CH-2 Research Methods in Psychology – Psychology and Life : Exam Guide

Chapter 2: Research Methods in Psychology 1) Which belief is most likely to be held by individuals conducting psychological research? A) Human behaviour is unpredictable and random. B) Behaviour follows discoverable, lawful patterns. C) Most explanations of behaviour are to be found in the environment. D) Human behaviour is the result of predetermined forces acting upon the individual. Answer: B Rationale: Lawful patterns exist in behaviour and in mental processes and are discovered and revealed through research. 2) All events, physical, mental and behavioural, are the result of, or are determined by, specific causal factors. Which term best captures this belief? A) causation. B) replication. C) generalization. D) determinism. Answer: D Rationale: Causal factors that determine behaviour and mental processes are factors in the individual's environment or within the individual. 3) Which statement about psychological theories is true? A) They should be simple. B) They should be complex. C) They should avoid making claims about causal factors. D) They should generate new ideas and hypotheses. Answer: D Rationale: Theories account for known facts; they are a set of concepts that explain something. Through the process of research, theories also suggest new ideas for relationships between causes and consequences. 4) "If an athlete imagines having a good performance, then that athlete is more likely to be successful in an event." What is being described by this statement? A) a theory. B) determinism. C) a hypothesis. D) a non-causal relationship. Answer: C Rationale: Hypotheses are often thought of as if-then predictions, specifying certain outcomes from specific conditions. 5) What happens after a psychologist has generated a hypothesis? A) it becomes a theory. B) researchers are likely to accept it as valid. C) research is needed to verify the if-then link. D) researchers are likely to generate concurrent hypotheses. Answer: C Rationale: Researchers use the scientific method to test whether the if-then relationship can be verified; this will answer the question of whether the suggested if-then link in fact exists in the way that the psychologist hypothesized that it would exist. 6) In what ways are theories and hypotheses interrelated? A) Hypotheses are more important than theories. B) Theories are more important than hypotheses. C) When a hypothesis derived from a theory is not validated, the theory must be modified. D) Theories are not of fundamental importance in generating new hypotheses, except when a theory has been proven. Answer: C Rationale: If researchers suggest an if-then link and the scientific method leads them to the conclusion that the link does not exist or is only partially supported, an aspect of the theory on which the link was based must be reconsidered. 7) What do psychological researchers rely on when they are ready to put their hypotheses to the test? A) intuition. B) the scientific method. C) common sense. D) subjective judgments. Answer: B Rationale: The scientific method is a set of procedures for gathering and interpreting evidence in ways that limit errors and yield dependable conclusions. 8) What is observer bias? A) an "educated guess" about what will happen. B) the direct result of the context of discovery. C) the direct result of the context of justification. D) an error due to personal motives and expectations. Answer: D Rationale: At times, people see and hear what they expect to see and hear rather than what is; this is observer bias. 9) In an anecdote presented in the textbook, Hugo Munsterberg, a leading psychologist around the beginning of the 20th century, describes the various reported reactions to a speech he gave on peace. What did the reactions illustrate? A) the potential effect of observer bias. B) the rationale for the use of operational definitions. C) how Munsterberg created the concept of the scientific method. D) the importance of the within-subjects design. Answer: A Rationale: Reporters saw and heard the same speech in very different ways and reported it very differently from one another. This was likely based on the preconceived ideas they had about the speaker and the subject of his speech. 10) A researcher hypothesizes that boys are more aggressive than girls. Support for the hypothesis is gained by personally watching children at the playground. What should the researcher consider when determining the validty of the data collected? A) observer bias. B) standardization. C) dependent variables. D) independent variables. Answer: A Rationale: Expectations and beliefs can have an effect on what we see and hear. The biases of the researcher acted like filters through which some things were noticed and made salient while others were ignored and made irrelevant. In this case, any aggressive behaviour by boys was much more likely to be noticed than was aggressive behaviour by girls. 11) A research assistant who is working in a psychologist's laboratory learns the importance of keeping complete records of observations and data analyses. What is the primary purpose of such procedures? A) To increase objectivity. B) To increase subjectivity. C) To adhere to institutional policies and procedures. D) To decrease liability claims. Answer: A Rationale: Conclusions must be uninfluenced by researcher's emotions or biases. The best way to be objective is to use standard or uniform and consistent procedures in all phases of data collection. 12) A researcher finds a new cancer drug to be effective, but other scientists cannot replicate the original findings. What is the best explanation for the original results? A) faulty equipment. B) determinism. C) observer bias. D) poor methodology. Answer: C Rationale: The first researcher may have a commitment to a particular hypothesis because of prior experiences; without realizing it, he/she may influence the results of the current research by considering certain data relevant and discounting other data. 13) In carrying out psychological research, what is the basic concept underlying the use of standardization? A) all research participants are treated uniformly. B) research participant are randomly selected. C) operational definitions are general in nature. D) each research procedure includes both an independent variable and a dependent variable. Answer: A Rationale: All research participants should experience exactly the same experimental conditions. Standardization means asking questions of every subject in the same way and scoring all responses according to pre-established rules. 14) If a researcher defines variables or conditions in terms of the specific procedures used to determine their presence, what type of definition is being used? A) unbiased B) dependent C) operational D) hypothetical Answer: C Rationale: All variables in an experiment must have an operational definition, which defines the variable in exact and specific terms so that the concepts being tested will have consistent meaning to anyone who wants to replicate the experiment. 15) When carrying out an experiment, which variable does the researcher manipulate? A) confounding B) extraneous C) independent D) dependent Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the causal part of the experiment, while the effect part of the cause and effect relationship is the dependent variable; the value of the dependent variable will depend on the value of the independent variable. 16) A store owner is conducting an experiment to determine how much advertising increases overall profit. What type of variable is the amount of advertising? A) dependent B) independent C) extraneous D) confounding Answer: B Rationale: The store owner creates the advertising and decides how much of it she will do (she manipulates the advertising, which is the independent variable.) She can then calculate the effect of the advertising on her profit (the dependent variable.) 17) A psychologist hypothesizes that viewing pornographic material increases aggressive behaviour in males. What is the dependent variable in this study? A) aggressive behaviour. B) the age of the participants. C) viewing pornographic material. D) the gender of the participants. Answer: A Rationale: The hypothesis is that the amount of aggressive behaviour displayed will depend on the pornographic materials viewed (the cause.) Aggression is the effect part of the cause-effect relationship. 18) Which statement best captures the basic idea underlying the experimental method? A) Sample participants carefully, observe their behaviour, and report the results. B) Describe and measure behaviour under a wide variety of conditions. C) Manipulate an independent variable to determine an effect on a dependent variable. D) Manipulate a dependent variable to determine an effect on an independent variable. Answer: C Rationale: The goal of this method is to make strong causal claims about the impact of one variable on the other. 19) What is the primary reason why psychological researchers use the experimental method? A) To make claims concerning causality. B) To observe changes in behaviour. C) To detect possible confounding variables. D) To determine if two variables are related. Answer: A Rationale: In an experimental setting, researchers most often wish to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables. The independent variable can be manipulated in this setting to demonstrate the effect that it has on participants. 20) Which scenario indicates that a research study has been confounded? A) If the experimenter's interpretation of the data has not been supported. B) If participants do not respond in the way the experimenter has expected. C) If a participant's behaviour has resulted solely because of the independent variable. D) If a variable other than the independent variable has influenced a participant's behaviour. Answer: D Rationale: When something other than what an experimenter purposely introduces into a research setting changes a participant's behaviour and adds confusion to the interpretation of the data, it is called a confounding variable. 21) A researcher theorizes that people are likely to perspire more when telling embarrassing stories than when telling funny stories. Volunteers are asked to record a memory of an embarrassing or a funny incident and their perspiration is measured. On some days, but not others, the lab where the recordings are done is very hot. Based on this information, what should be of most concern to the researcher? A) placebo effects. B) experimenter expectancy effects. C) the presence of a confounding variable. D) determining an operational definition of embarrassment. Answer: C Rationale: The heat in the laboratory is just as likely to be causing perspiration as is the memory of the embarrassing or funny story. The heat is confounding or confusing the cause-effect relationship. 22) To measure the effects of task complexity on an individual's perception of time, a researcher has one group of participants do simple addition problems and another group solve complex mathematical formulas. Both groups are then asked to estimate the time elapsed since they began the task. Later, the researcher finds out that the participants given the complex task were in a room with higher noise levels than the other group. In this study, which term best describes the noise level? A) the placebo effect. B) a dependent variable. C) a confounding variable. D) an independent variable. Answer: C Rationale: It will be difficult to tell which variable affected the perception of time for those who did the complex task, the task itself or the noise level. The noise level is confusing or confounding measurement of the cause-effect relationship. 23) A research assistant is conducting an experiment designed to assess the verbal abilities of boys and girls. In preparing for the experiment, the assistant reads a research study that found higher verbal abilities in girls than in boys. This information about gender unknowingly led the assistant to communicate to the girls in the experiment that they should do better than the boys. What term best describes this phenomenon? A) Placebo effect B) Expectancy effect C) Double-blind effect D) Between-subjects effect Answer: A Rationale: Expectancy effects occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the behaviour he or she expects to find, thereby producing the desired reaction (higher verbal abilities in girls than in boys). The experimenter's expectations (that girls will do better than boys) rather than the independent variable (gender) may actually have triggered the demonstration of higher ability levels in girls. 24) In Robert Rosenthal's study of the effects of expectations, some students were led to believe that the rats they were training were maze-bright and other students were told that their rats were maze-dull. In reality, the rats were all the same. What did Rosenthal find in the study? A) The rats labeled as bright were found to be much better learners. B) The students became suspicious of how the rats were labeled. C) Surprisingly, the rats labeled dull were found to be much better learners. D) There was no relationship between the way the rats were labeled and whether students found their rats to be good or bad learners. Answer: A Rationale: Rosenthal & Fode (1963) found that rats labeled as bright were found to be much better learners than those that had been labeled as dull. 25) When does a placebo effect occur? A) When an experimenter finds what he or she expected to discover. B) When participants have not been randomly assigned to experimental and control conditions. C) When participants change their behaviour because of their belief that a treatment has had an effect. D) When both participants and experimental assistants are unaware of which participants get which treatment. Answer: C Rationale: In this case, the participants' behaviour changes because they believe something has been manipulated that will change their behaviour. Actually, there has been no type of experimental manipulation. 26) According to the text book, what percentage of patients who use a treatment with no genuine medical effects show a good or excellent outcome? A) 10 B) 30 C) 50 D) 70 Answer: D Rationale: 70% of patients who used a treatment with no genuine medical effects show a good or excellent outcome of the treatment. 