Chapter 9: Cognitive Processes 1) Dr. Taylor works in a field of psychology that is very interdisciplinary, combining the knowledge of several academic specialties such as linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and neuroscience. Which field of psychology does Dr. Taylor most likely study? A) cognitive psychology. B) cognitive science. C) neuropsychology. D) artificial intelligence. Answer: B Rationale: Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary field of study of the approach systems and processes that manipulate information. 2) It is the year 1868 and a research assistant is working in the laboratory of F. C. Donders, a Dutch physiologist. While assisting him in his studies of mental processes, what is the research assistant most likely to observe Dr. Donders doing? A) asking participants to use introspection and reflect on their own thought processes. B) measuring how long it takes participants to perform a series of experimental tasks. C) requiring participants to talk out loud as they attempt to solve mental problems. D) observing participants as they attempt to demonstrate extrasensory abilities. Answer: B Rationale: Donders' insight was that extra mental steps will often result in more time to perform the task. 3) What was the fundamental premise upon which F. C. Donders based his method for studying mental processes? A) there are individual differences in the procedures people use to solve mental problems. B) extra mental steps will result in more time to perform a task. C) the mental processes of children are qualitatively different from the mental processes of adults. D) participants can be made aware of their own mental processes. Answer: B Rationale: Researchers still follow Donder’s basic logic, which suggests that extra mental steps will result in more time needed to perform a task. If task one requires one stimulus categorization step and task two requires that you do everything you did for task one, plus more, task two should take more time. Cognitive research today uses reaction time, the amount of time it takes to carry out particular tasks, as a way of testing how cognitive processes are carried out. 4) F. C. Donders developed his technique for studying mental processes more than 130 years ago. Which statement best describes the role his methodology plays in the research of cognitive psychologists today? A) Donders’ methods are primarily applicable to animal research. B) Donders’ basic premise is believed to be incorrect. C) Researchers still follow Donders’ basic logic. D) Researchers use Donders’ methodology for stimulus categorization, but not for response selection. Answer: C Rationale: Researchers frequently use reaction time—the amount of time it takes experimental participants to perform particular tasks—as a way of testing specific accounts of how cognitive processes are carried out. 5) In a laboratory, a researcher records how long it takes a volunteer to press a button after a light is turned on. Which term refers to this type of measure? A) mental speed. B) the subtraction method. C) event-related potential. D) reaction time. Answer: D Rationale: Reaction time is the amount of time it takes research participants to perform a task. 6) A child is practicing scales on his piano. His mother can't wait until he learns some chords so that she can hear several notes together, rather than one note at a time. In psychological terms, to what are the scales comparable? A) serial processes B) parallel processes C) stimulus categorization D) response selection Answer: A Rationale: Serial processes take place one after the other. Parallel processes overlap in time. 7) While Theo is speaking, he is planning his next sentence in his head. Which term best reflects this phenomenon? A) parallel processing B) serial processing C) conceptual processing D) phonological processing Answer: A Rationale: Words in spoken language are pronounced and heard in a serial fashion. As we’re speaking, we may be planning our next sentence, and these two activities would be occurring in parallel. 8) Dawne has no difficulty listening to music and carrying on a conversation while she drives her car. Once bad weather hits, however, she turns off the music and asks the passengers to be quiet. How are the poor driving conditions affecting Dawne? A) They are decreasing her reaction time. B) They are placing additional demands on her mental resources. C) They are eliminating the use of controlled processes. D) The are minimizing the need for response selection. Answer: B Rationale: Now the driver’s navigation processes require extra resources for planning, and the language processes are temporarily squeezed out. 9) Dr. May is studying mental processes. What would Dr. May most likely assume? A) serial processing is superior to parallel processing. B) the absolute time that mental processing takes is independent of the details of different tasks. C) requiring additional mental tasks effectively reduces total reaction time. D) individuals have limited resources that must be spread over different mental tasks. Answer: D Rationale: Our attentional processes are responsible for distributing the resources. The question is, "Which mental processes will be selected to get the processing resources that we need?" 10) In a demonstration that is described in the textbook, individuals are asked to determine if pairs of numbers are physically different. Why is it typically more difficult for individuals to make these judgments when the numbers are conceptually close together? A) Anterograde interference occurs. B) Retrograde interference occurs. C) Controlled processes interfere. D) Automatic processes interfere. Answer: D Rationale: You assess the meaning of the numbers without difficulty because as an adult the association between numbers and the quantities they represent has become automatic; you are unable to completely shut off this association, making those close together more difficult to differentiate from one another. 