Chapter 17: Social Psychology 1) After a close play at the plate during a baseball game, one fan believes that the runner was safe while another fan sitting next to him believes the runner was out. From a social psychology perspective, how do the two fans differ? A) in their knowledge of baseball. B) in the way they construct reality. C) in their personalities. D) in their use of logic and reason. Answer: B Rationale: Social situations obtain their significance when observers selectively encode what is happening in terms of what they want to see and expect to see. In this instance, the fans look at the same activity but see two different things, illustrating that it is difficult to observe social situations in an unbiased and objective fashion. 2) In a study that is described in the textbook, students from Princeton and Dartmouth evaluated a filmed football game. There were definite differences in their perceptions of the content of the film and the actions of the players. Which concept is most directly demonstrated by these differences in perception? A) cognitive dissonance. B) the covariation principle. C) self-perception. D) the selective encoding of information. Answer: D Rationale: A complex social interaction such as this game cannot be observed in an unbiased and objective way. It is interpreted according to what observers expect to see and want to see. 3) Theo is an attributional theorist. In the course of his research, what is Theo likely to investigate? A) the conditions under which one individual will help another individual. B) inviduals’ perceptions of the causes of events. C) the ways in which attitudes are formed. D) individuals’ perceptions of the self. Answer: B Rationale: Attribution theory is an approach that describes the ways people perceive information in social situations and use this information to make causal explanations for what they perceive. 4) Which of the following statements involves an attribution? A) "They cannot afford a washing machine because he spends so much on that fancy car of his." B) "I cannot come to the party because I have an exam the next morning." C) "He chose to eat shrimp for dinner.” D) "My parents would like me to study to be a doctor or a lawyer." Answer: A Rationale: Attributions are conclusions we draw about the world, situations, and people around us. We use three dimensions of information to reach these conclusions—distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. 5) Fritz Heider believed that all people are "intuitive psychologists." What did Heider mean by this statement? A) most people approach the understanding of behaviour from a psychodynamic perspective. B) there is little distinction between "common sense" psychology and "professional" psychology. C) people try to figure out what others are like and what causes their behaviour, just as professional psychologists do. D) people have less interest in the behaviour of others than professional psychologists do. Answer: C Rationale: Heider believed that the most sought-after answer in these intuitive attributional analyses was whether the cause of a behaviour was found within the person (internal) or within the situation (external). 6) Where is an attributional psychologist most likely to look for the causes of behaviour? A) in the individual’s past. B) in the individual’s unconscious. C) in either the individual or the situation. D) in either the material self or the spiritual self. Answer: C Rationale: Attributions that indicate the behaviour is caused by the person are internal or dispositional attributions. External or situational attributions are those for which the cause of the behaviour is believed to be the situation. 7) A homeless person approaches Fred and his friend, Betty for some money. When Betty donates a dollar, Fred attributes Betty’s behaviour to her inherently generous spirit. According to Fritz Heider, what type of attribution did Fred make? A) external B) situational C) dispositional D) fundamental Answer: C Rationale: A dispositional or internal attribution occurs when you think that the generous action of your friend was caused by her internal characteristics, that is, the kind of person that she is. 8) Which observation by Harold Kelley about causal attributions is accurate? A) They are usually made using three dimensions of information. B) They are usually accurate. C) They are based primarily on personal knowledge about the individual. D) They are attempts to reduce cognitive dissonance. Answer: A Rationale: Kelly suggested that the causal attributions that people make are done using three dimensions of information: distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. 9) According to Kelley, what are the three dimensions of information that individuals use to assess covariation when making attributions? A) distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. B) differentiation, conformity, and covariance. C) deviation, compliance, and commonality. D) discrimination, convergence, and contingency. Answer: A Rationale: Harold Kelley originated the covariation model, which specifies the variables that people use to make their attributions. If you were walking down the street and saw a friend pointing at a horse and screaming, you would gather evidence to decide whether there is danger or your friend is crazy. You would make this judgment on the basis of three dimensions of distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. 10) A teammate struck out three times in the softball game last night. In applying the covariation principle to understand the cause of his performance, how should the the "consistency" dimension be applied? A) Determine if others who played in the game also struck out. B) Determine if the pitcher was consistently overwhelming the batters. C) Determine if he would have performed better with a different pitcher. D) Determine if he has struck out often in the past. Answer: D Rationale: Consistency refers to whether the behaviour (striking out) applies consistently to this situation (a softball game). 11) Antoine has gotten back his test on attribution theory and has received an "A" grade. Which statement best reflects the use of the "consensus" dimension when attempting to understand why Antoine received such an excellent grade? A) Antoine received "A's" in most of his courses. B) Antoine has received "A's" consistently from this teacher in the past. C) Most other individuals taking the test also received "A's." D) Antoine studied especially hard for this particular test. Answer: C Rationale: Consensus refers to whether other people typically produce the same behaviour in the same situation. 12) According to the fundamental attribution error, which factors do individuals tend to overestimate? A) dispositional B) situational C) distinctive D) external Answer: A Rationale: When searching for causes of behaviours or outcomes, people from Western cultures tend to blame the internal characteristics of people more readily than they blame the external situations. 13) Which statement suggests that the speaker is making the fundamental attribution error? A) "If I had not gotten married and had children, I could have had an exciting career." B) "People do not conserve energy in this country because it is still relatively expensive." C) "The guy at the next table did not leave a tip for the waitress because he is a cheapskate." D) "Politics and religion cause more problems than they solve." Answer: C Rationale: This is an internal dispositional attribution, which found that the cause of the man's behaviour is related to some element of his character. 14) According to the authors of the textbook, how can the effects of the fundamental attribution error be minimized? A) By becoming more aware of the dispositional forces that are often invisible to the observer. B) By trying to identify situational forces that may have caused a behaviour. C) By refraining from engaging in "attributional charity." D) By speaking with individuals before making judgments about their actions. Answer: B Rationale: It is not easy to do this, because situational forces are often invisible (we cannot see a social norm). We have to make a special effort to ask ourselves whether there might be situational variables that are affecting an individual's behaviour. 15) Consider the hypothesis that people who live in some cultures may be more susceptible to the fundamental attribution error than people who live in other cultures. If this hypothesis is true, what should one expect? A) Individuals who live in cultures that embody independent construals of self will be less likely to commit this error. B) Individuals who live in cultures that embody interdependent construals of self will be less likely to commit this error. C) Individuals who live in technologically advanced societies will be less likely to commit this error. D) Individuals who live in technologically advanced societies will be more likely to commit this error. Answer: B Rationale: A culture that emphasizes independent construals of self is more likely to focus on personal characteristics of the individuals in a situation. A culture that focuses on interdependent construals of self is more likely to focus on factors in the environment, including whether the individuals met others' expectations. 16) In a study that is described in the textbook, excerpts from American and Japanese newspapers and television reports regarding athletes in the 2000 Olympics were analyzed for causal statements. What did the results demonstrate? A) American writers tended to make stronger situational attributions. B) Japanese writers tended to consider a broad range of factors. C) By being objective, most of the writers overcame the tendency to make the fundamental attribution error. D) The fundamental attribution error is a universal tendency. Answer: B Rationale: The Japanese writers tended to consider several factors. Along with the athletes' positive and negative personal characteristics, they discussed background factors and the degree to which the athletes met others' expectations. U.S. media reports tended to focus almost entirely on the athletes' positive characteristics. 17) What implication can one derive from cross-cultural research on the fundamental attribution error? A) situational biases are inborn. B) dispositional biases are inborn. C) dispositional and situational biases are culturally shaped. D) children respond with a situational bias, which becomes dispositional in adulthood. Answer: C Rationale: The fundamental attribution error tends to occur more readily in a culture that emphasizes independence and individual characteristics, including achievement. In an interdependent culture, people consider internal characteristics when making attributions, but they also give attention to situational factors including the expectations of people toward one another. 18) When a student does well on a test, she immediately takes the credit, saying that she did well because she studied hard. When she does poorly, however, she blames the teacher for making up an "impossible" test. Which term best captures this scenario? A) the fundamental attribution error. B) the Pygmalion effect. C) behavioural confirmation. D) the self-serving bias. Answer: D Rationale: A self-serving bias leads people to take credit for their successes (by making internal or dispositional attributions) but to deny or explain away responsibility for their failures (by making external or situational attributions). 19) What has research revealed about the self-serving bias in educational environments? A) students, but not teachers, engage in self-serving biases. B) teachers, but not students, engage in self-serving biases. C) students attribute high grades to the hard work of the teachers and low grades to their own lack of effort. D) professors take credit for student success but not student failure. Answer: D Rationale: We need to expend extra effort to avoid this bias, just as we need to do so to avoid making the fundamental attribution error. By accepting the bias that failures are not attributable to us, we can miss important information about individuals and the situations that might change the conclusions we draw about them. 20) Which term refers to the tendency to attribute one’s success to dispositional factors and one’s failures to situational factors? A) behavioural confirmation. B) the self-serving bias. C) the fundamental attribution error. D) in-group bias. Answer: B Rationale: The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute your successes to dispositional factors and your failures to situational factors. 21) Predictions made about a future behaviour can modify behavioural interactions so that the predictions come true. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon? A) self-serving bias. B) self-serving prophecy. C) self-fulfilling prophecy. D) reciprocity. Answer: C Rationale: Self-fulfilling prophecies is a prediction made about some future behaviour or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected. 22) Robert Rosenthal studied the effect that teacher expectations had on the performance of selected elementary school students. What was believed to be the actual source of the changes in student intellectual performance? A) The way in which the teachers behaved toward the special students. B) The ability of the psychological tests to predict who the "academic spurters" were likely to be. C) The support that was given to the special students by their peers. D) The removal of the "average" students from the classroom. Answer: A Rationale: The students who were randomly labeled "spurters" ("intellectual bloomers who will show exceptional gains during the school year") showed increases in their IQ scores that exceeded significantly those of their classmates who started the school year with the same average IQs. 23) Which statement about ‘attitude’ is accurate? A) Attitude is usually overt and verifiable by others. B) The individual may not be consciously aware of the particular attitude he or she holds. C) The individual’s behaviour is often unaffected by the attitude. D) The attitude will be unrelated to how the individual structures his or her social reality. Answer: B Rationale: Attitudes are important because they influence how we act and how we construct social reality, but we are not always explicitly aware of our attitudes. 24) When a sports fan is asked about his attitudes toward sports, he says that he loves sports because he feels an emotional surge when watching them. Which attitudinal component is being described? A) cognitive B) affective C) behavioural D) covert Answer: B Rationale: The affective component addresses the feelings we have that influence the development of our attitudes about someone or something. 25) When asked to rate the job that a Member of Parliament has done, a politician responds, "I think the MP has introduced several important pieces of legislation." In the context of attitudes, which term best reflects this statement? A) informational influence. B) cognitive information. C) affective information. D) behavioural influence. Answer: B Rationale: The politician's evaluation of the MP, that is, his attitude toward the MP, is in part developed from thoughts the politician has when the MP is mentioned. 26) Three businessmen are afraid of flying on commercial airlines. The first businessman has read accounts of airplane crashes, the second has heard stories of crashes, and the third has experienced a near-fatal accident on a flight. With respect to the accessibility of their fears of flying, which statement is accurate? A) the businessman who read about airplane crashes will have a more accessible attitude. B) the businessman who experienced a near-fatal accident will have a more accessible attitude. C) the businessman who heard about airplane crashes will have a more accessible attitude. D) they will have equal degrees of accessibility. Answer: B Rationale: According to research, attitudes are more accessible when they are based on direct experience than when they are based on reading or hearing about the object of the attitude (crashes). 