27) In the context of conducting psychological research, what is the purpose of control procedures? A) To increase the likelihood that the experimenter's hypothesis will be supported. B) To hold constant variables and conditions other than those related to the hypothesis. C) To encourage participants to respond in a manner consistent with their own expectations. D) To ensure that participants are affected equally by both independent and dependent variables. Answer: B Rationale: There are strategies in good research design that help researchers devise ways in which to eliminate possible confounds. These strategies, control procedures, attempt to hold all variables constant and to hold all conditions constant other than those related to the hypothesis being tested. 28) Dr. Norton is using a research technique in which neither the research participants nor the research assistants are aware of which participants receive which treatment. Which approach has Dr. Norton most likely employed? A) placebo control. B) between-subjects design. C) single-blind control technique. D) double-blind control technique. Answer: D Rationale: In the best circumstances, bias can be eliminated by keeping both experimenters and their assistants, as well as the participants, from knowing which participants get which treatment. 29) A psychologist is doing research for a pharmaceutical company. The drugs that are being tested are numbered so that the psychologist does not know what they are, nor does the psychologist know which participants are receiving which drugs. Participants are also unaware of differences in treatments. Which phenomenon is being described? A) within-subjects design. B) correlational method. C) double-blind control. D) random assignment. Answer: C Rationale: In this case, bias can be eliminated to the fullest extent possible by not allowing the experimenter or the participants to know who is receiving which treatment. 30) A researcher reports to his colleagues that he belongs to a secret scientific society, where no one but the researcher will ever know about the studies the society members are doing. Which principle is being violated? A) determinism. B) generalizability. C) open-mindedness. D) public verifiability. Answer: D Rationale: This means that other researchers must have the opportunity to inspect, criticize, or disprove the data and the methods by which the data was collected and interpreted. 31) A researcher is testing if caffeine makes people more talkative. Some of the participants are given regular coffee to drink and some are given warm milk. The assistant then interviews the participants and counts the number of words each speaks during the interview. What seems to be missing from the design? A) a hypothesis B) a placebo control C) a dependent variable D) an independent variable Answer: B Rationale: A placebo control would include participants who drank decaffeinated coffee without knowledge that it had no caffeine. Measure of the number of words spoken by this group would help the researchers understand how much difference the caffeine really makes. This control provides a baseline of response with which the other groups' responses can be compared. 32) Why do research designs often include a control condition? A) to ensure that there are enough participants for meaningful statistical analyses. B) to serve as a baseline against which the experimental effect is evaluated. C) to reduce experimenter expectancy effects. D) to meet the requirements of the scientific method. Answer: B Rationale: Because control participants do not experience the experimental manipulations, they provide a baseline to assess the effects of those manipulations. 33) One study described in the text book examined the effects of ginkgo biloba as aanswer to one's memory problems. The study highlighted the importance of utilizing which one of the following controls? A) single-blind control B) double-blind control C) placebo control D) counter-balancing control Answer: C Rationale: Placebo controls showed a 14% improvement on cognitive tasks, likely from repeated practice from the initial session. 34) In a between-subjects design, which participants are NOT exposed to the experimental treatment? A) control B) experimental C) within-subjects D) randomly-assigned Answer: A Rationale: In a between-subjects design, participants are randomly assigned to the experimental group (exposed to the independent variable/experimental treatment) or to a control condition (not exposed.) 35) When planning a study, the researcher determines that of the one hundred participants, fifty will be randomly assigned to the experimental condition and the other fifty to the control condition. Which type of experimental design is being used? A) placebo control B) single-subject C) within-subjects D) between-subjects Answer: D Rationale: In this type of study, different groups of subjects are assigned by chance procedures (randomly assigned) to an experimental condition in which they are exposed to the experimental treatment or to a control condition in which they are not exposed to the treatment. 36) A researcher assigns the first fifty people who sign up to participate in a study to the experimental condition and the next fifty to the control condition. Why would the interpretations drawn from the study be severely limited? A) A within-subjects design should have been implemented. B) Random assignment to conditions was not implemented. C) A greater number of participants should have been selected. D) Another control condition should have been included. Answer: B Rationale: Random assignment helps ensure that variables other than the independent variable are distributed evenly across groups; it helps eliminate confounding variables. 37) What is the primary purpose of randomly assigning participants to experimental and control groups? A) To help eliminate confounding variables related to individual differences. B) To help minimize observer bias. C) To reduce the likelihood of the placebo effect. D) To ensure that the results are generalizable. Answer: A Rationale: It helps eliminate confounding variables related to individual differences among the research participants. Each group is likely to be similar because each participant has the same chance of being assigned to either group. For instance, using random assignment makes it unlikely that the groups will be divided so that one has all males and the other has all females; the groups are likely to be a mixture of males and females. 38) Sample is to population as A) part is to whole. B) large is to small. C) valid is to invalid. D) representative is to not representative. Answer: A Rationale: Only a small part of the whole of any identified population can be brought into the laboratory or otherwise included in collection of data. 39) A psychologist has collected data on the physical agility of young adults and now wishes to collect similar responses from elderly people. The psychologist is working within a limited budget. On the basis of sampling theory, which participants should the psychologist attempt to recruit? A) Elderly acquaintances. B) Elderly people who are athletic. C) Elderly individuals that are not known to the psychologist. D) A representative sample of elderly people. Answer: D Rationale: A representative sample matches as closely as possible the characteristics of the whole of the population being studied. 40) Which research design uses each participant as his or her own control? A) double-blind B) within-subjects C) between-subjects D) randomly assigned Answer: B Rationale: This research design allows researchers to study the behaviour of each participant in the study before getting the treatment and after. 41) A student is asked to participate in a study. First, the student is asked to rate how angry a person appears in a photograph. Then the student is asked to think of angry thoughts and to rate the same photograph again. What type of research design is being implemented? A) correlational B) case study C) within-subjects D) between-subjects Answer: C Rationale: Each individual participant's reaction before thinking angry thoughts can be compared with his/her behaviours after thinking angry thoughts. Strong conclusions can then be drawn about the effect of angry thoughts on perception of anger. 42) Which scenario illustrates the use of a within-subjects design? A) The artistic abilities of males are compared to the artistic abilities of females. B) Children at three different age levels are given a test of their motor coordination. C) Participants are given a spelling test, asked to meditate for ten minutes, and then given another spelling test. D) One group of participants is given a compliment before solving problems and a second group is criticized before solving problems. Answer: C Rationale: The effects of meditation on the spelling test can be calculated for each individual by comparing how each individual did prior to meditation and after meditation. 43) Which statement is true of the within-subjects experimental design? A) It is a subtype of the between-subjects design. B) There are no comparison conditions in this design. C) There are two experimental groups and one control group. D) Each participant serves in all conditions of the experiment. Answer: D Rationale: Each individual participates prior to the test phase, and in the test phase. The independent variable is manipulated for each individual to see the effects (the dependent variable) for each individual. 44) A teacher is trying to see if smiling at her students will increase the number of questions they ask. In the first and third weeks of the study, the number of questions students ask is recorded. In the second week, the teacher smiles at her students, and the number of questions is also recorded. What type of research design is being used? A) within-subjects B) correlational C) placebo control D) between-subjects Answer: A Rationale: Each student is used as his or her own control; each participates in the baseline phase, when questions are asked without smiling. In the test phase, the teacher smiles a lot at all the children as she asks questions. Calculation is made of each child's responses prior to the test phase and during the test phase. 45) As an assignment for an Experimental Psychology class, students have been asked to conduct a study that will yield a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. What type of research method must be used to complete this assignment? A) experimental B) observational C) correlational D) case study Answer: A Rationale: The experimental method calculates the cause-effect relationship between the independent variable (the cause) and the dependent variable (the effect). 46) A psychologist believes that music affects a person's mood. Some participants listen to waltzes and others listen to military marches. Each participant's mood is measured with a paper-and-pencil test. What are the independent and dependent variables? A) The waltz music is the independent variable and the military march music is the dependent variable. B) The type of music is the independent variable and the participant's mood is the dependent variable. C) The participant's mood is the independent variable and the type of music is the dependent variable. D) The participant's mood is the independent variable and the scores on the paper-and-pencil test are the dependent variable. Answer: B Rationale: The type of music the participants listen to is manipulated by the experimenter; this is the causal part of the experiment (the independent variable). The measured mood after listening is the effect (the dependent variable) and depends directly on the type of music played (the independent variable). 47) A researcher is interested in the relationship between brain damage and the ability of humans to plan their behaviour. What type of research design would be most appropriate to implement? A) naturalistic observation B) experimental C) correlational D) within-subjects Answer: C Rationale: When questions involve variables that cannot be manipulated by the experimenter, a correlational design is used. These designs help researchers determine to what extent two variables, traits, or attributes are related. 48) A student has been asked to determine if there is a relationship between musical ability and mathematical ability. What type of research design would be best suited to this task? A) between - subjects experiment. B) case study. C) correlational study. D) naturalistic observation. Answer: C Rationale: Psychologists use correlational methods to compute the correlation coefficient when they want to determine the degree to which two attributes such as this are related to one another. 49) Which correlation coefficient must be a mistake? A) 0.0 B) -0.7 C) +1.0 D) +1.4 Answer: D Rationale: Correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1. 50) Given the following correlation coefficients, what is the weakest correlation? A) +0.10 B) -0.06 C) -0.10 D) -0.60 Answer: B Rationale: Correlation coefficients that are closer to zero show a weaker relationship between variables than do correlation coefficients that are farther away from zero. 51) What is the most likely correlation between height and weight? A) zero. B) positive. C) negative. D) unpredictable. Answer: B Rationale: A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other also increases. It also means that as one variable decreases, the other decreases. In this case, we would expect that as people get taller, they also weigh more. 52) You read in a health magazine that the more people drink alcohol and smoke cigarettes, the greater the number of emotional problems they are likely to have. What does this relationship illustrate? A) cause and effect. B) a zero correlation. C) a positive correlation. D) a negative correlation. Answer: C Rationale: A positive correlation is demonstrated when whatever is being studied varies in the same direction; the variables both increase or decrease. In this case, both variables increase. 53) The more classes students miss, the lower their test grades tend to be. Which term best describes this phenomenon? A) expectancy effect. B) positive correlation. C) negative correlation. D) observer bias. Answer: C Rationale: A negative correlation is demonstrated when the sets of scores go in opposite directions. In this case, as absences increase, scores decrease. 54) What is the most likely correlation between shoe size and intelligence in human adults? A) near zero. B) strongly negative. C) strongly positive. D) impossible to determine. Answer: A Rationale: When a weak relationship exists between variables, or no relationship at all, a zero or close to zero correlation exists. 