. What are the two mechanisms that cause sexual selection? Give examples of each. How can sexual selection lead to pressure to change a trait in one direction while natural selection is pressuring the trait to change in the opposite direction? Answer: Sexual selection is Darwin’s theory that defines how selecting a mate based on features that are attractive could lead to an increase in those features, caused by male-male competition and female choice. Examples of each should state why they’re examples (i.e., the function that they serve). It is possible to have a trait that is only there for sexual selection (e.g., peacock’s long, colourful tail, moose’s antlers) that actually increases survival costs for the bearer of the trait (e.g., peacock is more visible and less mobile, moose is less mobile). 130) Give an overview of some of the ways that Darwin’s evolutionary theory has been misused or misrepresented. Answer: Should include definition and examples of genetic determinism, social Darwinism, eugenics movement, environmental determinism. 131) Why would altruism occur, even when it puts individuals in danger for someone they do not even know? Explain inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism, and the circumstances in which each is likely to occur. Answer: Outline altruism, what it is, and when it would occur according to inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism. Examples should be given for each. 132) What studies led to the decline of behaviourism? Answer: Harlow’s study with monkeys and laboratory mothers found that the wire mother with the food was not preferred. Studies in cognitive psychology showed that participants must have been engaged in information-processing. 133) What was missing from Darwin’s theory at the time that led many to not fully embrace it, and what early studies came out to support Darwin’s theory? Explain the difference between phenotype and genotype. Answer: Mendel’s studies on the garden pea and how genetic characteristics might change over time. Define genotype and phenotype. 134) Why did language evolve? Outline the arguments that language is a by-product of human evolution. Can a case be made that language may have evolved in its own right? Answer: Overview Chomsky and Gould’s ideas, as well as Steven Pinker’s arguments. Include Dunbar’s social gossip hypothesis and Deacon’s social contract hypothesis. 135) How would having a phobia be adaptive? What evidence suggests that we may be prepared to learn to fear some stimuli more than others? Answer: Phobias may represent once-adaptive predispositions to develop fear to dangerous stimuli in the environment. Mineka’s work with monkeys suggest that monkeys accept certain stimuli as threatening and not others. Test Bank for Psychology and Life Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo, Serge Desmarais, Tammy Ivanco 9780205037117, 9780205859139