27) Joni is a music critic who always seems to be asked for her attitudes about the relative merits of rock music from the 60s versus the 90s. Why would Joni’s attitudes about rock music most likely be highly accessible? A) Primarily due to her knowledge of music. B) Primarily due to her love of rock music. C) Primarily due to direct experience. D) Primarily due to rehearsal. Answer: D Rationale: The more we have formulated an attitude about something, the more accessible it will be. This constitutes rehearsal of the attitude. 28) Brigitte takes great pride in her critical thinking ability. When others try to convince her to adopt their viewpoint, Brigitte likes to think carefully about the value of their persuasive argument. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, which route to persuasion is being characterized? A) primary B) secondary C) central D) peripheral Answer: C Rationale: When the central route to persuasion is used, attitude change depends on the strength of the arguments. The central route represents circumstances in which people think carefully about the persuasive communication. 29) Critics of the political process often claim that political campaigning focuses, to a substantial degree, on appearances rather than issues. If this is the case, which route to persuasion do political advertisments most likely emphasize? A) primary B) explicit C) central D) peripheral Answer: D Rationale: When the peripheral route to persuasion is used, the person trying to persuade us of something is hoping that we do not use critical thinking. The peripheral route represents circumstances in which the focus is shifted away from the message and toward superficial cues in the situation, such as in the case of the celebrity endorsing the candidate. 30) As described in the textbook, under which circumstances are individuals more likely to have the energy and motivation to engage in elaborative processing? A) when they encounter persuasive messages at their "optimal" time of day. B) when the covariation components of distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus have been met. C) when they utilize the affective route to persuasion. D) when they utilize the peripheral route to persuasion. Answer: A Rationale: People often label themselves as “morning people” or “evening people.” When messages are delivered to us at our "optimal" time of day, we are able to focus more fully on persuasive statements. When we want to be able to think critically about persuasive statements, we need to be sure that we are able to give our full mental effort to the task. 31) According to Festinger, which term characterizes the state of conflict that someone experiences after taking an action, making a decision, or being exposed to information that is contrary to his or her beliefs? A) moral anxiety. B) cognitive dissonance. C) behavioural disconfirmation. D) dispositional attribution. Answer: B Rationale: When our cognitions and attitudes about a behaviour do not match, discomfort results from the dissonance (we buy a car that we have said we would never buy). Dissonance is motivational, driving us to reduce the unpleasant feelings (over time we will speak defensively about our choice, and our attitude toward the car will change). 32) How is cognitive dissonance best understood? A) as norm crystallization. B) as groupthink. C) as the self-fulfilling prophecy. D) as a state of conflict. Answer: D Rationale: Cognitions about behaviour and about relevant attitudes do not follow one after the other. We have chosen to do something that disrupts this flow, causing dissonance. To alleviate the discomfort of dissonance, we will take action to reduce the unpleasant feelings. 33) A student is chairperson of the group responsible for developing a procedure to handle cheating at his school, yet he takes no action when his best friend confides in him that he cheated on his last test. According to Festinger, what is this student likely to experience? A) self-serving bias. B) compliance. C) informational influence. D) cognitive dissonance. Answer: D Rationale: There is likely a high level of discomfort created by the conflict between the job the student has accepted and his loyalty to his friend. Dissonance will likely motivate the student who is working on the policy to make up excuses for his behaviour regarding his friend’s cheating. 34) Which approach do individuals often take to cope with the unpleasant state of tension associated with cognitive dissonance? A) change one’s attitudes. B) engage in groupthink. C) focus on dispositional factors. D) deny that the dissonance exists. Answer: A Rationale: After experiencing a situation that creates high levels of dissonance, the individual engages in self-persuasion in order to justify his or her behaviour. One way to resolve the conflict between a previously held attitude and a behaviour that is counter to that attitude is to change the attitude. 35) A student thinks that it is wrong to cheat on tests, but she copied some answers from the person sitting next to her during the chemistry exam and now feels very guilty. According to dissonance theory, how is she likely to respond? A) She will feel justified in her behaviour if she receives a good grade. B) She will decide that the test was so difficult that it encouraged people to cheat. C) She will use reaction formation as a means to reduce feelings of tension. D) She will be reinforced to cheat on future tests. Answer: B Rationale: Dissonance motivates us to take action to reduce the unpleasant feelings that result from doing something that conflicts with our previous attitudes about it. Creating excuses for her actions in her own mind allows the student to decrease the unpleasant feelings of dissonance. 36) Cecilia was one of the Stanford students who participated in the classic research on cognitive dissonance conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith. What was Cecilia asked to do as part of this study? A) present electric shocks to another individual. B) compare the length of lines to a standard line. C) tell others that working on monotonous tasks was enjoyable. D) observe others communicating in chat rooms. Answer: C Rationale: Those students who received a large payment ($20) for lying did not feel dissonance because the payment gave them a reason for lying. The students who received a small payment (only $1) for lying experienced enough cognitive discomfort that their evaluations of the monotonous task changed over time, They later professed the belief that the experience was "really fun and interesting." 37) In a classic experiment on cognitive dissonance that is described in the textbook, students were paid either $1 or $20 to tell another student that a boring task was fun and interesting. What were the results of the study? A) The students who were paid $1 decided that the task was really fun and interesting. B) The students who were paid $20 decided that the task was really fun and interesting. C) The students who were paid $1 refused to lie. D) The students who were paid $20 refused to lie. Answer: A Rationale: Their attitudes or evaluations regarding the original task changed over time. This is because the dissonance created by lying about a task they actually found to be very boring motivated them to reduce the discomfort. The stronger the dissonance, the greater the motivation to decrease it, and attitude change is one way to do that. 38) A friend asks Dominic if he likes scary rides at the fair. Although Dominic has never really thought about it before, he answers "yes" because he remembers that whenever he goes to the fair he chooses the scary rides. According to Daryl Bem, which concept best explains this phenomenon? A) the fundamental attribution error. B) a self-serving bias. C) cognitive dissonance. D) self-perception theory. Answer: D Rationale: We use our self-knowledge to reason backward to the most likely causes of behaviour. We base the assessment of our personal preferences on our previous actions (such as always choosing scary rides before). 39) Which statement best illustrates the self-perception theory of Daryl Bem? A) "I eat brown bread because I like it." B) "I married him, so I must love him." C) "I can see myself being a successful attorney." D) "Everybody likes me." Answer: B Rationale: We base the evaluation of our personal preferences on behavioural descriptions of relevant actions, rather than undertaking an intense search of our thoughts and feelings. 40) When Liu answers the doorbell, she encounters a young person who hands her a free laminated bookmark and then asks if she would be interested in subscribing to some magazines. What concept lies at the root of this sales technique? A) self-perception. B) commitment. C) reciprocity. D) scarcity. Answer: C Rationale: The reciprocity norm dictates that if someone does something for us, we feel obliged to do something for him or her as well. If we accept the bookmark, we may subscribe to a magazine in return. 41) A stranger asks Elliot for a donation of $20 for a charitable enterprise. When Elliot turns him down, the stranger requests only $1. Which compliance tactic is the stranger using? A) commitment. B) the foot-in-the-door technique. C) the door-in-the-face technique. D) scarcity. Answer: C Rationale: When people say no to a large request, they will often say yes to a smaller request. When someone has modified his request from large to small, you must reciprocate to avoid violating the social norm of reciprocity. 42) A telephone solicitor asks Carly for a donation of $1 for a charitable enterprise. When Carly agrees to give $1, he asks her to become a volunteer to raise money for the charity. Which sales strategy is being implemented? A) the door-in-the-face technique. B) the foot-in-the-door technique. C) scarcity. D) reciprocity. Answer: B Rationale: Once people get their "foot in the door," they can then use your sense of commitment to increase the chances that you will comply with another request. 43) When shopping for a car, Dave works out a great deal with the salesperson. While she is talking to her manager, Dave thinks about how wonderful it is going to be to own the car that he wants. When the salesperson comes back, she tells Dave that the manager will not agree with the deal and wants him to pay more. If Dave decides to pay the higher price, which sales technique has been successfully implemented? A) scarcity. B) reciprocity. C) ownership. D) commitment. Answer: D Rationale: Commitment works because you have come to think of yourself in a certain way. You have already committed yourself to buying the car and you don’t want to feel inconsistent. If the salesperson also describes you as someone who wants a quality item and will pay more for it, you may feel foolish if you do not do so. You can more easily walk away from the deal if you realize how the salesperson is manipulating your sense of commitment as well as your sense of self. 44) For an individual who holds a false belief to be labeled as prejudiced, what must be true of the false belief? A) It must be unconscious. B) It must lead to an attitude of preference toward another human being. C) It must resist change even in the face of evidence against its validity. D) It must be based on cultural norms of proper behaviour. Answer: C Rationale: Prejudice is a learned attitude that demeans and destroys the lives of people who are its targets. It involves negative feelings that are rationalized by negative beliefs, and behavioural intentions to avoid, control, dominate, or even eliminate the target group. It does not change in the face of disconfirming evidence. 45) Which process results in a "me versus not me" and "us versus them" orientation? A) social comparison. B) social discrimination. C) social categorization. D) social evaluation. Answer: C Rationale: The simplest and most pervasive form of categorization involves putting people into groups based on whether they are like or not like us. Categorization is a process by which we organize our social environments. 46) A girl who forms a club believes that the members of her club are better than the members of her ex-friend's club. What does this girl's belief illustrate? A) an in-group bias. B) an out-group bias. C) diffusion of responsibility. D) demand characteristics. Answer: A Rationale: People divide the world into "in-groups" of which they perceive themselves to be a part, and "out-groups" with which they do not identify. 47) How is racism best defined? A) as discrimination against individuals based on their skin colour or ethnic heritage. B) as stereotyping individuals on the basis of personality traits. C) as evaluation of one's own group as better than other groups. D) as categorizing individuals into groups based on genetic factors. Answer: A Rationale: Racism is discrimination against people based on their skin colour or ethnic heritage. 48) While walking on campus one day Sage overhears a person make the remark, "All college professors are absentminded." Which term best reflects this statement? A) a stereotype. B) behavioural confirmation. C) racism. D) in-group bias. Answer: A Rationale: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group. 49) A young adult believes that elderly individuals are terrible drivers. He never allows himself to be given a ride by anyone over the age of 55. Why will this young adult most likely continue to believe that the elderly are poor drivers? A) because of demand characteristics. B) because of a self-serving bias. C) because of behavioural confirmation. D) because of in-group bias. Answer: C Rationale: People fill in missing data with information from their stereotypes. Their own actions may cause people to act in ways that are consistent with the stereotype. If he drives with an elderly member of the family, his own anxiety may cause the elderly person to drive poorly. 50) In a study that is described in the textbook, students were classified as having high or low prejudice toward homosexuals. They then read two studies that either supported or opposed stereotypes of homosexuality. What did the researchers discover? A) only the highly prejudiced students changed their attitudes because of the studies that they read. B) after reading the studies, all of the students were more balanced in their views of homosexuality. C) after reading the studies, the females were more balanced in their views of homosexuality than the males. D) the students gave higher ratings to the study that supported their point of view. Answer: D Rationale: The results of the study showed that people tend to devalue information that is inconsistent with their prior stereotype. 51) Shelby, who holds a stereotype about women is presented with information that includes an argument that contradicts the stereotype. If Shelby is like most others, how will this information impact him? A) It will be accepted as sufficient to modify the stereotype. B) It will be discounted by Shelby. C) It will cause Shelby to hold a stereotypical belief that is significantly weaker than the one that was previously held. D) It will be highly valued by Shelby because it has emphasized inconsistencies. Answer: B Rationale: People tend to discount or devalue information that is inconsistent with their previously held stereotypes. Information alone is not typically enough to change people's prejudices. 52) How would a proponent of the "contact hypothesis" most likely attempt to reduce the hostility that two groups show toward each other? A) by introducing a goal that requires cooperation from both groups. B) by reducing the amount of contact between members of the hostile groups. C) by introducing a female mediator. D) by increasing the resources that are available to the groups. Answer: A Rationale: Simple contact between the groups, such as bringing them together in noncompetitive circumstances, would likely not work to reduce tensions. The key is to create a situation in which both groups must cooperate to reach a shared goal. 53) Which conclusion about the contact hypothesis was strongly supported by a review of 515 studies? A) contact with out-group members lowers prejudice. B) contact with out-group members increases prejudice. C) contact with out-group members results in violent activities. D) contact with out-group members increases stereotyping and discriminatory practices. Answer: A Rationale: A review of 515 studies on the contact hypothesis strongly supports the conclusion that contact with out-group members lowers prejudice. 