55) A researcher computes a correlation coefficient and determines that it is zero. What does this finding indicate? A) That a perfect correlation exists. B) That there is no relationship between the variables. C) That the researcher has made an error in the computation. D) That as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Answer: B Rationale: The variables vary randomly around each other, demonstrating no relationship between them. 56) In company A, the relationship between motivation and worker productivity is +.60, while in company B, the relationship between motivation and worker productivity is -.90. Based upon this knowledge, which of the following observations is true? A) The ability to accurately predict worker productivity from worker motivation is greater in company A. B) The ability to accurately predict worker productivity from worker motivation is greater in company B. C) The ability to accurately predict worker productivity from worker motivation will be the same in both companies. D) One cannot predict worker productivity from worker's motivation using correlational data. Answer: B Rationale: Despite indications that in company B the relationship between motivation and productivity is a negative correlation, the correlation is stronger because -.90 is closer to -1.0 than +.60 is to +1.0. 57) What is one of the most important functions of correlational research? A) One can be certain about the causes of behaviour. B) One can draw conclusions based on relatively weak data. C) Once can observe human behaviour as it takes place in the natural environment. D) One can make predictions about one variable based upon information from another variable. Answer: D Rationale: The correlation coefficient allows researchers to see how strongly one variable is related to another and whether that relationship is positive or negative. Based on this information, predictions about one variable can be made from information about the other variable. For instance, if height and weight are strongly positively correlated, researchers can predict that as height increases, weight will also increase. 58) A seafood distributor hires a researcher to determine whether eating oysters makes one more passionate. The researcher collects data that show that the people who eat the most oysters have the most active love lives. What can be concluded from this research? A) Eating oysters makes one passionate. B) Being passionate causes a craving for oysters. C) People with active love lives consume more oysters. D) Nothing can be concluded from this study about the relationship between eating oysters and being passionate. Answer: C Rationale: The correlation indicates only that the number of oysters consumed is greater for those who have active love lives. It does not ensure that one variable causes the other (It does not show that eating more oysters causes a more active love life or that having a more active love life causes one to eat more oysters!). Correlation does not show cause and effect. 59) After collecting data, a researcher determines that places that have instituted a death penalty have shown a decrease in murders. Assuming that the data are accurate, what can be safely concluded? A) The relationship has been determined by another variable. B) Places that do not have a death penalty should consider instituting one as a deterrent to violent crime. C) There are fewer murders in places that have a death penalty. D) It is likely that violent criminals have moved to places that do not yet have a death penalty. Answer: C Rationale: There is no cause and effect demonstrated. A positive correlation between death penalty and fewer murders only indicates that the two sets of data are related in a systematic way. 60) As outlined in the textbook, researchers studied the effectiveness of audiotapes that contained subliminal messages. The researchers cleverly anticipated the placebo effect by adding another independent variable to the experiment. How was this achieved? A) Participants listened to tapes that were mismarked. B) Participants were paid to show the desired behaviour. C) Participants were told that the tapes would be ineffective. D) Participants heard messages that were clearly audible. Answer: A Rationale: Half of the participants in each group listened to tapes that were mismarked. That is, half of the memory participants listened to the self-esteem tapes and half of the self-esteem participants listened to the memory tapes. Results showed improvements in whatever area the participant believed they were receiving treatment for (memory or self-esteem), regardless of what tape they had been listening to. 61) On the basis of carefully controlled research on subliminal messages, what did the authors of the textbook conclude? A) subliminal messages on CDs offer nothing more than placebo effects. B) consumers must be careful because only some CDs are effective. C) nearly 75% of adults who listen to subliminal CDs show benefits. D) subliminal messages on CDs can have opposite effects to those that are intended. Answer: A Rationale: It is peoples' beliefs about what they are hearing that affect their behaviours, not the subliminal messages themselves. 62) In a study conducted in England by Haddock, participants were asked how much they were interested in politics. Then the questionnaire continued in one of four ways. One version asked the participants to list two positive characteristics for Prime Minister Tony Blair. A second version asked participants to list five positive characteristics for the prime minister. The remaining two versions of the questionnaires asked for two or five negative characteristics. What did the results reveal for the subset of participants who were relatively uninterested in politics? A) their ratings of Tony Blair were relatively more negative when they attempted to recall two negative characteristics. B) their ratings of Tony Blair were relatively more positive when they attempted to recall five negative characteristics. C) their ratings of Tony Blair were relatively more positive when they attempted to recall positive characteristics. D) there was no link between the generation of either positive or negative characteristics and the participants' liking or disliking Tony Blair. Answer: B Rationale: Participants who claimed to be uninterested in politics and had to list negative characteristics of Tony Blair rated Tony Blair as more positive if they had to list 5 negative characteristics than if they only had to list 2 negative characteristics. 63) Which of the following terms is closest to the concept of psychological measurement? A) control B) validation C) qualification D) quantification Answer: D Rationale: One task of the psychological researcher is to make the unseen visible; operational definitions provide procedures for assigning numbers to (or quantifying) variables. In this way, different sizes, levels, intensities or amounts of any variable can be quantified and thus studied in a systematic way by researchers. 64) A researcher who is trying to develop a test of musical aptitude is overheard to say, "I want to make sure that the test that I am developing gives similar results time after time." Which term best captures this goal? A) validity. B) reliability. C) generalizability. D) standardization. Answer: B Rationale: Reliability refers to consistency of results over time; we can have confidence that what the test shows us will not vary significantly from one administration to the other. 65) An instructor develops a test for introductory psychology students that contains ten analytical geometry problems. What is this test clearly lacking? A) validity. B) reliability. C) accuracy. D) clarity. Answer: A Rationale: The test does not measure what it is intended to measure (progress in learning psychology concepts). 66) If a test has been shown to be valid, what conclusions can likely be drawn? A) It is also reliable. B) It may or may not be reliable. C) It may be used for many purposes. D) It can be used with any population. Answer: A Rationale: If a test measures what it is intended to measure, it is likely that it will measure consistently from one time to another. 67) What does it mean if the results of an experiment are reliable? A) the experiment measured what it was intended to measure. B) the experiment is free from observer bias. C) if the experiment is repeated, the same results will be achieved. D) the results of the experiment can be generalized to other situations. Answer: C Rationale: We should be able to repeat the experiment with any new group of participants of comparable size and generate the same pattern of data. 68) With respect to the concepts of reliability and validity, what can be concluded? A) if a test is reliable, then it also must be valid. B) if an experiment is reliable, then it also must be valid. C) tests or experiments can be reliable without being valid. D) a test, but not an experiment can be reliable without being valid. Answer: C Rationale: A result is reliable when it is consistent and dependable whereas a result is valid if the researcher can generalize to broader circumstances, from the laboratory to the real world. Thus, a test or experiment can be reliable without being valid. For example, if adult shoe size were used as an index of happiness, the measure would be reliable because an adult’s shoe size would remain nearly the same over time. However, shoe size would not be a valid measure of happiness because it would not allow us to predict how happy people will be in particular situations. 69) Which scenario would be classified as a self-report measure? A) if a person laughs at a joke B) the number of errors made by a rat in a maze C) a person's written response to a questionnaire D) the speed with which a person can press a button Answer: C Rationale: Self-report measures are verbalanswers to the researchers' questions; the answers can either be spoken or written. 70) A researcher is interested in documenting the relationship between internal psychological states such as a person's motivation to succeed and his or her feelings of self-confidence. Which type of measure would most likely be used? A) behavioural B) self-report C) physiological D) naturalistic observational Answer: B Rationale: The researchers might use a survey or a questionnaire to ask questions about attitudes and feelings. Both surveys and questionnaires are self-report measures. The information might also be gathered during an interview, also a self-report measure. 71) Which of the following is an open-ended question? A) How much did you earn last year? B) Do you live in an urban or rural environment? C) Are your political views left-wing or right-wing? D) What are the benefits of having a college education? Rationale: Open-ended questions allow people to answer freely in their own words. The alternative answers to open-ended questions are not fixed “yes”, “no,” or “undecided” responses. Answer: D 72) How does an interview primarily differ from a questionnaire? A) the interviewer should be able to take the perspective of the respondent. B) the interviewer does not need to ask the questions in a completely standardized manner. C) the interviewer should be sensitive to the social interaction with the respondent. D) an effort should be made by the interviewer to encourage trust on the part of the respondent. Answer: B Rationale: Because the interview is interactive, the interviewer may vary questions to follow up on something the respondent said. Good interviewers are sensitive to social interaction and are trained to encourage trust and sharing of information. 73) A good interviewer must try to create a positive social relationship with the respondent in order to facilitate trust and open communication. What is the interviewer attempting to establish? A) rapport. B) empathy. C) confidence. D) a common language. Answer: A Rationale: Good interviewers are sensitive to social interaction as well as sensitive to the information revealed. Rapport is trust and positive interaction built up between the interviewer and the interviewee. 74) An elementary school teacher is interested in measuring the amount of time a young student in class is working productively versus chatting with classmates. What approach to data collection should the teacher take? A) A questionnaire. B) A behavioural measure. C) A self-report measure. D) A face-to-face interview. Answer: B Rationale: Behavioural measures are ways to study overt behaviours and observable, recordable reactions. The teacher can record productive work time and time spent chatting. 75) A student is interested in the kinds of movies young people enjoy watching. The student develops a simple questionnaire that asks the youth about their attitudes toward different film genres and then records which films they actually attend. How is this measurement technique best described? A) self-report measure. B) behavioural observation. C) naturalistic observation. D) a combination of self-report and behavioural observation. Answer: D Rationale: Self report measures include responses that tell researchers about the variables of interest (preferred movies); they are verbal or written answers to questions about the preferred movies, in this case. Behaviour measures study overt actions, in this case, the movies the participants actually attended. 76) Which topic of discussion would likely include the terms, "process," "products," "direct," and "naturalistic"? A) interviews. B) self-reports. C) observations. D) questionnaires and surveys. Answer: C Rationale: A primary way to study what people do is by observation. Researchers use observation in planned, precise, systematic ways. The words on the board refer to characteristics of observations. 77) A professor is trying to determine if the number of questions students ask in class is related to their class performance. The number of questions students ask is then compared to performance on the next test. How would the number of questions asked be classified? A) The product of behaviour B) The process of behaviour C) The outcome of behaviour D) The antecedent of behaviour Answer: B Rationale: The “process” is how the behaviour is demonstrated (what is observed); in this case it is observed through number of questions asked. The “product” is observation of the effect of the process. The product in this case is the test performance, which is compared with number of questions students asked in class. 78) A researcher is using the observational technique to study the relationship between student classroom behaviour and academic performance. In this context, what is a good measure of a behavioural process? A) student quiz grades B) The students’ responses on mid-term course evaluations C) student final grades D) The amount of time students spend looking at the teacher during instructional time Answer: D Rationale: The "process" is the observed behaviour that has an effect on the “product” (the test grades.) 