54) Which hypothesis was confirmed by a study that involved 2,893 East and West German participants? A) the East Germans had more opportunities to have foreign friends, so their prejudice levels remained relatively low. B) the East Germans had fewer opportunities to have foreign friends, so their prejudice levels remained relatively high. C) the West Germans had fewer opportunities to have foreign friends, so their prejudice levels remained relatively high. D) regardless of the opportunities for having foreign friends, both the East and the West Germans exhibited high levels of prejudice. Answer: B Rationale: Because the inhabitants of East Germany had fewer opportunities to have foreign friends, their prejudice levels remained relatively high. 55) After listening to a lecture on prejudice, a student wonders if having close friends from different ethnic groups can reduce prejudice against these groups. Which response does the research support? A) yes, because such friendships will help to reinforce in-group biases. B) yes, because it may become easier to identify and empathize with out-group members. C) no, because these friendships may foster a process of social categorization. D) no, because the more information that is known about the social norms and customs of out-groups, the greater entrenched the sterotypes become. Answer: B Rationale: Direct friendships (you have an out-group friend) and indirect friendships (someone in your group has an out-group friend) tend to decrease prejudice. Those friendships make the outgroup seem less threatening and increase understanding and empathy. 56) According to the research on interpersonal attraction, if Lucy wants Jesse to like her, what should she do? A) Ensure that she spends only short periods of time with Jesse, initially. B) Allow Jesse to see her frequently. C) Maintain opinions that are different from those held by Jesse. D) Appear somewhat neutral toward Jesse, initially. Answer: B Rationale: People tend to like others with whom they are in close proximity—people they see regularly at home or at work or in some other mutual location. People tend to like other people and objects just by virtue of mere exposure. 57) Many individuals think that a particular woman is physically attractive. Based on this information only, what other beliefs about the woman will these individuals most likely possess? A) that she is socially competent. B) that she is unintelligent. C) that she is a member of the upper class. D) that she is less likely to be successful in her career. Answer: A Rationale: Western culture supports a strong stereotype that attractive people are also good in other ways. Both adults and children who are attractive are rated as more socially competent than others. 58) In the University of Minnesota study that was described in the textbook, college students were assigned randomly as blind dates. When asked to evaluate their dates and indicate if they wanted to pursue the relationship, what was the most important factor? A) intelligence. B) personality. C) social skill. D) physical attractiveness. Answer: D Rationale: Only those matched by chance with beautiful or handsome blind dates wanted to pursue the relationship further. 59) What do cross-cultural studies of physical attractiveness indicate? A) physical attractiveness predicts liking across most cultures. B) students will accord lower intellectual status to classmates who are perceived to be physically attractive. C) cultures do not differ widely with respect to the standards for physical beauty. D) physical attractiveness may not play as strong a role in some cultures as it does in the United States. Answer: D Rationale: Participants from Ghana did not alter their attributions based on whether the people portrayed were attractive or unattractive. By contrast, participants from the United States made less positive attributions when they viewed unattractive photographs. 60) With respect to friendships, Chelsea believes that, in general, "opposites attract." Is Chelsea correct? A) Yes, this appears to be true for a variety of dimensions. B) No, research suggests that dissimilarity often leads to strong repulsion. C) Yes, but not significantly more so than those with similarities. D) Yes, particularly in the realm of social and political viewpoints. Answer: B Rationale: Research shows that under many circumstances similarities in beliefs, attitudes, and values foster friendships. Similarity also seems to play a part in friendships that endure over time. 61) A girl likes a boy. If this girl and boy are similar to most people, it can be predicted that the boy has the same feelings for the girl. What is the most likely basis for this prediction? A) normative influence. B) reciprocity. C) similarity. D) physical attractiveness. Answer: B Rationale: We tend to like people who seem to like us. When we know that person A likes person B, we infer that person B likes person A. 62) In general, what has research on love indicated? A) that individuals initially do not like those they end up loving. B) that individuals initially like those they end up loving. C) that individuals cannot truly like someone whom they do not love. D) that the concept of love is one-dimensional. Answer: B Rationale: Research on love has found that generally, people initially like the people that they end up loving. 63) How does being "in love" with someone differ from "loving" someone? A) It involves passion. B) It involves intimacy and commitment, but not passion. C) It involves commitment only. D) It involves intimacy only. Answer: A Rationale: Being ‘in love’ implies something more intense and special, such as the type of experience that includes sexual passion. 64) A couple has been involved in a loving relationship for many years. Which term best characterizes this type of love? A) secure B) intimate C) pragmatic D) companionate Answer: D Rationale: Many loving relationships start out with a period of intensity and absorption called "passionate" love. Over time, relationships tend toward a less intense but more intimate state, called "companionate" love. 65) In a study that is mentioned in the textbook, male and female undergraduates in the United States and in India were asked the question, "If a man (woman) had all the other qualities you desired, would you marry this person if you were not in love with him (her)?" What were the results of the study? A) a very small percentage of the Indian students said "yes" but nearly 50 percent of the American students said "yes." B) a very small percentage of the American students answered "yes" but nearly 50 percent of the Indian students said "yes." C) most of the female students in both countries said "yes" but most of the male students in both countries said "no." D) most of the male students in both countries said "yes" but most of the female students in both countries said "no." Answer: B Rationale: It appears that members of interdependent cultures expect less personal fulfillment from partners than members of dependent cultures. Those in dependent cultures tend to demand more of their partners in terms of personal fulfillment and generally avoid choosing a partner with whom they are not in love. 66) Chara says that she will marry only for love and not convenience, and that she is going to spend a great deal of time choosing the "right mate." What type of cultural background does Chara most likely have? A) one that values interdependence. B) one that values independence. C) one in which the collective good takes precedence. D) one that is consistent with non-Western values. Answer: B Rationale: People from cultures that emphasize independence tend to demand more of their partners and have stronger ideas about personal fulfillment than people from interdependent cultures. 67) Why is the belief that the "other" is included in one's "self" important in the context of love? A) the relationship between "other" and "self" can serve as an index of the amount of autonomy involved in a relationship. B) research has shown that couples with the most overlap between "other" and "self" are most likely to remain committed to each other over time. C) the amount of overlap between "other" and "self" can be used as a diagnostic tool to determine the type of love that is most important to each couple. D) the way a person feels about the "other" within the "self" is indicative of an avoidant attachment style. Answer: B Rationale: "Self" and "other" can overlap to varying degrees in relationships. In those relationships in which people come to see the other as included in the self, commitment is likely to stay strongest over time. 68) Which attachment style is at the root of the most enduring adult romantic relationships? A) secure B) passionate C) intimate D) companionate Answer: A Rationale: Securely attached individuals had the most enduring romantic relationships as adults. 69) Which term do social psychologists typically use when referring to the explicit and implicit guidelines for behaviour in specific settings? A) expectations B) rules C) social roles D) social norms Answer: B Rationale: Social roles are patterns of behaviour that are expected of a person in a given setting, while rules are explicit and implicit guidelines for behaviour in specific settings. 70) Although she has never specifically been told not to do so, a student is hesitant to leave a class in the middle of a lecture. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon? A) social guideline. B) implicit rule. C) explicit rule. D) social role. Answer: B Rationale: The student has learned this through interaction with others in the classroom. Implicit rules are learned from others in particular settings. 71) In the classic social psychology experiment known as the Stanford Prison Experiment, how was group selection determined? A) the most sadistic participants were assigned the roles of guards. B) the participants who were thought to be "helpless" types were assigned the roles of prisoners. C) the participants were assigned roles that were the opposite of their natural inclinations. D) the participants were assigned roles through random procedures. Answer: D Rationale: Participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment were assigned randomly to prisoner and guard roles. 72) Which statement about the participants who acted as guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment is accurate? A) They identified with the prisoners and acted in a similar manner. B) They developed stress-related symptoms, such as psychosomatic rashes. C) They behaved aggressively and even sadistically toward the prisoners. D) They showed negative after effects that lasted for years. Answer: C Rationale: The participants who acted as guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment behaved aggressively and even sadistically toward the prisoners. 73) To be part of the "in crowd," Zack learns that he should get a certain type of tattoo, dress in the right clothes, agree with the group's attitudes and opinions, and be able to use and understand the "language" of the group. What is the likely source of Zack’s beliefs? A) self-serving biases. B) social norms. C) reciprocity norms. D) groupthink. Answer: B Rationale: Social norms can be broad guidelines or specific standards of conduct. They are the expectations for socially appropriate attitudes and behaviours that are embodied in the explicit or implicit standards of a group. 74) When Corey went on a campus tour with his older brother, he noticed that all of the students seemed to be dressed alike. Which term best explains this phenomenon? A) conformity. B) obedience. C) covariation. D) a demand characteristic. Answer: A Rationale: Conformity is the tendency for people to adopt the behaviours and opinions of other group members. 75) A man has never attended a certain type of religious service before so he looks to others to know what to do and how to act. Which processes underlie this man's conforming behaviour? A) informational influence B) normative influence C) compliance D) demand characteristic Answer: A Rationale: Informational influence processes are activated when we want to be correct and understand the right way to act in a given situation. 76) In a classic experiment by Muzafer Sherif that is described in the textbook, participants were asked to judge the amount of movement in what was actually a stationary spot of light. When the participants were brought into a group and were asked to state their judgments aloud, their estimates began to converge in the direction of the group norms. Which term best reflects this process of influence? A) the autokinetic effect. B) the Pygmalion effect. C) norm crystallization. D) re-education. Answer: C Rationale: Once norms are established in a group, they tend to perpetuate themselves. After they are solidified, norms can be transmitted from one generation of group members to the next. 77) In autokinetic effect studies, researchers will sometimes replace one group member with a new member after each set of trials until all the members are new to the situation. What is the primary purpose of this approach? A) To demonstrate the importance of informational influence. B) To demonstrate the power of normative influence. C) To demonstrate the autokinetic effect. D) To demonstrate the transgenerational influence of norms. Answer: D Rationale: Even when all group members were new, the autokinetic norm remained as it had been in earlier generations of participants. 78) One day, Ed’s grandfather notices that he is reading about Solomon Asch's study of conformity and tells you that he was a participant in the original study. When Ed asks his grandfather how he behaved, he says that he reacted like most of the other participants. How did Ed’s grandfather most likely behave? A) He realized that the other "participants" were actually confederates. B) He conformed on each trial. C) He did not conform to the group pressure. D) He conformed some of the time. Answer: D Rationale: Most participants in Asch’s study conformed some of the time. 79) One juror does not agree that the defendant is guilty "beyond a reasonable doubt." Based on the research of Solomon Asch, under which condition would the juror be less likely to eventually conform to the verdict of the majority? A) If he or she is "doubt-ridden." B) If the juror is a female. C) If one other juror decides the dissenter is right. D) If the evidence clearly supports the majority decision. Answer: C Rationale: Asch found that giving a naive participant even one ally who also dissented from the majority opinion sharply lowered the tendency of the naive participant to conform to the behaviour of the majority. 80) Which term refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone? A) groupthink. B) group polarization. C) cognitive dissonance. D) the covariation principle. Answer: B Rationale: Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone. 81) Based on the research of Irving Janis, which approach should be taken to prevent groupthink from occurring in groups? A) make sure the group is highly cohesive. B) encourage dissent within the group. C) insulate the group from expert opinion. D) rely on a strongly directed leader. Answer: B Rationale: To avoid groupthink, group members must understand that dissent often improves the quality of a group decision, even if it at first detracts from the group's positive feel. 82) If asked about the blind obedience of the Nazis during World War II, how would Stanley Milgram most likely respond? A) "Germans have a militaristic mentality that predisposes them to such blind obedience." B) "People have a tendency to obey others because as children they were socialized to follow rules." C) "Under some circumstances, anyone can behave like the Nazis did during the Second World War." D) "It is quite simply human nature to want to follow orders for the good of the group." Answer: C Rationale: Milgram, a student of Solomon Asch, conducted a series of experiments that showed that blind obedience is less a product of dispositional characteristics than the outcome of powerful situational forces that could engulf anyone. 83) Who were the participants in Stanley Milgram's classic series of experiments on obedience? A) students from Stanford University. B) individuals who scored high on obedience tendencies. C) nurses from the local veterans’ hospital. D) volunteers recruited through newspaper ads. Answer: D Rationale: Milgram used a total of about 1000 participants in 19 separate controlled experiments. Milgram demonstrated that ordinary people—who had no preexisting tendencies toward aggression or violence—would obey orders and continue to deliver shocks. 84) Imagine that Amos is a participant in Stanley Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority. As the experiment progresses, Amos begins to hesitate and protests that he does not want to continue with the experiment. How will the experimenter respond? A) end the study. B) verbally order Amos to continue. C) present a shock to the learner. D) ask Amos to switch places with the learner. Answer: B Rationale: Even when participants were extremely distressed, they were ordered to continue administering shocks. 85) Which statement about most of the participants in Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience is accurate? A) They had few reservations about continuing to give shocks to the learner. B) They had concerns about what they were doing and offered to switch places with the learner. C) They verbally insisted that they could not continue. D) They openly expressed relief that they were not the learner. Answer: C Rationale: Most of the participants in Milgram’s studies of obedience insisted that they could not continue. Although most dissented verbally, the majority did not disobey behaviourally. 86) A man risks his own life to save a little boy from a burning building, even though he was not related to the little boy. From the perspective of a social psychologist, which term best captures this phenomenon? A) demand characteristics. B) altruism. C) reciprocal altruism. D) in-group bias. Answer: B Rationale: Altruism is prosocial behaviour, an act of helping others without regard to personal safety or benefit. 87) When individuals interact with other people, they are likely to find themselves mimicking them in certain ways. What do Chartrand and Bargh label this type of mimicry? A) the altruistic reciprocity effect B) the chameleon effect C) the Barnum effect D) the similarity effect Answer: B Rationale: You may unconsciously mimic your friends’ speech patterns and accents. Chartrand and Bargh suggested that humans automatically adjust their behaviour to blend with the people around them. They speculated that this type of mimicry acts like a “social glue”, by making ourselves more similar to each other. Similarity increases liking. In research studies, participants who were mimicked by confederates, consistently reported liking the confederates better. These studies suggested that the chameleon effect operates outside of conscious awareness. However, if we do so subtly, we can learn to mimic others in order to be more successful in some social situations. 88) In a study that assessed genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in physical and social aggression, researchers collected data on 6-year-old twins. What were the results of the research? A) comparisons between monozygotic and dizygotic twins suggested that 50 to 60 percent of the variation in physical aggression could be explained by genetic factors, whereas 20 percent of social aggression was explained by genetics. B) monozygotic twins consistently were found to be lower on social aggression than dizygotic twins. C) twins are more likely to show antisocial behaviour than non-twins. D) there is no significant relationship between genetics and aggression. Answer: A Rationale: The comparison between MZ and DZ twins suggested that 50 to 60 percent of the variation in physical aggression could be explained by genetic factors. For social aggression, 20 percent of the variation was explained by genetics. 89) Although normally a passive person, a man became involved in a fistfight with a careless driver who almost caused his car to crash. Which type of aggression is being characterized? A) impulsive B) passive C) innate D) instrumental Answer: A Rationale: Impulsive aggression is produced in reaction to situations and is emotion driven. 90) Which scenario is an example of instrumental aggression? A) The teacher becomes angry at her class and throws an eraser at one child. B) A girl hits a boy because the boy is calling her names. C) A group of adolescents ridicules the least popular student in their class. D) A hockey player injures an opponent so that his own team will win the game. Answer: D Rationale: Instrumental aggression refers to aggressive acts that are goal directed and cognition based. People carry out premeditated acts of aggression (injuring the opponent) to achieve a specific goal (winning the game). 91) Researchers have searched for a relationship between personality and aggression. What have they discovered? A) there is a negative correlation between aggression and personality type. B) individuals with a propensity for impulsive aggression score high on measures of emotional responsivity. C) individuals with a propensity for instrumental aggression score high on measures of emotional responsivity. D) personality is related to instrumental aggression, but it is not related to impulsive aggression. Answer: B Rationale: They are, in general, likely to report highly emotional responses to a range of situations. 92) An individual believes that some forms of violence are justified and that morality has very little to do with whether a person does or does not engage in violence. On which factor would this individual likely receive a high score? A) negative evaluation of violence. B) positive evaluation of violence. C) negative emotional responsivity. D) positive emotional responsivity. Answer: B Rationale: People who report a tendency toward instrumental aggression also score high on positive evaluation of aggression. They do not accept moral responsibility for aggressive behaviours and they believe many types of violence are justified. 93) What does the frustration-aggression hypothesis state? A) aggression that is directed toward others is frustrating. B) people become frustrated when others act aggressively toward them. C) the more a person expresses frustration, the less aggressive he or she becomes. D) aggression is caused by frustration. Answer: D Rationale: Frustration occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining their goals. The resulting frustration increases the chances that aggression will occur. 94) Mary Ann comes home after a stressful day at work and is looking forward to relaxing in her apartment's indoor heated pool. When she arrives for her swim, she finds out that the pool is closed for repairs. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, how is Mary Ann likely to respond? A) feel frustration and show a higher probability of aggression. B) feel frustration and show a lower probability of aggression. C) feel either frustration or aggression, but not both. D) behave aggressively, which will make her feel frustrated. Answer: A Rationale: The link between frustration and aggression has empirical support. When we are blocked from reaching our goals, the chances that verbal or behavioural aggression will occur increase. 95) What has the research on the relationship between frustration and aggression led theorists to conclude? A) frustration always leads to aggression. B) frustration does not always lead to aggression. C) negative emotional states will not lead to aggression unless goals are frustrated. D) frustration leads to depression, which subsequently leads to aggression. Answer: B Rationale: There are many situations in which we feel sufficiently frustrated to act aggressively, but we recognize that the expression of aggression works against our long-term best interests. 96) A student in the library repeatedly asked two women who were having a conversation to be quiet. When they seemed to intentionally start speaking more loudly, he threatened them. In the context of aggression, what does the women's behaviour most directly exemplify? A) altruism. B) escalation. C) direct provocation. D) instrumental aggression. Answer: C Rationale: When someone behaves in a way that makes us angry or upset, we are more likely to react with some form of verbal or behavioural aggression, especially if we think that the behaviour of the other person was intentional. 97) In a study that is described in the textbook, college undergraduates played either violent or nonviolent video games for 20 minutes. They were then asked to read incomplete stories and predict what would happen next. What were the results of the study? A) those who played the violent video games were more likely to refuse to predict story endings. B) those who played the violent video games consistently gave more aggressive outcomes for the stories. C) those who played the violent video games consistently gave less aggressive outcomes for the stories, showing that the game playing acted as a "catharsis." D) there were no differences between the groups with respect to the story outcomes. Answer: B Rationale: The general aggression model suggests that through experiences with media violence, people acquire a set of knowledge structures. Each violent episode, such as a violent video game, is just one more chance to learn that the world is a dangerous place and that aggression is an appropriate way to deal with conflict. 98) A social psychologist is designing a study of altruism. What would be the most likely dependent variable? A) persuasion. B) helping behaviour. C) aggression. D) frustration-aggression. Answer: B Rationale: Altruism is helping behaviour that benefits others. It is behaviour undertaken without regard to one's personal safety or benefit. 99) From an evolutionary perspective, which statement about altruistic behaviour is accurate? A) It is primarily a learned behaviour. B) It is a part of the self-actualization process. C) It is partly dependent on genetic transmission. D) It is determined by situational forces. Answer: C Rationale: Altruistic behaviour among family members ensures that the family's gene pool survives even if the individual imperils his or her own survival. Reciprocal altruism means that even with non-kin, we will tend to be altruistic because we expect altruistic behaviour in return, thus indirectly affecting the survival of the gene pool. 100) A man gives his best friend some money knowing that his best friend may help him out with money at some later time. How would Daniel Batson most likely categorize the man's helping behaviour? A) altruism. B) egoism. C) collectivism. D) conventionalism. Answer: B Rationale: We perform helping behaviours to receive similar favours in return, or to receive a reward such as money or praise. 101) What prompted researchers to investigate the willingness to help strangers in distress? A) research on the bystander intervention effect. B) newspaper reports of an assault and murder of a woman. C) the discovery of an altruism gene. D) the finding of altruistic behaviour in various animal species. Answer: B Rationale: Research on people’s willingness to help strangers in distress was inspired by the murder of Kitty Genovese, who was murdered in the presence of bystanders who didn’t help. 102) What approach did Bibb Latané and John Darley take to explore the circumstances under which people will or will not help in emergencies? A) recreating emergency situations in the downtown section of a major city. B) interviewing people who had been involved in emergencies and natural disasters. C) talking with emergency personnel including police officers and firefighters. D) creating a laboratory analogue of an emergency situation. Answer: D Rationale: Latané and Darley created a laboratory analogue of an emergency situation to study the circumstances under which people will or will not help in emergencies. 103) Attribution theory originated in the writings of Fritz Heider, who argued that people are intuitive psychologists who try to figure out what people are like and what causes their behaviour. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Fritz Heider indeed proposed attribution theory, suggesting that individuals naturally attempt to understand the behavior of others by attributing causes to their actions, whether internal (dispositional) or external (situational). 104) Distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus are three components of the fundamental attribution error. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: While distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus are components of attribution theory, they are not specifically associated with the fundamental attribution error. The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal factors while underestimating situational influences. 105) In our attempts to understand what causes behaviour, the tendency to explain behaviour by making situational attributions is so strong that it is called the fundamental attribution error. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The fundamental attribution error involves the tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors rather than situational ones. It implies a bias toward dispositional attributions rather than situational ones. 106) In a classic study by Robert Rosenthal and Leonore Jacobson, teacher expectations were shown to affect students' IQ scores. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Rosenthal and Jacobson conducted the Pygmalion in the Classroom study, which demonstrated that teacher expectations could influence students' academic performance, including their IQ scores. 107) Someone's expectations about another person may actually influence the second person to behave in ways that confirm the original hypothesis. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This phenomenon is known as the self-fulfilling prophecy, where one person's beliefs or expectations about another can lead to behaviors that align with those expectations. 108) It is possible that you may not be consciously aware of some of the attitudes you hold. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Attitudes can be implicit or unconscious, meaning individuals may not always be fully aware of their attitudes or the factors influencing them. 109) Attitudes are better predictors of behaviour when the attitudes remain stable over time. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Consistency in attitudes over time increases their predictive power for behavior, as stable attitudes are more likely to guide consistent behavior. 110) With respect to persuasion, the central route represents circumstances in which people do not focus critically on the message, but respond to superficial cues in the situation. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The central route to persuasion involves careful consideration and critical evaluation of the arguments presented in a message rather than relying on superficial cues. It's the peripheral route that involves responding to such cues. 111) People who have an interdependent concept of the self are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance than people who have an independent self-concept. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Individuals with an independent self-concept are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance because their attitudes and behaviors are more closely tied to their self-concept, leading to greater discomfort when inconsistencies arise. 112) When people say "no" to a large request, they will often say "yes" to a smaller request. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: This phenomenon is known as the foot-in-the-door technique, where compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request. 113) If a salesperson can get you to commit to some small request, it is more likely that you will also agree to a large request. This phenomenon is known as the "door-in-the-face" technique. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The statement describes the foot-in-the-door technique, where compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request. The door-in-the-face technique involves making a large initial request followed by a smaller one, which often results in compliance with the smaller request. 114) Prejudice is defined as a learned attitude toward a target group that involves negative feelings, negative beliefs that justify the attitude, and behavioral intentions to avoid, control, dominate, or eliminate those in the target group. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Prejudice indeed encompasses negative attitudes, beliefs, and intentions towards a particular group, often stemming from learned social influences and experiences. 115) When you evaluate the group you belong to as better than others, you are demonstrating what is called an in-group bias. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: In-group bias refers to the tendency to favor one's own group over others, often leading to the belief that one's group is superior. This bias is a common phenomenon observed in social psychology. 116) A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Stereotypes involve oversimplified beliefs or assumptions about individuals based on their membership in a particular group, often ignoring the diversity within that group and attributing the same characteristics to all members. 117) According to the concept of stereotype threat, people show a strong tendency to feel threatened by minorities, especially when resources are limited. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Stereotype threat refers to the concern or fear individuals may experience about confirming negative stereotypes about their social group, which can affect their performance in situations where the stereotype is relevant. It is not about feeling threatened by minorities per se, but rather by the stereotype itself. 118) The classic "Robbers Cave" experiment of Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues supported the idea that simple contact between hostile groups alone will reduce prejudice. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The "Robbers Cave" experiment actually highlighted that mere contact between hostile groups may not be sufficient to reduce prejudice. Instead, meaningful and cooperative interaction, especially in pursuit of shared goals, is necessary to reduce intergroup hostility. 119) There is a general tendency for people to like objects and people just by virtue of mere exposure; the more they are exposed to something or someone, the more they like it. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The mere exposure effect is a well-documented phenomenon in psychology, demonstrating that repeated exposure to stimuli tends to increase liking or preference for those stimuli, whether they are objects, people, or ideas. 120) Researchers have found little support for the old adage that "birds of a feather flock together." In fact, people with different attitudes and beliefs are more likely to develop longlasting relationships. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Research generally supports the idea that similarity in attitudes, values, and beliefs contributes to the formation and maintenance of relationships. While some level of complementarity may exist, overall similarity tends to be a stronger predictor of relationship satisfaction and longevity. 121) Theorists have suggested that people's conceptualizations of love cluster into three dimensions—passion, intimacy, and commitment. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love posits that love is comprised of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment. These dimensions provide a framework for understanding different types of love and how they manifest in relationships. 122) Despite its importance in the area of child development, the concept of adult attachment style has not shown itself to be especially valuable as a predictor of adult relationships. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Adult attachment styles, such as secure, anxious, or avoidant, have been extensively studied and shown to be significant predictors of various aspects of adult relationships, including relationship satisfaction, communication patterns, and conflict resolution strategies. 123) Social roles are patterns of behavior that are expected of a person who is functioning in a given setting or group. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Social roles refer to the behaviors, obligations, and expectations associated with a particular position or status within a group or society. These roles guide individuals' behavior and interactions within social contexts. 124) A sign in a restaurant says, "Turn Off All Cellphones." This is an example of an implicit rule. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The sign in the restaurant explicitly states a rule, instructing patrons to turn off their cellphones. Implicit rules are rules that are not explicitly stated but are understood through context or societal norms. 125) Despite the predictions of experts, a majority of the participants in Stanley Milgram's research on obedience dissented verbally, but did not disobey the authority. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: In Milgram's obedience experiments, many participants expressed discomfort or dissent verbally but ultimately continued to obey the authority figure's commands, demonstrating the power of obedience even in the face of moral objections. 126) Stanley Milgram's classic research on obedience demonstrated quite conclusively that blind obedience is more a product of dispositional personality characteristics than it is of the situational forces with which one is faced. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Milgram's research highlighted the significant influence of situational factors, such as the presence of authority figures and social pressure, in eliciting obedience. The findings emphasized the importance of situational context in shaping behavior, rather than solely relying on dispositional personality traits. 127) The study of altruism concerns the prosocial behaviors a person carries out without consideration for his or her own safety or interests. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Altruism refers to selfless acts performed to benefit others without expecting anything in return, even at potential risk or cost to oneself. It involves genuine concern for the well-being of others, regardless of personal gain. 128) Researchers have developed the general aggression model to explain the relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior. In general, they have found that young adults who play violent video games do not exhibit aggressive behaviors or aggression-related thoughts and feelings at any greater level than their peers who do not play them. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Research on the general aggression model suggests that exposure to media violence, including violent video games, can increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. While not all individuals who play violent video games will exhibit increased aggression, the overall findings indicate a significant correlation between media violence exposure and aggression. 129) According to the concept of diffusion of responsibility, if you find yourself in need of help in an emergency, you are more likely to receive help if many bystanders are present. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The concept of diffusion of responsibility suggests that individuals are less likely to take action in emergencies when others are present, as responsibility for helping is perceived to be shared among the bystanders. Therefore, the presence of many bystanders can actually decrease the likelihood of receiving help in an emergency. 130) According to the __________ principle, people should attribute a behaviour to a causal factor if that factor is present whenever the behaviour occurs, but is absent whenever the behaviour does not occur. Answer: covariation Rationale: The covariation principle, proposed by Kelley in his attribution theory, suggests that individuals tend to attribute behavior to factors that are present when the behavior occurs (covariation), and absent when it does not. This principle helps people make causal attributions based on the consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the observed behavior in various situations. 131) People tend to take credit for their successes while denying or explaining away responsibility for their failures, a phenomenon known as the __________ bias. Answer: self-serving Rationale: The self-serving bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to attribute positive outcomes to their own internal factors, such as abilities or efforts, while attributing negative outcomes to external factors, such as luck or situational influences. This bias serves to protect selfesteem and maintain a positive self-image. 132) When a prediction is made about some future behaviour or event, it may modify behavioural interactions so as to produce what is expected. This is known as a(n) __________ . Answer: self-fulfilling prophecy Rationale: A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when an expectation or prediction about a future event influences an individual's behavior in such a way that it causes that prediction to come true. This phenomenon often happens because people alter their actions based on the expectation, thereby inadvertently bringing about the predicted outcome. 133) The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion distinguishes between __________ and __________ routes to persuasion. Answer: central; peripheral Rationale: The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) proposes two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves careful consideration of the arguments presented in a message, relying on logic and reasoning. In contrast, the peripheral route involves being persuaded by peripheral cues such as attractiveness of the speaker, emotional appeals, or superficial characteristics of the message. 134) You have taken some action and now are in a state of conflict because your behaviour was contrary to your beliefs, feelings, and values. Leon Festinger would say that you are experiencing __________. Answer: cognitive dissonance Rationale: Cognitive dissonance theory, developed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals experience psychological discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. In this scenario, the discomfort arises from the inconsistency between the individual's behavior and their internal beliefs or values, leading to a state of cognitive dissonance. 135) According to Daryl Bem's __________ theory, people observe themselves to figure out the reasons they act as they do, inferring internal states from perceptions of how they act in given situations. Answer: self-perception Rationale: Daryl Bem's self-perception theory suggests that individuals infer their own attitudes and internal states by observing their own behavior, particularly in situations where their attitudes or motivations are unclear or ambiguous. 136) One of the rules that dominates human behaviour is that when someone does something for you, you should do something for that person as well. This is called the __________. Answer: reciprocity norm Rationale: The reciprocity norm is a social norm that suggests individuals should reciprocate favors or actions done for them by others. It creates a sense of obligation to repay kindness or assistance, leading to reciprocal exchanges and cooperative behaviors. 137) The Robber's Cave experiment provided evidence for the __________, showing that cooperative action and shared goals combat prejudice, whereas just being in each other's company does not. Answer: contact hypothesis Rationale: The contact hypothesis proposes that intergroup contact under certain conditions can reduce prejudice between conflicting groups. The Robber's Cave experiment demonstrated that cooperative activities and shared goals between groups can lead to improved intergroup relations, supporting the effectiveness of contact in reducing prejudice. 138) The tendency for people to adopt the behaviors and opinions of other group members is called __________. Answer: conformity Rationale: Conformity refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to align with those of a group, often due to social pressure or the desire for social approval or acceptance. 139) __________ is the tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that are made by members acting alone. Answer: Group polarization Rationale: Group polarization occurs when members of a group, through discussion and interaction, tend to adopt more extreme positions or attitudes than they initially held individually. This phenomenon is often driven by the reinforcement of shared beliefs and the desire to differentiate oneself from others within the group. 140) Irving Janis coined the term __________ for the tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached, especially if it is in line with the leader's viewpoint. Answer: groupthink Rationale: Groupthink is a phenomenon observed in group decision-making where members prioritize consensus and harmony over critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints or potential risks. This can lead to flawed decision-making processes and failure to consider all available information, particularly when dissenting opinions are suppressed or discouraged. 141) With respect to the categories of aggressive behaviors, __________ aggression is produced in reaction to situations and is emotion-driven, whereas __________ aggression is goal-directed and cognition-based. Answer: impulsive; instrumental Rationale: Impulsive aggression is characterized by spontaneous, reactive behavior driven by emotional arousal, often in response to perceived threats or provocations. In contrast, instrumental aggression is purposeful and goal-directed, serving to achieve a specific objective or outcome, often with careful planning and consideration of consequences. 142) According to the __________ hypothesis, when people have been prevented or blocked from attaining their goals, frustration occurs. A rise in frustration then leads to a greater probability of __________. Answer: frustration-aggression; aggression Rationale: The frustration-aggression hypothesis posits that frustration resulting from the blocking of goals or desires can lead to aggression as a means of reducing or venting that frustration. This aggression may be directed toward the source of frustration or displaced onto other targets. 143) One of the most important inferential tasks facing people is to determine the causes of events. How have psychologists approached the attributional process? How do explanations of outcomes that occur to one compare to explanations of outcomes that occur to others? Are these explanations common to all cultures? Finally, describe how psychologists have studied self-fulfilling prophecies. Answer: Attribution theory started with the work of Fritz Heider. Harold Kelley formalized Heider's work and specified three dimensions of information that people use to explain situations and behaviours—distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Bias may be a part of the attributions we make. Discuss the fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias, expectations, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Discuss independent construals of self and interdependent construals of self as they relate to culture. 144) Suppose you have decided to take on the less-than-enthusiastic attitudes of people in your neighbourhood about recycling. Describe what you will do to change their attitudes and behaviours, and be sure to include the processes of persuasion, the role of dissonance, and the various techniques that you might use to gain compliance. Compare your approach to various approaches taken by salespeople. Answer: An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, and ideas. Elements of cognitive, behavioural, and affective information give rise to attitudes. Attitudes may not always be accurate indicators of how people behave. Persuasion involves deliberate efforts to change attitudes. The elaboration likelihood model distinguishes between peripheral and central routes to persuasion. Cognitive dissonance causes distress because of differences between our perceived attitudes and the actions we have taken. Use examples of studies (such as the Festinger and Carlsmith study) that demonstrate change of attitude as a result of dissonance. Discuss compliance, the reciprocity norm, and actions such as the foot-in-thedoor technique used by salespeople to foster commitment. 