79) While conducting a naturalistic observation study of children's play behaviour, the researcher asked the children to limit their play activity to only one area in the playground in order to make more accurate observations. How does this approach fail to meet the criteria for naturalistic observation? A) The study took place in a public setting. B) The play behaviour was not naturally occurring. C) Only one observation was made of the children's play behaviour. D) Naturalistic observational studies cannot be easily conducted with humans. Answer: B Rationale: In naturalistic observation, no attempt to change or interfere with the observed behaviour is made. 80) Which scenario best lends itself to naturalistic observation? A) Individuals performing night-time grooming. B) Individuals taking morning medications. C) Individuals having dreams. D) Individuals showing courtesy when approaching a busy intersection in a car. Answer: D Rationale: Some kinds of human behaviour cannot be manipulated and can best be studied through naturalistic observation. Researchers cannot study this behaviour in the laboratory but they can observe it as it naturally occurs. 81) How did Jane Goodall study patterns of behaviour among chimpanzees? A) By using archival data. B) By observing chimpanzee behaviour in the laboratory. C) By setting up a longitudinal program of naturalistic observation. D) By generalizing information that had been gathered from animals in captivity. Answer: C Rationale: Jane Goodall spent more then 30 years in the field studying the behaviour of chimpanzees. 82) In a study that examined male and female participation in "Doctors of the World," what was the primary source of data? A) interviews conducted on the selected subjects. B) naturalistic observations of individuals. C) experimental data. D) archival records. Answer: D Rationale: The primary source of data in "Doctors of the World" was archival records of the number of males and females participating in the program. 83) A clinical psychologist is working with the police to develop an understanding of serial killers. The psychologist decides to study a particularly brutal murderer who is serving a life sentence. What type of research is being done? A) case study. B) representative sample. C) within-subjects design. D) naturalistic observation. Answer: A Rationale: Case studies are intensive analyses of individuals that can sometimes yield important insights into human experience that cannot be gathered in any other way. 84) How are the rights of research participants best ensured? A) special committees oversee every research proposal. B) researchers are bound by their honour to do ethical research. C) informed consent is obtained D) Institutional policies and procedures ensure ethical conduct Answer: A Rationale: Respect for the basic rights of humans and animals is a fundamental principle of all researchers. This is ensured by special committees that oversee every research proposal. 85) Prior to a study, participants are given information about what to expect and other details of the research. They are also asked to sign a form indicating their willingness to participate. Which term best describes this process? A) debriefing. B) informed consent. C) risk/gain assessment. D) risk/benefit analysis. Answer: B Rationale: A part of ethical research standards is for each participant in research to be given information about the procedures they will experience as well as the risks and benefits of participation. Based on this, participants sign a statement consenting to continue as part of the research. 86) Before giving its approval, an institutional review panel is attempting to ascertain the benefits of a study that will involve some degree of physical discomfort for the participants. What is the most pressing issue before the committee? A) deceiving participants intentionally. B) debriefing participants after the study. C) developing the guidelines for informed consent. D) making a risk/gain assessment of the study. Answer: D Rationale: Risks must be minimized and participants must be informed of the risks (emotional reactions, effects on self-image, stress…). Suitable precautions must also be taken to deal with strong reactions. Risk is weighed against benefits to participants, science and society. 87) A researcher is designing a study that includes a procedure that may be upsetting or psychologically disturbing to the participants. What special actions do the guidelines for ethical standards of the Canadian Psychological Association require the researcher to follow? A) The researcher must have a personal liability statement from an insurance company. B) Although not required, the researcher should consult with an institutional review board prior to beginning the research. C) The researcher must minimize risks, inform participants of potential risks, and be prepared to deal with participant reactions. D) The researcher must have available, on-call in the laboratory, a medical doctor and a psychiatrist to deal with potential problems. Answer: C Rationale: If there are any risks to the participant, either physical or psychological, the researcher must take the appropriate steps to minimize those risks and inform the participant of these risks. 88) Which term best indicates that measures accurately reflect the variable or quality that they are intended to measure? A) reliability B) validity C) internal consistency D) generalizability Answer: B Rationale: Reliability means that researchers should be able to repeat a test or experiment with consistency of results over time. Validity means that the researcher is using something that measures what it is intended to measure. A reliable measure of happiness should give similar results over time (reliability) and should allow us to predict how happy individuals are likely to be in particular situations (validity). 89) A student has signed up to participate in a psychological research study. Is there any chance that the student will be deceived? A) No, because the use of deception is illegal. B) No, because the code of ethics psychologists adhere to prohibits the use of deception. C) Yes, because much psychological research involves deception. D) Yes, because sometimes informing participants may bias the results. Answer: D Rationale: For example, if you were studying the effects on aggression of violence on television, telling participants in advance would likely affect their reactions and bias the results. 90) At the end of a research study, participants must be provided with as much information about the study as possible and any emotional or psychological problems must be addressed. Which term best captures this process? A) debriefing. B) informed consent. C) risk/gain assessment. D) unintentional deception. Answer: A Rationale: The debriefing process is conducted at the end of an experiment, when the researcher provides the participant with as much information about the study as possible and makes sure that no participant leaves feeling confused, upset, or embarrassed. 91) At the conclusion of the experiment, the researcher explains to the participants that it was necessary to provide them with inaccurate information to minimize bias. The researcher goes on to say that even though their data have been collected, they can still withdraw their data if they choose to do so. Which process is being carried out by the researcher? A) intentionally deceiving the participants. B) describing a risk/gain assessment of the study. C) providing debriefing information to the participants. D) explaining to the participants their rights under informed consent. Answer: C Rationale: Debriefing gives as much information as possible to the participants and is a time for addressing any confusion, upset, or embarrassment that may have occurred as a result of the experiment. If participants react in negative ways to the information, including feeling as if they have been misused, they may even at this point in the study, withdraw their data. 92) Should animals be used in psychological and medical research? Why would researchers answer yes to this question? A) animals are less expensive to care for and to monitor. B) animal research has led to important breakthroughs in several areas of science. C) historically, the psychological and medical sciences have relied on animals as research participants. D) although animal research does not benefit animals directly, the animals benefit indirectly by being cared for. Answer: B Rationale: Benefits of animal research have included discovery and testing of medicines that are effective in humans as well as much other behavioural data that can be generalized to humans and may be helpful to them. It has also led to improvements in animal welfare, including alleviation of stresses of the confinement experienced by zoo animals. 93) In the debate over the use of animals in research, what do ethicists typically believe? A) That we should change our belief that makes a distinction between homo sapiens and other animals. B) That researchers should "liberate" primates from captivity and continue to carry out research with non-primates. C) That we need to shift from laboratory-based invasive research to research conducted in naturalistic settings. D) That science should seek to develop computer models of animal behaviour in order to minimize the use of animals in research. Answer: C Rationale: Each researcher should judge his own work with heightened scrutiny, reducing the number of animals used or replacing them altogether, and refining methods to minimize pain and distress. 94) A survey sampled students and members of the American Psychological Association on their attitudes toward the use of animals in research. What did the survey reveal? A) That less than 50% believed that studies carried out in naturalistic settings were useful. B) That a majority of students and professors supported the use of animals in undergraduate psychology courses. C) That both students and their professors approved studies involving pain or death, but only under certain circumstances. D) That over 50% of the respondents believed that laboratory work with animals should be part of undergraduate training in psychology. Answer: B Rationale: Roughly 60% of people surveyed believed in using animals in undergraduate psychology courses. 95) To become a more sophisticated and critical thinker, what should one do? A) remember that causation is superior to correlation. B) accept complex explanations rather than seeking simpler alternatives. C) avoid spending considerable amounts of time developing operational definitions. D) consider first how to disprove a theory before seeking confirming evidence. Answer: D Rationale: Critical thinkers consider the evidence and go beyond the information as it is presented to look at what is actually there. Confirming evidence is appropriate once the original statement is determined to be fact. 96) In 2005, approximately how many manuscripts submitted for publication did the American Psychological Association reject? A) 26% B) 50% C) 10% D) 69% Answer: D Rationale: The peer review process rejected, on average, 69% of manuscripts submitted for publication in 2005. 97) What type of statistics should be used to summarize sets of scores? A) Inferential statistics B) Variability C) Descriptive statistics D) Significant statistics Answer: C Rationale: Descriptive statistics are used to describe a data set, such as the central tendency of the data set and the variability of the scores. 98) Suppose Dr. Spock found that a sample of humans showed more emotional reactions than a sample of Vulcan aliens. How could Dr. Spock be sure that the results weren't due to chance alone? A) He could use descriptive statistics. B) He could use inferential statistics. C) He could measure the variability of the scores in each group. D) He could re-test both samples and see if he finds the same results again. Answer: B Rationale: Inferential statistics allow researchers to determine whether the results they obtain support their hypothesis or can be attributed just to chance variation. 99) For which of the following data sets would the mean be the BEST measure of central tendency to use? A) 1, 3233, 418, 29, 2754, 1116 B) 50.5, 79, 2, 108, 37, 76, 99.3 C) 18, 24, 19, 23, 20, 20, 17, 21 D) 789, 456, 234, 112, 903, 589 Answer: C Rationale: The mean as a measure of central tendency is very influenced by extreme scores. This data set has no extreme scores compared to the other data sets. 100) Suppose the standard deviation for the scores in Group A was 3.12, and the standard deviation for the scores in Group B was 10.67. What would be a safe conclusion based on these standard deviations? A) The mean is also higher in Group B than Group A. B) Group B has scores that are more variable than Group A. C) Group A is more likely to be statistically significant than Group B. D) Group A had more extreme scores than Group B. Answer: B Rationale: The standard deviation is a measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the scores and their mean. A larger standard deviation in Group B means that the scores are more spread out, or more different from each other, than in Group A. 101) What level of significance is commonly used by psychologists when assessing whether their results are due to chance? A) 5 B) .5 C) .05 D) .01 Answer: C Rationale: It is common to accept a 5% chance that the results were due to chance alone. This level of significance, denoted as α = 0.05, is widely used in psychological research to determine if the obtained results are statistically significant. 102) A theory is defined as an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. A theory is indeed defined as an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena. It provides a framework for understanding and explaining observed facts or events. 103) When psychologists conduct research, all data and methods must eventually be open for public verifiability. In other words, the general public determines whether to accept or reject the conclusions reached by a researcher. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: While transparency and openness in research are crucial, the statement is false. The general public does not typically determine whether to accept or reject research conclusions. Instead, the scientific community relies on peer review and replication to assess the validity and reliability of research findings. 104) To minimize the potential for bias, researchers must be certain that no variable in an experiment is operationally defined. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Operational definitions are essential in research for precisely defining variables and ensuring consistency in measurement. However, researchers should strive to minimize bias through rigorous experimental design and control procedures. 105) In an experiment, researchers manipulate the dependent variable and measure the independent variable. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. In an experiment, researchers manipulate the independent variable and measure the dependent variable. The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates or controls, while the dependent variable is what is being measured and affected by the independent variable. 106) A researcher or observer should try to subtly communicate to participants in a study the behaviors he or she anticipates, to bring about a desirable expectancy effect. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. Intentionally communicating expected behaviors to participants can introduce bias and compromise the integrity of the study. Researchers should strive to minimize expectancy effects and avoid influencing participant behavior. 107) A double-blind control is an experimental technique in which biased expectations are eliminated by telling only the experimental assistants which participants have received which treatment. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. In a double-blind control, neither the participants nor the experimenters involved in interacting with the participants know which participants are receiving which treatment. This helps to prevent bias from influencing the results. 108) In a within-subjects research design, different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. In a within-subjects design, participants experience all levels of the independent variable. There are no separate groups; instead, each participant serves as their own control, experiencing both experimental and control conditions. 109) The entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made based on an experimental sample is called the population. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This statement is true. The population refers to the entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying and to which they wish to generalize their findings based on their sample. 110) A representative sample should have equal numbers of males and females as well as an even balance among all racial groups. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement is false. While a representative sample aims to accurately reflect the demographics of the population, it does not necessarily require equal numbers of males and females or an even balance among all racial groups. Instead, a representative sample should proportionally reflect the diversity of the population being studied. 111) The primary purpose of using correlational methods is to establish cause and effect relationships. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Correlational methods are used to identify relationships between variables, but they do not establish causation. While correlations can suggest a relationship between two variables, they cannot determine which variable causes changes in the other. Causation requires experimental manipulation and control over variables, which correlational studies do not provide. 112) The value of a perfect positive correlation is +1.0 and the value of a perfect negative correlation is -1.0. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: In correlation, the value ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. A correlation of +1.0 indicates a perfect positive relationship where variables increase together, while -1.0 indicates a perfect negative relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases. 113) If two variables are completely unrelated to each other, they will yield a correlation coefficient of zero. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: A correlation coefficient of zero indicates no linear relationship between two variables. Therefore, if two variables are completely unrelated, their correlation coefficient will be zero, as there is no systematic pattern in their relationship. 114) If the results of a test or experiment are consistent and dependable, such that they can be repeated under similar conditions at different times, psychologists would say that the findings are valid. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Consistency and repeatability are characteristics of reliability, not validity. Validity refers to whether the test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure. Even if the results are consistent and dependable, they may not be measuring the intended construct accurately, thus lacking validity. 115) If the information produced by research or testing accurately measures the psychological variable or quality it is intended to measure, it is said to be valid. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Validity refers to the extent to which a test or experiment measures what it claims to measure. If the information accurately reflects the psychological variable or quality it intends to measure, then it is considered valid. Validity is essential for ensuring that research findings are meaningful and applicable to real-world situations. 116) Questionnaires and surveys are examples of self-report measures. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Self-report measures rely on individuals' responses about their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors. Questionnaires and surveys are common methods where participants provide information about themselves, making them examples of self-report measures. 117) The research of Jane Goodall, who has spent more than three decades studying patterns of behaviour among chimpanzees, is a good example of naturalistic observation. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural environment without any interference or manipulation by the researcher. Jane Goodall's research on chimpanzees in the wild exemplifies naturalistic observation as she observed their behavior in their natural habitat over an extended period, providing valuable insights into their social structure, communication, and other behaviors. 118) When research is potentially upsetting for participants, the Canadian Psychological Association guidelines require that risks must be minimized, participants must be informed of the risks, and suitable precautions must be taken to deal with strong reactions. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) guidelines emphasize the importance of minimizing harm to participants in research. Researchers are required to take appropriate measures to minimize potential risks to participants, inform them of any foreseeable risks involved, and provide support or resources to address any adverse reactions or distress that may arise during or after the study. 119) The Canadian Psychological Association's ethical guidelines require that research participants be informed of any deception that will take place, prior to their giving informed consent. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The CPA guidelines allow for deception in research under certain circumstances, provided that it is justified and that participants are fully debriefed afterward. However, participants are not typically informed of the specific details of deception before the study, as doing so could compromise the validity of the research by influencing participants' behavior. 120) According to the ethical guidelines proposed by the Canadian Psychological Association, if deception is used in research it must be explained to the participants by the conclusion of the research and the participants must have the opportunity to withdraw their data. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The CPA guidelines require researchers to explain any deception used in the study to participants during the debriefing process, which typically occurs at the conclusion of the research. Participants must also be given the opportunity to withdraw their data if they choose to do so after learning about the deception. This ensures that participants are not harmed by the deception and that their rights are respected even after the study has ended. 121) Critical thinking skills are a good thing to read about, but they are not essential to the effective study and application of psychology. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Critical thinking skills are indeed essential for the effective study and application of psychology. Psychology involves analyzing data, understanding complex theories, and interpreting research findings. Without critical thinking skills, individuals may struggle to evaluate the credibility of sources, identify biases, analyze evidence, or construct sound arguments. In psychology, critical thinking is fundamental for making informed decisions, solving problems, and advancing the field through innovative research and applications. Therefore, critical thinking skills are not just beneficial but essential for success in psychology. 122) At the common core of most psychological theories is the assumption of ________, the idea that all events are the result of specific causal factors. Answer: determinism Rationale: Determinism is a fundamental concept in psychology, positing that all events, including human behavior, have identifiable causes. This principle suggests that behaviors are not random but rather can be understood and predicted based on underlying causes and factors. It underpins many psychological theories and research methodologies, emphasizing the importance of identifying causal relationships between variables. 123) Often stated as a prediction that a certain outcome will result from specific conditions, a(n) ________ is a tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two or more events or variables. Answer: hypothesis Rationale: In psychology and scientific research in general, hypotheses play a crucial role in guiding investigations and forming the basis for experiments. A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a relationship between variables and predicts a specific outcome based on certain conditions. It serves as a starting point for empirical inquiry, allowing researchers to systematically test and evaluate the validity of their proposed explanations. Hypotheses are essential for advancing scientific knowledge and understanding the causal mechanisms underlying various phenomena in psychology. 124) To minimize observer biases, researchers typically use uniform, consistent procedures in all phases of data collection. This process is known as _______. Answer: standardization Rationale: Standardization refers to the practice of maintaining consistent and uniform procedures throughout the research process to reduce bias and ensure reliability in data collection and analysis. By adhering to standardized protocols, researchers can minimize variations in how data is gathered, recorded, and interpreted, thereby enhancing the validity and replicability of their findings. This approach is particularly important in psychology, where precise measurement and control are essential for drawing accurate conclusions about human behavior. 125) In an experiment, psychological researchers seek to establish a cause and effect relationship between two types of variables by manipulating the ________ variable and measuring the ________ variable. Answer: independent: dependent Rationale: In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. The independent variable is the factor that is hypothesized to cause changes in the dependent variable. On the other hand, the dependent variable is the outcome or response that is measured to determine the effects of manipulating the independent variable. By manipulating the independent variable and measuring changes in the dependent variable, researchers can investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables, which is a fundamental goal of experimental research in psychology. 126) Sometimes variables that are outside of the experimenter's control affect a participant's behavior. Such factors are called ________ variables. Answer: confounding Rationale: Confounding variables are extraneous factors that may influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in a study, leading to erroneous conclusions if not properly controlled. These variables are not the variables of interest (independent or dependent) but can interfere with the interpretation of results by introducing additional sources of variation. Controlling for confounding variables is essential in experimental research to ensure that observed effects can be attributed to the manipulated independent variable rather than to other factors. 127) The ________ effect refers to a change in behavior in the absence of an experimental manipulation, due to an individual's belief that the treatment will have an effect. Answer: placebo Rationale: The placebo effect is a phenomenon in which individuals experience a change in behavior, symptoms, or perceptions solely as a result of their belief in the effectiveness of a treatment or intervention, even when the treatment itself has no therapeutic value. This effect highlights the powerful influence of psychological and contextual factors, such as expectations, beliefs, and social cues, on human behavior and subjective experiences. In experimental research, controlling for the placebo effect often involves including a control group that receives a placebo treatment (such as a sugar pill) to distinguish between the effects of the treatment itself and the effects attributable to placebo response. 128) In a ________ research design, each participant is used as his or her own control, perhaps by having their behaviors compared before and after receiving a treatment. Answer: within-subjects Rationale: Within-subjects design, also known as repeated measures design, involves testing the same group of participants under different conditions or at different points in time. In this design, each participant serves as their own control, as they are exposed to both the experimental and control conditions. By comparing participants' responses before and after receiving a treatment, researchers can assess the effects of the treatment within individuals, minimizing the influence of individual differences and enhancing the statistical power of the study. 