145) What progress have social psychologists made in their efforts to understand the origins and effects of prejudice? What have we learned about the ways to reverse the effects of prejudice? Answer: Discuss social categorization or in-groups and out-groups, as well as the in-group bias. Present evidence that shows how information alone can typically not reduce prejudice. Finally, the work of Sherif and colleagues shows how cooperative action on shared goals between two groups can reduce hostility between the groups. 146) Have you ever been in "like?" Have you ever been in "love?" What are the factors that determine the attraction that one person has for another, and how does liking compare to loving? What are the factors that allow relationships to last? How do different cultures view love? Answer: There are a variety of answers to these questions of interpersonal attraction. Mere exposure suggests that we like the people who are nearby. Physical attraction also plays a role in developing friendships, as do similarity of beliefs, attitudes and values, and reciprocity. Love starts in many of the same ways. Conceptualizations of love cluster into three dimensions—passion, intimacy, and commitment. People seem to have different styles of adult attachments and different abilities to sustain relationships. Members of cultures that stress independence may put much more emphasis on love and may be much more demanding of their marriage partners than those that stress interdependence. 147) In a psychology class, one student has been asked to argue in favour of a genetic basis for aggression, while another has been charged with identifying how environmental forces, such as situations, affect aggressive behaviour. What research should the students use to support their respective perspectives? Answer: Aggression involves peoples' behaviours that cause psychological or physical harm to others. Some people are consistently more aggressive than others. Discuss studies that demonstrate strong genetic components of aggression and differences in brain function in those who are aggressive. Impulsive and instrumental aggression can be seen in extreme reactions, though most people do not act in extreme ways. Mention the impact of a positive evaluation of violence. Situations may raise frustration and conflict, resulting in an interaction between societal and individual forces in producing aggression. Exposure to violence may have an effect on behaviour. 148) Discuss the power of situations to influence people, as illustrated by The Stanford Prison Experiment and Milgram’s obedience study. How does the fundamental attribution error apply? What effect does an authority figure have on the situation and people's responses? Why do we obey orders when we would not predict that response? What does this teach us about negative events of the world that, on the surface, are very hard to understand? Answer: Historically, we have thought that most of what we do comes from within us, from our genetics and our character. These experiments illustrate the power of social contexts to influence our behaviours. We tend to overestimate internal characteristics and underestimate external ones when trying to understand the behaviours of people, and we pay too little attention to the powerful influences of the situation. 149) What is conformity, and how has it been studied in the lab? What are two types of forces that may lead to conformity? What factors decrease the likelihood that someone will conform? Answer: Conformity is the tendency for people to adopt the behaviour and opinions presented by other group members. Asch studied it in the lab by having different numbers of confederates and one participant judge the length of a line. Informational and normative influences are two types of forces that may lead to conformity. Conformity is affected by the number of confederates and the presence of a dissenter. 150) After reading an account of a man who runs inside a burning building to rescue two strangers who have succumbed to the smoke, a friend wonders out loud what compels people to risk their lives for the sake of others. Having overheard him, you decide to explain some possible reasons why people engage in such behaviour. Be certain to clearly define altruism and explain its roots. Discuss how psychologists explain altruistic behaviour toward kin and non-kin. Explain how bystander intervention has been studied in the laboratory, and what has been learned about the effects that the situation has on helping behaviour. Answer: C. Daniel Batson suggests that there are four forces that prompt people to act for the public good—altruism, egoism, collectivism, principlism. There are many things that influence altruism, including the fact that we seem to be more willing to be altruistic toward some kin (relatives) than toward other kin. We also act altruistically toward complete strangers at times. The bystander effect is influenced by aspects of the situation, such as the numbers of people who potentially could take responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when more than one person is potentially available to help. Directly asking for help can forge a bond between the victim and a bystander that helps overcome diffusion of responsibility. 1) An influential attribution theory was developed by ________. A) Snyder B) Luchins C) Kelley D) Milgram Answer: C Rationale: Kelley is credited with developing attribution theory, which focuses on how individuals explain the causes of behavior. His work has been highly influential in understanding the processes behind attributions. 2) The tendency to give too much emphasis to personal factors when accounting for other people’s actions is called __________. A) the primacy effect B) defensive attribution C) fundamental attribution error D) the just world hypothesis Answer: C Rationale: The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute others' actions to internal factors, such as personality traits, while underestimating the influence of situational factors. This phenomenon leads individuals to overemphasize personal factors when explaining others' behaviors. 3) The fundamental attribution error is based on the: A) confirmatory bias. B) need to believe that one can control one’s fate. C) basic distrust that we have of other humans. D) need to accurately detect causes of behaviour. Answer: D Rationale: The fundamental attribution error stems from the need to accurately detect the causes of behavior. It reflects the tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors rather than considering situational influences. 4) What is the tendency to make internal attributions when we succeed and external attributions when we fail? A) self-attribution error B) fundamental attribution error C) self-serving bias D) actor-observer bias Answer: C Rationale: The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute success to internal factors (e.g., ability or effort) while attributing failure to external factors (e.g., bad luck or situational factors). This bias serves to protect one's self-esteem. 5) Research has indicated that when we set the stage for the self-fulfilling prophecy, we are __________ that behaviour. A) observing B) criticizing C) guiding D) evaluating Answer: C Rationale: When individuals set the stage for the self-fulfilling prophecy, they actively guide behavior in a way that aligns with their expectations, ultimately influencing the outcome to conform to those expectations. 6) The theory that addresses the question of how people make judgments about the causes of behaviour is __________ theory. A) exchange B) social-learning C) attribution D) social influence Answer: C Rationale: Attribution theory focuses on how individuals make judgments about the causes of behavior, particularly whether they attribute behavior to internal dispositions or external circumstances. 7) Inferring characteristics of people based on their observable behaviour is called ___________. A) social psychology B) attribution C) attitudes D) personality psychology Answer: B Rationale: Attribution involves inferring characteristics or traits of individuals based on their observable behavior. It is distinct from social psychology, attitudes, and personality psychology. 8) The cognitive process of deciding who or what caused an event is: A) attribution. B) balance theory. C) cognitive dissonance. D) confirmation bias. Answer: A Rationale: Attribution involves the cognitive process of determining the causes of events, behaviors, or outcomes. It focuses on identifying whether these causes are internal (personal characteristics) or external (situational factors). 9) The fundamental attribution error refers to: A) people’s tendencies to ignore situational causes of behavior and favor internal explanations. B) people’s tendencies to ignore internal causes of behavior and favor external explanations. C) people’s tendencies to deal with someone else’s behavior without trying to figure out what made them behave that way. D) people’s tendencies to go along with the majority opinion in deciding what caused an event rather than reasoning it out for themselves. Answer: A Rationale: The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors while overlooking situational influences. This bias leads individuals to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate the impact of external circumstances. 10) The tendency to base attributions solely on behavior without considering the situation is called: A) projection. B) behavioral relevance. C) fundamental attribution error. D) hedonic relevance. Answer: C Rationale: The fundamental attribution error involves attributing behavior solely to internal factors while neglecting the situational context. This tendency leads individuals to make inaccurate judgments about the causes of behavior. 11) What is the process of explaining why certain events occurred or why a particular person acted in a certain manner? A) attribution B) causality analysis C) ascribing D) stereotyping Answer: A Rationale: Attribution involves the process of explaining the causes of events or behaviors, including why a person acted in a certain way or why specific events occurred. 12) Learned, relatively enduring feelings about objects, events, or issues are called ___________. A) norms B) opinions C) attitudes D) emotions Answer: C Rationale: Attitudes refer to learned and relatively enduring evaluations or feelings about objects, events, or issues. They influence how individuals perceive and respond to their environment. 13) The media are a powerful influence on our attitudes because they are frequently _____________. A) rejecting B) our only source of information about certain things C) with us from birth D) entertaining Answer: B Rationale: The media often serve as a primary source of information, shaping individuals' attitudes and beliefs, especially when they lack alternative sources of information on certain topics. 14) A model used to understand how attitudes are changed is ___________. A) cognitive dissonance B) the elaboration likelihood model C) attribution rationalization D) information processing Answer: B Rationale: The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a theoretical framework used to understand how attitudes are formed and changed. It describes two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. 15) Which of the following is NOT one of the four categories of factors that can influence the effectiveness of attempts to change people’s attitudes? A) the communicator B) the audience C) the motive D) the message itself Answer: C Rationale: The four categories of factors that can influence the effectiveness of attempts to change attitudes include the communicator, the audience, the message itself, and the medium or channel through which the message is delivered. "The motive" is not typically considered as one of these factors. 16) A relatively stable organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavior tendencies toward something or someone else is a(n) __________. A) affect B) cognition C) archetype D) attitude Answer: D Rationale: An attitude is a relatively stable organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies directed toward specific objects, people, or events. 17) Bill thinks that drug use is bad, but he has friends who use illicit drugs and he sometimes gets high himself. Socializing with drug users and using drugs himself illustrate which component of attitude? A) evaluation B) action C) belief D) moral Answer: B Rationale: Bill's actions of socializing with drug users and occasionally using drugs himself demonstrate the behavioral component of his attitude toward drug use. 18) The theory of _______ attempts to explain what happens when people behave in ways that are contrary to their beliefs or attitudes. A) social comparison B) cognitive dissonance C) opponent processes D) social exchange Answer: B Rationale: The theory of cognitive dissonance attempts to explain the discomfort experienced when individuals behave in ways that are inconsistent with their beliefs or attitudes. This discomfort motivates them to seek consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. 19) Research studying attitude change has focused on all of the following factors EXCEPT: A) the communicator. B) the message. C) the context. D) the audience. Answer: C Rationale: Research on attitude change typically considers factors such as the communicator, the message, the audience, and the context in which the message is delivered. However, the context itself is not a focal point of study in this context. 20) Factors that determine the effect of a communicator include: A) credibility. B) similarity. C) trustworthiness. D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: The effectiveness of a communicator in influencing attitudes can be determined by factors such as credibility, similarity to the audience, and perceived trustworthiness. Therefore, all of the options listed are factors that can influence the effect of a communicator. 21) Whenever a person has two contradictory cognitions at the same time, a state of ___________ exists. A) cognitive congruence B) nonreciprocity C) cognitive dissonance D) identity diffusion Answer: C Rationale: Cognitive dissonance occurs when individuals experience discomfort due to holding contradictory beliefs or attitudes simultaneously, leading them to seek resolution or consistency. 22) What theory was advanced by Festinger? A) balance B) cognitive heuristic C) cognitive dissonance D) confirmation bias Answer: C Rationale: Festinger advanced the theory of cognitive dissonance, which posits that individuals experience discomfort when their beliefs and behaviors are incongruent. 23) According to Festinger, the feeling of discomfort that results from the realization that our beliefs and our behaviors are discrepant is called: A) attribution. B) balance theory. C) cognitive dissonance. D) confirmation bias. Answer: C Rationale: Festinger termed the feeling of discomfort resulting from inconsistent beliefs and behaviors as cognitive dissonance, a central concept in his theory. 24) To relieve dissonance, people will try to change _______, so that attitudes, beliefs, and behavior will once again support one another. A) the subject B) their cognitions C) their values D) their actions Answer: B Rationale: When experiencing cognitive dissonance, individuals typically seek to alleviate the discomfort by changing their cognitions, beliefs, or attitudes to restore consistency with their behaviors. 25) Even though Jane thought it was wrong to take from others, she didn’t want to be rejected by her peers, so she began shoplifting along with them. Jane probably experienced ___________ when she stole. A) the fundamental attribution error B) reactance C) central route change D) cognitive dissonance Answer: D Rationale: Jane likely experienced cognitive dissonance when she stole, as her behavior conflicted with her belief that stealing is wrong, resulting in psychological discomfort. 26) Getting a person to make a small commitment in order to get that person to make a larger commitment later is known as: A) the door-in-the-face technique. B) the foot-in-the-door technique. C) the sleeper effect method. D) the supersales technique. Answer: B Rationale: The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting someone to agree to a small request initially, making it more likely for them to agree to a larger request later on. 27) Any group of people who feel a sense of solidarity and exclusivity in relation to nonmembers is __________. A) an in-group B) a dominance hierarchy C) an out-group D) a support group Answer: A Rationale: An in-group refers to a group of individuals who share a sense of belonging and identity, often characterized by solidarity and exclusivity compared to nonmembers. 28) Which of the following statements about prejudice and discrimination is NOT true? A) Discrimination often leads to aggressive behaviour. B) They are formed from facts and personal experience. C) They are practiced even if it hurts the person practicing them. D) The targets of prejudice often take on prejudicial attitudes. Answer: B Rationale: Prejudice and discrimination are not necessarily formed solely from facts and personal experiences; they can also stem from societal influences, stereotypes, and biased attitudes. 29) Which of the following is a negative, often aggressive behaviour aimed at the target of prejudice? A) stereotypes B) bias C) discrimination D) reactance Answer: C Rationale: Discrimination refers to negative or unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on prejudice, often manifesting as hostile or aggressive behavior toward the target group. 30) According to research, prejudice is reduced when people must: A) come into contact with one another. B) change their attitudes and behaviors. C) cooperate with one another to achieve a goal. D) live together. Answer: C Rationale: Research suggests that prejudice is reduced when individuals from different groups must cooperate to achieve common goals, fostering positive intergroup relations and reducing intergroup bias. 31) Prejudice differs from discrimination in that it is: A) unjustified. B) a behavior. C) an attitude. D) negative. Answer: C Rationale: Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or beliefs held about individuals or groups based on stereotypes, while discrimination involves unfair treatment or actions directed toward individuals or groups based on those prejudices. 32) Discrimination differs from prejudice in that it is: A) unjustified. B) a behavior. C) an attitude. D) negative. Answer: B Rationale: Discrimination involves the actual behavior or actions directed toward individuals or groups based on prejudices or stereotypes, whereas prejudice refers to negative attitudes or beliefs. 33) Oversimplified generalizations about the characteristics of a group are called: A) prejudices. B) stereotypes. C) biases. D) discrimination. Answer: B Rationale: Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations or beliefs about the characteristics of a particular group, often based on assumptions or limited information. 34) __________ puts people into categories, with each category having its own set of characteristics. A) Stereotyping B) Prejudice C) Discrimination D) Bias Answer: A Rationale: Stereotyping involves categorizing individuals into groups based on perceived similarities, with each group thought to possess specific characteristics or traits. 35) Which of the following phenomena usually involves an excessively negative, overgeneralized assumption about a socially defined category of people? A) self-fulfilling prophecy B) confirmation bias C) attitude D) stereotype Answer: D Rationale: Stereotypes involve overgeneralized assumptions or beliefs about a particular group of people, often characterized by negativity or prejudice. 36) The notion that “mental patients are dangerous” is an example of a(n): A) self-fulfilling prophecy B) confirmation bias C) attitude D) stereotype Answer: D Rationale: This statement reflects a stereotype, as it presents an overly simplistic and negative assumption about individuals categorized as "mental patients." 37) Stereotypes can easily become the basis for ________. A) primary drives B) negating the primacy effect C) self-fulfilling prophecies D) the development of unifying traits Answer: C Rationale: Stereotypes can influence individuals' perceptions and behavior, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies where individuals conform to the stereotypes assigned to their group. 38) How are proximity to others and the establishment of friendships related? A) not related B) inversely correlated C) negatively related D) positively related Answer: D Rationale: Proximity to others often facilitates the establishment of friendships, as physical closeness increases opportunities for interaction and the development of social bonds. Therefore, proximity and friendship establishment are positively related. 39) The adage “Birds of a feather flock together” pertains most directly to the _______ factor in liking. A) propinquity B) numerosity C) similarity D) reciprocity Answer: C Rationale: The adage "Birds of a feather flock together" suggests that people are attracted to others who are similar to them. This pertains directly to the similarity factor in liking, as individuals are more likely to form relationships with those who share similar attitudes, values, interests, and backgrounds. 40) The most important factor in attraction is ________. A) proximity B) similarity C) attractiveness D) reciprocity Answer: A Rationale: Proximity, or physical closeness, is often considered the most important factor in attraction because it increases opportunities for interaction and the development of relationships. Proximity can lead to familiarity, which in turn enhances liking and attraction. 41) Studies on similarity and attractiveness have found that ___________. A) the more similar two people are, the stronger the attraction between them, up to a point B) similarity appears to be unrelated to attraction C) complementarity is a more powerful influence on attraction than similarity D) the more similar two people are, the weaker the attraction between them, due to boredom Answer: A Rationale: Research on similarity and attractiveness suggests that, generally, the more similar two people are, the stronger the attraction between them, up to a certain point. This indicates that similarity plays a significant role in attraction, as individuals are often drawn to those who share common characteristics, interests, and values. 42) Asch (1951) used __________ to study informational conformity. A) the “autokinetic effect” B) the latency of response C) social loafing in a tug-of-war group D) line lengths Answer: D Rationale: Asch's (1951) famous conformity experiments involved participants judging the lengths of lines. Participants were influenced by the incorrect judgments of others in the group, demonstrating the phenomenon of informational conformity. 43) Giving in to indirect pressure to change your behavior and thoughts is called: A) conformity. B) compliance. C) obedience. D) persuasion. Answer: A Rationale: Conformity involves yielding to indirect pressure from others to change one's behavior or thoughts in order to fit in with a group or adhere to social norms. 44) To conform is to yield to __________. A) social norms B) cognitive dissonance C) secondary processes D) response cues Answer: A Rationale: Conforming involves yielding to social norms or the expectations of a group, often resulting in individuals behaving in ways that are consistent with group standards or expectations. 45) Informational influence is motivated by the desire to be ________. A) fun B) correct C) approved by the social group D) in touch with your social environment Answer: B Rationale: Informational influence occurs when individuals conform to the behavior or opinions of others because they believe others are correct or have more accurate information. This type of conformity is motivated by the desire to be correct or accurate. 46) Normative social pressure is based on: A) a group’s power because of informational value. B) a group’s power because of goal achievement. C) a group’s power because of wanting to be accepted. D) a group’s power because of social stability. Answer: C Rationale: Normative social pressure is driven by the desire to be accepted by a group or to conform to social norms in order to avoid rejection or disapproval. 47) Which of the following is a factor influencing conformity? A) the individual B) the group C) the task D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Conformity can be influenced by various factors, including individual characteristics, group dynamics, and the nature of the task or situation. 48) In Asch’s research study on conformity, he found that students conformed to group behaviour: A) only on difficult tasks. B) at least one-third of the time. C) only if they knew the individuals in the group. D) over half of the time. Answer: B Rationale: Asch's research demonstrated that individuals conformed to group behavior in his line judgment task experiments, with participants conforming approximately one-third of the time, on average. 49) The technique used for studying conformity was developed by: A) Festinger. B) Asch. C) Lewin. D) Thorndike. Answer: B Rationale: Solomon Asch developed the technique for studying conformity, which involved participants judging the lengths of lines in the presence of confederates providing incorrect answers. 50) Conformity is greatest when: A) one or two go against the group. B) the task is difficult. C) the task is easy. D) there are more than eight people in a group. Answer: B Rationale: Conformity tends to be greatest when the task is difficult, as individuals may look to others for guidance or rely on social cues when unsure of the correct response. 51) Following direct and explicit orders of a person in authority is called: A) groupthink. B) obedience. C) prejudice. D) deindividualization. Answer: B Rationale: Obedience involves following direct commands or orders from an authority figure, even if those commands go against one's own moral beliefs or judgment. 52) Milgram is known for his research in: A) prejudice. B) groupthink. C) obedience. D) deindividualization. Answer: C Rationale: Stanley Milgram conducted famous experiments on obedience, investigating individuals' willingness to obey authority figures, even when it involved administering potentially harmful electric shocks to others. 53) When Milgram tested the assumption that the subjects blindly obeyed instructions because they were in a “safe” university setting, he found that: A) the setting had no effect on the subjects’ behavior. B) the setting had little effect on the subjects’ behavior. C) subjects applied greater levels of shock in a non-university setting. D) subjects applied much lower levels of shock in a non-university setting. Answer: B Rationale: Milgram found that the setting had some effect on subjects' behavior, as obedience levels were somewhat lower when the experiment was conducted in a less prestigious university setting compared to a laboratory at Yale University. 54) The Milgram obedience study has been criticized on the basis of: A) validity. B) ethics. C) reliability. D) applicability. Answer: B Rationale: The Milgram obedience study has faced ethical criticisms due to the psychological distress experienced by participants and the potential harm caused by believing they were administering real electric shocks to others. 55) Which of the following is NOT a positive outcome of the Milgram obedience study? A) The subjects learned that they would obey an order to hurt another. B) The subjects were glad they had been in the study. C) The results further our knowledge about human behavior. D) The results further our knowledge about the power of orders. Answer: A Rationale: The subjects learning that they would obey orders to hurt others is not a positive outcome of the Milgram obedience study. The study primarily contributed to our understanding of obedience to authority and the influence of situational factors on behavior. 56) Experiments showing the effects of group pressure on conformity were conducted by _______. A) Asch B) Luchins C) Milgram D) Singer Answer: A Rationale: Solomon Asch conducted experiments in the 1950s that demonstrated the effects of group pressure on conformity. These experiments, commonly known as the Asch conformity experiments, are classic studies in social psychology. 57) Asch’s studies showed that conformity to group pressure occurred about ______ of the time. A) 5% B) 35% C) 65% D) 95% Answer: B Rationale: Asch found that participants conformed to incorrect group judgments approximately 35% of the time during his conformity experiments, even when the correct answer was obvious. 58) Asch found that the likelihood of conformity increased with group size until _______ confederates were present. A) three B) four C) five D) six Answer: B Rationale: Asch's experiments showed that the likelihood of conformity increased with the size of the group until there were four confederates present. Beyond four confederates, the effect on conformity did not significantly increase. 59) Conformity tends to be higher when a task is _______. A) easy B) ambiguous C) clearly defined D) illegal Answer: B Rationale: Conformity tends to be higher when a task is ambiguous or uncertain because individuals are more likely to rely on the judgments or behaviors of others when they are unsure of the correct course of action. 60) _______ is a response to pressure exerted by norms that are generally left unstated. A) Conformity B) Compliance C) Obedience D) Deindividualization Answer: A Rationale: Conformity refers to the tendency to adjust one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors in accordance with social norms or group expectations, even when these norms are not explicitly stated. 61) The person who conducted the most well-known research on obedience is _______. A) Asch B) Milgram C) Luchens D) Kelley Answer: B Rationale: Stanley Milgram conducted the famous obedience experiments in the 1960s, which are widely known for their investigation into the willingness of individuals to obey authority figures. 62) In Milgram’s studies, about _____ percent of his subjects administered the entire range of electric shocks. A) 25 B) 45 C) 65 D) 85 Answer: C Rationale: In Milgram's obedience studies, approximately 65% of participants administered the highest level of electric shocks to the "learner," as indicated by the shock generator. 63) Behavior that occurs when we change our actions or attitudes because of real or imagined group pressures is called _____________. A) co-operation B) coercion C) obedience D) conformity Answer: D Rationale: Conformity refers to the adjustment of one's behavior or attitudes in response to real or imagined group pressures or social norms. 64) Rules that govern behavior and apply to all members of a group are called __________. A) roles B) patterns C) laws D) norms Answer: D Rationale: Norms are rules or expectations within a group that govern the behavior of its members and are widely accepted as appropriate or necessary for social functioning. 65) Milgram’s study on obedience has been criticized on the basis of _____________. A) methodological weaknesses B) inability to replicate it C) lack of real-life application D) ethics Answer: D Rationale: Milgram's obedience study has faced ethical criticisms due to the potential psychological harm inflicted on participants, as they were subjected to high levels of stress and discomfort during the experiment. 66) In the famous Milgram experiment on obedience, who received a shock? A) the “learner” B) no one C) the confederate D) the subject Answer: B Rationale: In Milgram's experiment, the "learner" was a confederate who did not actually receive electric shocks; the shocks were simulated. No one received actual shocks in the experiment. 