129) When participants are randomly assigned either to an experimental condition or to a control condition, this is called a ________ design. Answer: between-subjects Rationale: In a between-subjects design, different groups of participants are assigned to distinct experimental conditions, with each group experiencing only one condition. By randomly assigning participants to groups, researchers can control for potential confounding variables and ensure that any differences observed between groups are attributable to the experimental manipulation rather than pre-existing differences between participants. Between-subjects designs are commonly used in experimental research to investigate the effects of independent variables on dependent variables. 130) Psychologists use ________ when they want to determine to what extent two variables, traits, or attributes are related to one another. Answer: correlational methods Rationale: Correlational methods are used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. Correlation studies assess the degree and direction of association between variables, providing valuable insights into patterns of behavior, cognition, and emotion. While correlational research cannot establish causality, it helps researchers identify potential relationships and formulate hypotheses for further investigation. 131) Trying to find the true source of something you read in the newspaper, and carefully considering evidence of the reliability of the information is an example of ________. Answer: critical thinking Rationale: Critical thinking involves actively and systematically analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to make reasoned judgments or decisions. In the context of information consumption, critical thinking entails questioning sources, considering evidence, recognizing biases, and assessing the credibility and reliability of information before accepting or acting upon it. By engaging in critical thinking, individuals can discern fact from fiction, identify misinformation or propaganda, and make informed choices based on sound reasoning and evidence. 132) Dr. Rhodes has conducted a study investigating the effects of multivitamins on depression. What is the research process that Dr. Rhodes would likely have gone through? Answer: Provide an overview of the 7 steps in the process of conducting and reporting research. Refer to Figure 2.1. 133) What is observer bias? Provide an example of observer bias, either from the text or make up a scenario. What can researchers do to minimize observer bias? Answer: Observer bias is an error due to the motives and expectations of the observer. An example of this is Hugo Munsterberg's study with the speech. The remedy for observer bias is standardization, when consistent procedures are used during data collection. 134) Describe research methodologies that involve manipulation of an independent variable. What relationship does the dependent variable have to the independent variable? Include an explanation of experimental group, control condition, and random assignment. Answer: The independent variable is the factor manipulated by the experimenter. The dependent variable is that which the experimenter measures. The hypothesis states that the dependent variable will be affected by the independent variable in some way. The experimental group is the group that receives the treatment condition. The control group does not. Random assignment has as its goal elimination of confounding variables to the extent possible since they will vary equally across groups. Include terms such as operational definition and random sampling. 135) A friend of yours attributes the high grades she receives on tests to the fact that she always drinks coffee while studying. You start thinking about how psychologists might design a study that would determine whether the caffeine in coffee can contribute to better academic performance. Describe an appropriate design for such a study, making sure to explain how you would operationalize your variables, the measurements you would use, and how you would control for possible alternative explanations of your results. Answer: State what independent variable and dependent variable will be used. Operationalize the variables. Explain if this will be a within-subjects design and what this means. Explain how random sampling will be used. 136) Provide examples of variables that are likely to be positively correlated, negatively correlated, and not correlated. Draw scatterplots of each example and possible correlation coefficients for each. Answer: Positive correlation could be something like height and shoe size, with a correlation coefficient of +0.60; negative correlation could be alcohol consumption and reaction time, with a correlation coefficient of -0.70; zero correlation could be hair colour and intelligence, with a correlation coefficient of 0. 137) Surveys provide one with the opportunity to participate in research outside the laboratory. How effective are the surveys in affecting one's attitudes? Self-report measures also provide data about experiences that cannot be observed directly. How reliable is the data obtained thereby? What other methods would you suggest for the assessment of behaviour? Answer: Describe self-report measures, including surveys. Advantages include being able to reach a large number of people, and value for collecting data about attitudes, beliefs, feelings that cannot be directly observed. Include information from Psychology in Your Life “Can Survey Research Affect Your Attitudes?” from the textbook. Limits to use of self-report include exclusion of children, illiterate or non-verbal adults, and speakers of other languages as well as potential influence of social desirability. 138) One of the primary ways to study behaviour is through observation. Discuss the use of observation in research. In what ways can naturalistic observation be preferred to laboratory observation when studying behaviour? Answer: One of the primary ways to study what people do is through observation. The scientific method starts with observation of regularities in the environment and questions that are developed about them. Observations focus on the process or products of behaviour. Direct observations are sometimes employed in research. Naturalistic observation may also be used. 139) The topic of research ethics comes up in a philosophy class. Because she knows that you are taking a psychology course, the professor asks you how psychologists deal with the issue of ethics when it comes to human and animal research. How would you respond? Answer: Animal research has allowed important breakthroughs in many areas of behavioural science (include examples.) Heightened awareness of the fact that non-human animals cannot give informed consent should lead to increased scrutiny of the need for animal research and of ways to refine procedures so that they do not harm animals or put them at risk. Mention observational studies in naturalistic settings. 1) A detailed, well-researched biography of a famous historical person is technically an example of the __________ method of research. A) psychometric B) naturalistic observation C) case study D) correlational Answer: C Rationale: A biography typically involves an in-depth examination of the life and experiences of an individual, which aligns with the case study method. Case studies involve detailed exploration and analysis of specific instances or individuals to understand complex phenomena. 2) The degree of relationship between two or more variables is __________. A) correlation B) validity C) reliability D) a hypothesis Answer: A Rationale: Correlation refers to the extent to which two or more variables are related or vary together. It quantifies the strength and direction of this relationship, providing valuable information about the association between variables. 3) The degree of relationship between two or more variables is: A) correlation. B) validity. C) reliability. D) a hypothesis. Answer: A Rationale: This repeats the definition of correlation, which measures the extent and direction of the relationship between variables. 4) Positive correlation shows: A) the extent to which two independent variables change together. B) that as one independent variable increases, another decreases. C) that as one variable changes, another changes in the same direction. D) that as one variable changes, another changes in the opposite direction. Answer: C Rationale: A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases, or as one variable decreases, the other variable decreases. They change in the same direction. 5) A researcher wished to study the relationship between high school grades and college grades. Of the following research methods, which would be the most appropriate? A) case study B) correlation C) experiment D) survey Answer: B Rationale: Correlation is the most appropriate method for examining the relationship between two variables without manipulating them. In this case, the researcher wants to understand how high school grades relate to college grades, making correlation the suitable choice. 6) A correlation of .00 means: A) you made a mistake in calculation. B) you did not find out anything about the relationship between the two variables. C) the two variables are unrelated. D) everyone who scored low on one variable scored high on the other variable, and vice versa. Answer: C Rationale: A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables. There's no systematic relationship or association between them. 7) The greatest disadvantage of correlation is: A) it has a limited range of values, being only -1 to +1. B) it does not enable cause-and-effect conclusions. C) its value can be negative. D) its value can be zero. Answer: B Rationale: Correlation does not establish causation. It can only show that there is a relationship between variables, but it cannot determine the direction of causality. 8) A correlation tells us: A) whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists. B) whether two variables are related. C) whether or not a test is efficient. D) if people are responding to demand characteristics. Answer: B Rationale: Correlation indicates the degree and direction of the relationship between variables, providing information about how they are related but not about causality. 9) A psychologist uses the correlational method to _________. A) explain the effects of one variable on another B) compare two groups of subjects C) determine what causes a variable to change D) identify relationships between variables Answer: D Rationale: Correlational research is used to identify and analyze relationships between variables without manipulating them or implying causality. It helps psychologists understand how variables are related in natural settings. 10) The survey method of research is ___________ in nature. A) correlational B) experimental C) field experimental D) both correlational and field experimental group Answer: A Rationale: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals to describe characteristics, opinions, or behaviors. They often employ correlational analyses to identify relationships between variables measured in the survey responses. 11) As children grow older, their discretionary income usually increases. The best conclusion to draw about the variables age and income are that they are: A) causally related. B) uncorrelated. C) negatively correlated. D) positively correlated. Answer: D Rationale: The statement suggests that as one variable (age) increases, the other variable (income) also tends to increase. This positive relationship indicates a positive correlation between age and income. 12) A large group of people whom you want to know about is called a __________. A) control group B) treatment group C) population D) sample Answer: C Rationale: The population refers to the entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying. It includes all possible subjects who meet certain criteria, such as age, gender, or other characteristics. 13) In an experiment to test the effects of anxiety on performance, the dependent variable is the __________. A) amount of anxiety B) age of the person C) person’s performance D) cause of the anxiety Answer: C Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this case, performance is being measured to see how it changes in response to anxiety levels, making it the dependent variable. 14) Psychologists use research techniques based on __________. A) inductive reasoning B) objective introspection C) deductive reasoning D) the scientific method Answer: D Rationale: The scientific method involves systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation to formulate and test hypotheses. Psychologists rely on this method to gather empirical evidence and draw valid conclusions about human behavior and mental processes. 15) Research in which a carefully selected group of people is asked a set of predetermined questions in interviews or through questionnaires is known as __________. A) correlational research B) case study research C) survey research D) experimental research Answer: C Rationale: Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals using standardized questionnaires or interviews. Researchers use surveys to gather information about opinions, attitudes, behaviors, and demographics. 16) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The second variable, which is observed for any possible effects, is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. It is the outcome variable in an experiment. 17) A psychologist, studying pilot trainees, picks a select group of trainees who are hopefully representative of all other trainees. The group of trainees being studied by this psychologist is collectively known to researchers as a __________. A) sample B) population C) target group D) control group Answer: A Rationale: The sample refers to the subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study. It is important for the sample to be representative of the population to ensure the generalizability of the findings. 18) In a controlled experiment, the group subjected to a change in the independent variable is called the __________ group. A) independent B) experimental C) dependent D) control Answer: B Rationale: The experimental group is the group that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable in an experiment. It is compared to the control group, which does not receive the treatment. 19) A subset of cases selected from a larger population is a __________. A) control group B) target group C) treatment group D) sample Answer: D Rationale: A sample is a subset of cases selected from a larger population for the purpose of conducting research. It is important for the sample to be representative of the population to ensure the generalizability of the findings. 