67) Roles are similar to, but different from, norms because they also specify _____________. A) what must be done B) how it should be done C) who must do it D) when it must be done Answer: C Rationale: Roles specify not only what tasks or behaviors must be performed but also who within the group is expected to perform them, distinguishing them from norms, which primarily dictate acceptable behaviors. 68) Early studies indicated that women conformed more than men. Later research has shown that women’s conforming behavior is motivated by their desire to ________. A) be popular B) avoid rejection C) become the group leader D) keep group conflict at a minimum Answer: D Rationale: Research suggests that women's conforming behavior may be influenced by their desire to maintain harmony and minimize conflict within groups, rather than solely by a desire to avoid rejection or be popular. 69) Following orders is referred to as _________ by social psychologists. A) compliance B) conformity C) influence D) obedience Answer: D Rationale: Obedience refers to the act of following orders or commands issued by an authority figure, as observed in Milgram's obedience experiments. 70) Which of the following is an example of obedience, as defined by social psychologists? A) A soldier shoots enemy women and children on orders from his commanding officer. B) People clean their own table in a restaurant that has a sign reading: "Help keep costs down and clean off your table." C) Passengers move to the back of the bus as soon as the driver tells them to. D) Stan has thrown away all of his old ties and bought new ones to “be in style.” Answer: A Rationale: Option A exemplifies obedience, as the soldier is following orders from a commanding officer, even though the action may conflict with personal morals or values. 71) Changing one’s behavior in response to real or perceived social pressures is referred to as _________ by social psychologists. A) compliance B) conformity C) influence D) obedience Answer: B Rationale: Conformity refers to the adjustment of one's behavior or attitudes in response to real or perceived social pressures or group norms. 72) Which of the following is an example of conformity? A) A soldier shoots enemy women and children on orders from his commanding officer. B) A police officer beats a prisoner to force a confession on orders of his commanding officer. C) Passengers move to the back of the bus as soon as the driver tells them to. D) Stan has thrown away all of his old ties and bought new ones to “be in style.” Answer: D Rationale: Option D exemplifies conformity, as Stan changes his behavior (buying new ties) to align with perceived social pressures or norms related to fashion and style. 73) What did Milgram study? A) the authoritarian personality B) bystander apathy C) the effects of watching violence on television D) obedience to authority Answer: D Rationale: Stanley Milgram studied obedience to authority, particularly in his famous obedience experiments conducted in the 1960s. 74) What percentage of subjects in Milgram’s experiment on obedience actually completed the shock series? A) less than 1% B) between 5% and 10% C) about 65% D) about 90% Answer: C Rationale: Approximately 65% of participants in Milgram's obedience experiment administered the maximum level of electric shocks, as instructed by the experimenter. 75) Even though he thought the Canadian Army Reserves’ short hair regulation was silly, Ted really wanted the extra money Reserve duty provided to him, so he kept his hair short. This is an example of: A) conformity. B) reactance. C) private acceptance. D) a role. Answer: A Rationale: Ted's decision to keep his hair short to comply with the military regulations, despite his personal beliefs, is an example of conformity. 76) According to several research studies, conformity will be greatest among people who: A) do not expect future interaction with group members. B) are not strongly attracted to the group. C) feel accepted by the group. D) are not completely confident about their ability. Answer: D Rationale: Conformity tends to be greatest among individuals who are not completely confident about their own judgments or abilities, as they are more likely to rely on the judgments or behaviors of others. 77) Group conformity is greatest when: A) the task is difficult or ambiguous. B) the group is all female. C) males outnumber females. D) the pressure source is categorized into a unit. Answer: A Rationale: Group conformity tends to be highest when the task is difficult or ambiguous, as individuals are more likely to rely on the judgments or behaviors of others in such situations. 78) Following the direct orders of someone in a position of higher authority is called: A) compliance. B) conformity. C) obedience. D) consent. Answer: C Rationale: Obedience involves following direct orders or commands from a person in authority, as observed in Milgram's obedience experiments. 79) __________ found that normal people in normal times will often follow orders to hurt innocent people. A) Solomon Asch B) Kurt Lewin C) Carolyn Sherif D) Stanley Milgram Answer: D Rationale: Stanley Milgram found, through his obedience experiments, that ordinary individuals would often obey authority figures, even when it meant harming others. 80) In the Milgram experiment on obedience, the _________ was a confederate of the experimenter. A) subject B) female subject C) learner D) normal person Answer: C Rationale: In Milgram's obedience experiment, the "learner" was a confederate of the experimenter who pretended to receive electric shocks. 81) In the Milgram experiment on obedience, the dependent variable was the: A) learner’s incorrect responses. B) intensity of shock delivered. C) learner’s screams of pain. D) number of mistakes made by the learner. Answer: B Rationale: The dependent variable in Milgram's obedience experiment was the intensity of the electric shock delivered by the participant, which was measured as an indicator of obedience to authority. 82) Asch had subjects judge the length of straight lines after they heard “fake” subjects consistently give the same incorrect length judgment. Under this kind of social influence, the real subjects conformed to a distorted view of reality on about ______ of the judgment trials. A) 90% B) 1/3 C) 50% D) 2/3 Answer: B Rationale: In Asch's conformity experiments, participants conformed to the incorrect judgments of the confederates approximately one-third of the time, showing the power of social influence on individual judgment. 83) Norms usually do NOT: A) apply only to certain group members. B) apply to all group members. C) exist in unwritten form. D) exist in written form. Answer: A Rationale: Norms typically apply to all group members and are generally unwritten rules or expectations that guide behavior within the group. 84) Even though she thought it was silly, Emily wore pink and green ribbons in her hair as her friends did. This is an example of: A) a group role. B) a group norm. C) conformity. D) obedience. Answer: C Rationale: Emily's decision to wear the ribbons to match her friends, despite personally considering it silly, demonstrates conformity, as she adjusts her behavior to align with the perceived norms or expectations of the group. 85) When a group exerts such strong pressure to conform that it prevents people from expressing critical ideas, the group is suffering from __________. A) groupthink B) polarization C) risky shift D) deindividuation Answer: A Rationale: Groupthink occurs when group cohesion and the desire for consensus override the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action, leading to a suppression of dissenting viewpoints and critical thinking. 86) A very cohesive group, insulated from outside opinion, with a respected leader must make a decision quickly. As it deliberates, this group should be especially aware of the phenomenon called: A) deindividuation. B) social facilitation. C) groupthink. D) group polarization. Answer: C Rationale: In such a scenario, the group should be particularly wary of falling into the trap of groupthink, where the desire for harmony and unanimity within the group may suppress critical evaluation and lead to poor decision-making. 87) According to the text, the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba was a result of ___________. A) a weak leader B) groupthink C) risky shift D) group polarization Answer: B Rationale: The Bay of Pigs invasion is often cited as a classic example of groupthink, as the decisionmaking process was characterized by group members avoiding critical evaluation and failing to consider alternative viewpoints, ultimately leading to a disastrous outcome. 88) Failure to critically evaluate ideas when reaching agreement is called _________. A) group polarization B) social comparison C) groupthink D) deindividuation Answer: C Rationale: Groupthink involves a failure to critically evaluate ideas or decisions in the pursuit of consensus within the group, often leading to poor decision-making outcomes. 89) The major problem associated with groupthink is which of the following? A) There is no leadership during the decision-making process. B) Group polarization occurs. C) Risky shift occurs. D) No critical evaluation occurs. Answer: D Rationale: The major problem associated with groupthink is the lack of critical evaluation and dissent within the group, which can lead to flawed decision-making and negative consequences. 90) The major problem with the groupthink theory is which of the following? A) There is no leadership during the decision-making process. B) Group polarization occurs. C) Risky shift occurs. D) No critical evaluation occurs. Answer: D Rationale: The major criticism of the groupthink theory is its focus on the absence of critical evaluation and dissent, which may oversimplify the complexities of group decision-making processes. 91) According to Irving Janis, the Bay of Pigs fiasco occurred because of: A) a weak leader. B) groupthink. C) the risky shift phenomenon. D) group polarization. Answer: B Rationale: Irving Janis attributed the Bay of Pigs fiasco to groupthink, where group members prioritize consensus and cohesion over critical evaluation, leading to flawed decision-making. 92) Which of the following conditions is NOT conducive to groupthink? A) critical evaluation of ideas B) a strong leader C) individuals who are proud to be members of the group D) a close-knit group Answer: A Rationale: Critical evaluation of ideas is not conducive to groupthink, as it promotes the examination of alternatives and reduces the likelihood of flawed decision-making. 93) Which of the following conditions is conducive to creating a groupthink effect? A) the illusion of disagreement B) a weak leader C) failing to critically evaluate ideas D) members who do not like each other Answer: C Rationale: Failing to critically evaluate ideas contributes to groupthink, as it leads to the uncritical acceptance of group consensus without considering alternatives. 94) Groupthink can be avoided by: A) having a strong leader. B) inviting outsiders to give their opinions. C) striving for a consensus among members. D) having bright, well-informed members. Answer: B Rationale: Inviting outsiders to give their opinions helps avoid groupthink by introducing diverse perspectives and challenging group consensus with external viewpoints. 95) Social influence in its most direct and powerful form is known as __________. A) deindividuation B) obedience C) compliance D) conformity Answer: B Rationale: Obedience refers to the direct and powerful form of social influence, where individuals follow orders or commands from an authority figure. 96) The term __________ refers to the tendency to help others who are in need even when there is not likely to be a reward for helping. A) bystander mitigation B) altruism C) empathy D) sympathetic collusion Answer: B Rationale: Altruism refers to the tendency to help others in need without expecting any personal gain or reward. 97) The most important situational variable in altruism is the _______. A) weather B) time of day C) presence of other people D) ambiguity of the situation Answer: C Rationale: The presence of other people is the most important situational variable in altruism, as it influences whether individuals intervene to help others in need. 98) Altruistic behaviour is behaviour that: A) is intended to be helpful to others. B) unintentionally harms others. C) intentionally harms others. D) has no known motivation behind it. Answer: A Rationale: Altruistic behavior is behavior that is intended to benefit others, even at a cost to oneself. 99) A major reason why people won’t help when there are many bystanders is because: A) of diffusion of responsibility. B) people are egoistic. C) people like to see others hurt. D) people are not altruistic. Answer: A Rationale: The diffusion of responsibility is a major reason why people may not help when there are many bystanders present, as individuals feel less personally responsible for taking action when others are present. 100) According to research, the larger the group, the: A) safer you are. B) more likely you are to receive help. C) more likely you are to give assistance. D) less likely you are to give or receive help. Answer: D Rationale: According to research on bystander intervention, the larger the group, the less likely individuals are to give or receive help due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence factors. 101) Which of the following is NOT true? A) Bystanders often do not perceive a crisis as an emergency. B) Bystanders fail to help because of basic human callousness. C) The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that anyone will come forward to help the victim of a crisis situation. D) all of the above. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is not true because bystanders fail to help due to factors such as diffusion of responsibility or uncertainty about the situation, not necessarily because of basic human callousness. 102) Which of the following is NOT a step in making a decision to help? A) supplying help B) moving away to observe C) noticing the distressed person D) interpreting the situation Answer: B Rationale: Moving away to observe is not a step in making a decision to help. The other options are essential steps in the decision-making process for helping behavior. 103) If a person sees a victim in dire need, but doesn’t know how to help, that person will most likely: A) stay with the victim. B) do nothing. C) go for help. D) attempt to offer first aid. Answer: B Rationale: If a person sees a victim in need but doesn't know how to help, they are more likely to do nothing due to uncertainty or the perceived lack of ability to help effectively. 104) In which of the following situations is a person the LEAST likely to do nothing: A) The person sees a victim, but doesn’t have training to do first aid. B) The person sees a victim and there are many others around. C) The person sees a victim collapse next to him or her. D) The person sees two children, who look similar, fighting. Answer: C Rationale: In the situation where the person sees a victim collapse next to him or her, they are least likely to do nothing due to the immediacy and clarity of the situation, prompting a more immediate response. 105) Behaviour directed at helping others with no thought or expectation of personal gain is called _______ behaviour. A) primacy B) conformity C) altruistic D) manipulative Answer: C Rationale: Altruistic behavior is behavior directed at helping others without expecting anything in return. 106) According to research: A) a person will get more help in a crowd. B) there is safety in numbers. C) the fewer people present, the greater chance of receiving help. D) people are not altruistic. Answer: C Rationale: According to research, the presence of fewer people increases the likelihood of receiving help due to a reduced diffusion of responsibility, making individuals more likely to take action when they perceive a need for help. Test Bank for Psychology and Life Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo, Serge Desmarais, Tammy Ivanco 9780205037117, 9780205859139
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