20) If explanation of the causes of thoughts, feelings, and behaviour is a psychologist’s goal, then the __________ method of research should be used. A) correlational B) experimental C) survey D) naturalistic observation Answer: B Rationale: Experimental research involves manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships. By controlling variables and randomly assigning participants to groups, researchers can establish causal relationships between variables. 21) In a controlled experiment, the group not subjected to a change in the independent variable, and used for comparison with the group receiving the experimental change, is the __________ group. A) independent B) experimental C) dependent D) control Answer: D Rationale: The control group serves as a baseline for comparison in an experiment. It does not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation of the independent variable, allowing researchers to assess the effects of the treatment by comparing it to the control group. 22) A research method in which the real-life behaviour of a pre-selected person or a group is studied at an in-depth level for some time through the use of observation, interviews, and writings (such as letters) is the _____________ method of research. A) survey B) psychometric C) case study D) naturalistic observation Answer: C Rationale: Case study research involves in-depth examination and analysis of a specific individual, group, or phenomenon over time. Researchers gather data through various methods such as observation, interviews, and analysis of documents or writings. 23) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The manipulated variable is called the: A) dependent variable. B) experimental variable. C) independent variable. D) placebo. Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that the researcher intentionally changes or manipulates in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is called "independent" because its variation is independent of other variables in the experiment. Therefore, in this scenario, the manipulated variable is the independent variable. 24) A group of students was asked to write an essay in support of the legalization of marijuana. They were paid $0.50. Another group of students received $2.00 for the same task. It was subsequently found that those students who received only $0.50 developed a more positive attitude toward the legalization of marijuana. The experiment in this study was using (the) __________. A) correlational method B) experimental method C) naturalistic observation D) survey research Answer: B Rationale: This scenario describes an experimental method where the independent variable (amount of payment) is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable (attitude toward the legalization of marijuana). 25) A sample that does not truly represent the population in question is known as a _____________ sample. A) random B) chance C) biased D) representative Answer: C Rationale: A biased sample is one that does not accurately represent the population from which it is drawn. It may overrepresent or underrepresent certain characteristics, leading to inaccurate conclusions. 26) To determine if sugar-rich diets affect hyperactivity in kids, a researcher prepared two daily menus that children would receive for a 30-day period. A high-sugar diet was given to the boys, while the girls had a menu that seemed identical but was not a high-sugar diet. At the end of 30 days, the boys and girls were evaluated to determine their levels of hyperactivity. In the study, the high-sugar diet is the ________. A) placebo B) independent variable C) dependent variable D) control group Answer: B Rationale: The high-sugar diet, which is manipulated by the researcher, is the independent variable in this experiment. Its effect on the levels of hyperactivity (the dependent variable) is observed and measured. 27) Using both independent and dependent variables is associated with which of the following types of research used in psychology? A) experimentation B) naturalistic observation C) correlation D) correlation and experimentation Answer: A Rationale: Experimentation involves manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable. Therefore, experimentation involves both independent and dependent variables. 28) Manipulating an independent variable in a real-life setting is ________. A) an experiment B) an example of naturalistic observation C) a field experiment D) unethical Answer: C Rationale: A field experiment involves manipulating an independent variable in a real-life setting rather than in a controlled laboratory environment. This allows researchers to study behavior in more naturalistic settings while still manipulating variables. 29) Almost all research done in psychology is analyzed ________. A) visually B) using correlational techniques C) statistically D) at the .1 level Answer: C Rationale: Data collected in psychology research is typically analyzed using statistical techniques to identify patterns, relationships, and significance levels. Statistical analysis allows researchers to draw valid conclusions from their data. 30) Experimenter bias can best be controlled using ________. A) a placebo B) double-blind control C) randomization D) subjects who do not know the purpose of the study Answer: B Rationale: Double-blind control involves both the researchers and the participants being unaware of who is receiving the treatment or experimental condition. This helps prevent experimenter bias and participant bias, ensuring the validity of the results. 31) A researcher, based on her review of relevant scientific studies, believes that there is a relationship between the frequency of a baby's crying and whether it was nursed at set intervals or on a demand schedule. If this belief were tested by experimentally manipulating feeding schedules, the feeding schedule would be called the: A) independent variable. B) dependent variable. C) extraneous variable. D) control factors. Answer: A Rationale: In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In this case, the researcher manipulates the feeding schedule (set intervals or demand schedule) to observe its effect on the frequency of a baby's crying. 32) A researcher, based on her review of relevant scientific studies, believes that there is a relationship between the frequency of a baby's crying and whether it was nursed at set intervals or on a demand schedule. If this belief were tested by experimentally manipulating feeding schedules, frequency of crying would be called the: A) latent factor. B) dependent variable. C) independent variable. D) control factor. Answer: B Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed for any changes. In this experiment, the frequency of crying is what the researcher is interested in studying and is therefore the dependent variable. 33) One of the main reasons for using a laboratory for psychological research is to: A) prevent subjects from escaping. B) study behaviour in a natural setting. C) do large-scale studies. D) allow the researchers to control certain factors. Answer: D Rationale: Using a laboratory setting in psychological research allows researchers to control various factors such as environmental conditions, participant demographics, and other variables that might influence the outcome of the study. This control enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings. 34) The process of establishing causal relationships is associated most with: A) naturalistic observation. B) experiments. C) correlation. D) surveys. Answer: B Rationale: Experiments are specifically designed to establish causal relationships between variables by manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on the dependent variable. 35) A researcher tests the hypothesis that students who study in the room where they take their tests will perform better on the tests than students who study in other rooms. She requires one group to study in the classroom where the exam is given and another group to study in the library. All students take the test in the classroom, and their test performance is compared. In this example, where students study is the: A) independent variable. B) dependent variable. C) manipulation. D) hypothesis. Answer: A Rationale: The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment. In this case, the location where students study (classroom or library) is manipulated to observe its effect on test performance. 36) A researcher tests the hypothesis that students who study in the room where they take their tests will perform better on the tests than students who study in other rooms. She requires one group to study in the classroom where the exam is given and another group to study in the library. All students take the test in the classroom, and their test performance is compared. In this example, test performance is: A) the dependent variable. B) the independent variable. C) the manipulation. D) the control group. Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is what is being measured or observed for any changes as a result of manipulating the independent variable. In this experiment, test performance is the variable of interest and thus the dependent variable. 37) In psychological studies, randomization is used to ensure that: A) there will be an independent and dependent variable. B) each person has an equal chance of being assigned to each group. C) the control group does not know the purpose of the study. D) the experimenter won’t know who is in each group. Answer: B Rationale: Randomization ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental conditions or groups. This helps to minimize biases and ensures that the groups are comparable at the outset of the experiment. 38) A “fake treatment” is one way to define a ______. A) decoy B) demand characteristic C) control group D) placebo Answer: D Rationale: A "fake treatment" or placebo is used as a control in experiments to assess the true effect of the treatment being tested. It helps researchers determine whether any observed effects are due to the treatment itself or simply to the participants' expectations or other factors. 39) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The manipulated variable is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is the variable hypothesized to cause changes in the dependent variable. 40) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The second variable, which is observed for any possible effects, is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable. It is the variable of interest in the study, as it is expected to be influenced by changes in the independent variable. 41) The method of psychological research that uses a control group, a dependent variable, and an independent variable is: A) the experiment. B) the survey. C) the case study. D) naturalistic observation. Answer: A Rationale: Experiments involve manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for extraneous variables using a control group. This method allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships. 42) Professor McSpam designed an experiment to test her hypothesis that exercise will increase spelling ability. She divided children into three groups and had one group do 10 minutes of exercises, one group do 30 minutes of exercises, and the third group do no exercise. She then tested all three groups of children to see how many words they could spell correctly on a spelling test. In this experiment, the scores on the spelling test serve as the: A) dependent variable. B) independent variable. C) control group. D) reliability measure. Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this experiment, the spelling test scores are being measured to see how they are affected by the manipulation of exercise duration. 43) Which of the following is a strength of experiments? A) They cannot be repeated by anyone other than the experimenter. B) They allow for the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships. C) They are not subject to demand characteristics since the subjects do not know they are being observed. D) They allow us to draw definitive conclusions about behaviour in the natural environment based on subjects’ behaviour in the laboratory. Answer: B Rationale: Experiments allow researchers to manipulate variables and control for extraneous factors, enabling the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between variables, which is a significant strength of this research method. 44) In an experiment, the “measurable aspect of the behaviour of the subject” is called the __________ variable. A) dependent B) focal C) independent D) control Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable being measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. It represents the outcome or effect of the experiment. 45) The purpose of an experiment is to discover whether there is a relationship between the ___________ and the ___________. A) independent variable; control variable B) dependent variable; control variable C) control group; experimental group D) independent variable; dependent variable Answer: D Rationale: The purpose of an experiment is to investigate whether changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable, thus establishing a relationship between them. 46) Cause-and-effect conclusions can be drawn from the results of an experiment because: A) it is almost always performed in a laboratory setting. B) statistical analysis can be applied to data from an experiment. C) the independent variable is manipulated while other possible causes of change in the dependent variable are held constant. D) several groups of subjects, not just one sample, are typically investigated in a laboratory experiment. Answer: C Rationale: Experiments involve manipulating the independent variable while controlling for extraneous variables, allowing researchers to draw cause-and-effect conclusions about the relationship between variables. 47) In an experiment on the effects of level of motivation on the performance of typists, the researcher randomly assigned one-third of her subjects to each of three levels of motivation (and then induced different levels of motivation in the three groups). She measured the average words typed per minute by each group, and found that performance was highest under medium motivation, average under low motivation, and worst under high motivation. What was the independent variable in this experiment? A) motivation B) typing speed C) variation in typing speed D) manipulation of typing speed Answer: A Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher. In this experiment, the level of motivation (low, medium, high) is manipulated to observe its effect on the performance of typists. 48) A psychologist wanted to see if people are more prone to seek the company of others when anxious than when calm. He randomly assigned half of his subjects to an anxiety group and then told them that, as part of the study, they would receive electric shocks. He did not frighten the other group of subjects. Finally, he recorded how many subjects in each group chose to be “tested” in a group setting and how many chose to be “tested” alone. What was the independent variable in this study? A) tendency to desire the company of others B) level of shock C) level of anxiety D) the anxious group Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher. In this study, the level of anxiety (induced by assigning subjects to an anxiety group or not) is manipulated to observe its effect on the subjects' preference for being alone or in a group. 49) In an experiment, four groups of college students used different memorizing strategies to learn the material in one chapter of a textbook. Then each group was given the same multiple-choice test on the material. What was the dependent variable in this study? A) the students’ performance on the test B) the four different groups C) the four different memorizing strategies D) manipulation of memorizing strategies Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this study, the dependent variable is the students' performance on the multiple-choice test, which is measured to observe how it is affected by the different memorizing strategies. 50) A psychologist wanted to see if people are more prone to seek the company of others when anxious than when calm. He randomly assigned half of his subjects to an anxiety group and then told them that, as part of the study, they would receive electric shocks. He did not frighten the other group of subjects. Finally, he recorded how many subjects in each group chose to be “tested” in a group setting and how many chose to be “tested” alone. What was the dependent variable in this study? A) the two groups B) the level of anxiety C) preference for being alone or in a group D) manipulation of anxiety Answer: C Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this study, the dependent variable is the subjects' preference for being alone or in a group, which is measured to observe how it is affected by the manipulation of anxiety levels. 51) A psychologist wanted to see if people are more prone to seek the company of others when anxious than when calm. He randomly assigned half of his subjects to an anxiety group and then told them that, as part of the study, they would receive electric shocks. He did not frighten the other group of subjects. Finally, he recorded how many subjects in each group chose to be “tested” in a group setting and how many chose to be “tested” alone. In this study, the group that was NOT frightened would be called the ____________ group. A) experimental B) control C) placebo D) test Answer: B Rationale: The control group in an experiment serves as a comparison to the experimental group and does not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation. In this study, the group that was not frightened serves as the control group to compare the behavior of the anxiety group (experimental group). 52) The purpose of a control group in an experiment is to: A) serve as a check on the interpretation of results. B) increase the ability to generalize the findings. C) manipulate the dependent variable. D) represent the general, non-laboratory population. Answer: A Rationale: The control group provides a baseline for comparison with the experimental group, allowing researchers to assess whether any observed effects are due to the experimental manipulation or other factors. It helps ensure that any differences between groups can be attributed to the independent variable. 53) In an experiment, the group of subjects to which the experimental group is compared is called the: A) comparison group. B) standard group. C) confederate group. D) control group. Answer: D Rationale: The control group in an experiment consists of subjects who do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation. It serves as a comparison to the experimental group, which receives the treatment or manipulation. 54) In an experiment concerning the effect of auditory feedback on accuracy in writing computer programs, one group hears a computer-simulated voice say each character or symbol that they type in as they are writing their programs. The second group does not receive the auditory feedback as they type their program lines. This second group is the ___________ group. A) experimental B) control C) placebo D) confederate Answer: B Rationale: The control group in an experiment does not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation. In this scenario, the second group, which does not receive auditory feedback, serves as the control group to compare with the experimental group that receives the auditory feedback. 55) Why is it essential that the experimental and control groups be treated identically in every respect but one? A) so that the dependent variable can be accurately measured B) so that the results will apply outside the laboratory setting C) so that if the behavior of the two groups differs, the difference can be credited to the one thing that distinguished the groups from one another D) so that if the behavior of the two groups differs, the difference can be used to establish a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables Answer: D Rationale: Treating the experimental and control groups identically in every aspect except for the independent variable manipulation ensures that any differences observed between the groups can be attributed to the independent variable. This is crucial for establishing a cause-andeffect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 56) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The manipulated variable is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that the researcher intentionally manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is independent of other variables in the experiment and is under the control of the researcher. Therefore, in this scenario, the manipulated variable is correctly referred to as the independent variable. 57) In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The second variable, which is observed for any possible effects, is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable Answer: A Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. It represents the outcome or effect of the experiment. 58) To determine if sugar-rich diets affect hyperactivity in kids, a researcher prepared two daily menus that children would receive for a 30-day period. A high-sugar diet was given to the boys, while the girls had a menu that seemed identical but was not a high-sugar diet. At the end of 30 days, the boys and girls were evaluated to determine their levels of hyperactivity. In the study, the high-sugar diet is the _______. A) placebo B) independent variable C) dependent variable D) control group Answer: B Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher. In this study, the type of diet (high-sugar or not) is manipulated to observe its effect on hyperactivity levels. 59) An experiment was run in which group A was given 3 minutes to study a word list, while group B was given 10 minutes to study the same list. Later, both groups were asked to recall words from the list. In this study, the number of words recalled is the _______. A) independent variable B) dependent variable C) placebo D) control group Answer: B Rationale: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed for any changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this study, the number of words recalled is being measured to observe its relationship with the duration of study time. 60) Dr. Welsh is doing experiments using drugs. He is concerned that his subjects will respond to demand characteristics. He may want to control for this by using which of the following? A) stratification B) two independent variables C) a placebo D) randomization Answer: C Rationale: Using a placebo control involves administering a treatment that has no therapeutic effect but appears identical to the actual treatment. This helps control for demand characteristics by ensuring that subjects cannot differentiate between the experimental and control conditions based on the treatment received. 61) Mr. Marshall hired June to collect data from a group of subjects. Neither June nor the subjects were aware of the independent variable that Mr. Marshall had manipulated. This is an example of _______. A) randomization B) a placebo C) double-blind control D) experimenter bias Answer: C Rationale: In double-blind control, neither the participants nor the individuals collecting the data are aware of the experimental conditions. This helps eliminate bias and ensures the validity of the results. 62) Which of the following is NOT a strength of the experiment as a research method? A) Cause-and-effect relationships can be established. B) Experimental conditions usually seem realistic to subjects. C) Experiments usually can be replicated if the findings are valid. D) Variables can be analyzed carefully because of the degree of control over them. Answer: B Rationale: While experiments offer many strengths, such as establishing cause-and-effect relationships and allowing for careful analysis of variables, the realism of experimental conditions can vary. Subjects may not always perceive experimental conditions as realistic, especially if they involve artificial settings or tasks. 63) Keeping responses anonymous helps researchers to avoid the ethical problem of _______. A) deception B) experimenter bias C) invasion of privacy D) animal rights violations Answer: C Rationale: Ensuring anonymity of responses in research helps protect participants' privacy, avoiding the ethical issue of invasion of privacy. Participants are more likely to provide honest responses when they feel their privacy is protected. 64) As part of an assignment, Bill’s class was asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire on sexual discrimination. Which research method was Bill’s professor using? A) field experiment B) survey C) naturalistic observation D) laboratory experiment Answer: B Rationale: A survey involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews. In this scenario, Bill's class was asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire, indicating the use of a survey method. 65) As part of an assignment, Bill’s class was asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire on prejudice. Which research method was Bill’s professor using? A) field experiment B) survey C) naturalistic observation D) laboratory experiment Answer: B Rationale: Similar to the previous question, completing an anonymous questionnaire on prejudice also indicates the use of a survey method. 66) A weakness of ________ is that subjects participating in the research often report, consciously and unconsciously, inaccurate information. A) naturalistic observation B) surveys C) field experiments D) laboratory experiments Answer: B Rationale: Surveys rely on self-report measures, which can be subject to biases and inaccuracies due to conscious or unconscious misreporting by participants. 67) Political polls taken before major elections are examples of __________ research. A) correlational B) experimental C) case study D) survey Answer: D Rationale: Political polls, which gather data through surveys to assess opinions or behaviors of a population, fall under the category of survey research. 68) When you watch dogs play in the park or watch how your professors conduct their classes, you are engaging in a form of __________. A) case study research B) survey research C) naturalistic observation D) psychometric study Answer: C Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording behaviors in their natural environment without any intervention or manipulation. Watching dogs play in the park or observing professors' conduct in class are examples of naturalistic observation. 69) Collecting objective data without interference in the subject’s normal environment is associated with: A) survey research. B) applied research. C) laboratory research. D) naturalistic observation. Answer: D Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves collecting data in the subject's natural environment without any interference or manipulation. It allows researchers to observe behavior as it occurs naturally. 70) Observing behavior as it happens in real-life natural settings without imposing laboratory controls is known as the __________. A) naturalistic observation method B) experimental method C) correlational method D) psychometric approach Answer: A Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording behavior in real-life settings without imposing laboratory controls or manipulation. It allows researchers to study behavior in its natural context. 71) Collecting objective data without interference in the subject’s normal environment is associated with ________. A) survey research B) applied research C) laboratory research D) naturalistic observation Answer: D Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording behavior in real-life settings without interfering or manipulating the environment. It allows researchers to study behavior as it naturally occurs, providing objective data. 72) As part of an assignment, Bill’s class was asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire on female sexual harassment. Which research method was Bill’s professor using? A) field experiment B) survey C) naturalistic observation D) laboratory experiment Answer: B Rationale: Completing an anonymous questionnaire falls under the category of survey research. Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews. 73) To obtain objective information, researchers sometimes must deceive their subjects. Ethically, research involving deception must always _________. A) pay participants B) maintain subject anonymity C) use double-blind control D) explain the deception to the subjects after the data are collected and obtain their informed consent to use the information obtained Answer: D Rationale: Ethical guidelines require that researchers explain any deception used in the study to the participants after the data collection is completed. Participants must be informed about the true nature of the study and give their consent for the use of the data obtained through deception. This ensures that participants are not misled and that their rights are respected. Test Bank for Psychology and Life Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo, Serge Desmarais, Tammy Ivanco 9780205037117, 9780205859139