11) In which situation are attentional processes most likely controlled? A) a person signs her name to a traveler's check B) a youngster takes his first lesson on the proper golf swing C) an adult hops in his car and drives down the road D) a waitress listens to customers as she pours their morning coffee Answer: B Rationale: Controlled processes require attention, as is true most of the time when we are learning something new. 12) A question is asked that can have two different meanings. According to psychologists who study language, what information is needed before an appropriate response can be made? A) Information about sentence meaning. B) Information about the speaker's meaning. C) Information about audience design and sentence meaning. D) Information about the individual who is asking the question. Answer: B Rationale: Speakers can communicate an unlimited number of meanings by speaking the same words. To understand a speaker, you need to know what he or she intended by using particular words on a particular occasion. 13) A fellow student making a classroom presentation says, "Language production concerns what people say verbally and how they say it." What else does language production include? A) what people think about what they say. B) what people feel when they say something. C) writing and signing. D) verbal language. Answer: C Rationale: Language users do not need to produce language out loud. Language also includes signing and writing. 14) According to the philosopher H. Paul Grice, what is an overarching rule of audience design? A) the cooperative principle B) belief-bias C) linguistic determinism D) maximizing structural ambiguity Answer: A Rationale: The cooperative principle is phrased as an instruction to speakers that they should produce utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the ongoing conversation. 15) Which statement about sharing common ground with a conversational partner is accurate? A) It tends to increase the occurrence of spoonerisms. B) It may be perceived as insincerity. C) It facilitates communication. D) It may be perceived as patronizing. Answer: C Rationale: Many of those expectations come from the type of information you have in common ground. For example, past experiences with an individual named Alex will allow you to refer to “Alex” in conversation. 16) The teacher has written the words "quantity," "quality," "relation," and "manner" on the blackboard. What is the most likely lecture topic? A) spoonerisms. B) Grice's maxims. C) spatial mental models. D) functional fixedness. Answer: B Rationale: Quantity refers to making your contribution to an exchange as informative as required, not more so. Quality refers to making your contribution one that is true, not false or without evidence. Relation means making what you are saying relevant to what you said before. Manner means speaking in as clear a manner as possible. 17) Marian likes to impress others with her knowledge of everything, although she has confessed that many times she makes up "facts" to win an argument. Which one of Grice's maxims is being violated? A) quantity. B) manner. C) relation. D) quality. Answer: D Rationale: This maxim states that you should try to make what you say something that is true, rather than something that is false or based on no evidence. 18) A coworker always tries to dominate discussions by talking constantly. Unfortunately, most of the time he rambles, peppers his discussion with double-meanings, and uses obscure language that requires a dictionary to understand. Which one of Grice’s maxims is being violated? A) manner. B) quantity. C) quality. D) relation. Answer: A Rationale: This maxim requires speaking in as clear a manner as possible, avoiding ambiguity, and being brief and orderly. 19) Two long-time friends belong to the same community and share many similar life experiences. If both are asked to guess what the other is likely to know, what would be the likely outcome? A) They will err in the direction of believing that they share little common knowledge. B) They will be fairly accurate in their guesses. C) They will express the opinion that they have little idea of what the other knows. D) They will be no more accurate than two strangers from the same community. Answer: B Rationale: This is a demonstration of common ground or common knowledge shared with a close friend. 20) What is a spoonerism? A) a brief verbal exchange indicating love or affection. B) the belief that one has had an experience previously, though the exact context cannot be recalled. C) the feeling that a word is on the "tip of one's tongue." D) an exchange of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or sentence. Answer: D Rationale: A spoonerism is an exchange of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or sentence. 21) The distinguished gentleman whispered to the equally distinguished lady, "Madam, your ship is slowing." What does this statement illustrate? A) a spoonerism. B) what Herbert Clark and Catherine Marshall would call "common knowledge." C) Grice's maxim. D) inductive reasoning. Answer: A Rationale: Spoonerisms are speech errors in which initial sounds of two or more words are exchanged. They make sense, given the structure of spoken English; they do not violate the rules of the language, even though they are errors. 22) What is one major value of speech errors? A) They provide evidence that memory is typically a reconstructive process. B) They suggest that attention is a highly selective process. C) They show the importance of the law of effect in controlling behaviour. D) They provide insight into the processes that underlie language production. Answer: D Rationale: They give researchers insight into the planning that goes on as a speaker produces language. They give evidence for each of the several types of planning that we do. 23) Nick has been asked to use the SLIP technique on a classmate to encourage the production of spoonerisms. If Nick follows this procedure, what will he ask his classmate do? A) try to repeat a tongue twister as quickly as possible. B) try to recognize words that are briefly presented on a screen. C) silently read pairs of words and later say word pairs out loud. D) view lists of words and later recall the lists on which words appeared. Answer: C Rationale: SLIP stands for "spoonerisms of laboratory-induced predisposition." With this technique, researchers can study the factors that affect the likelihood that speakers will produce errors. 24) What have researchers concluded from studies of speech errors in the laboratory? A) the planning process in language production tends to stay one word ahead of the spoken utterance. B) there may be mental processes that detect and edit potential speech errors. C) errors involving blends of words are less common than predicted. D) spoonerisms are less likely when the error will result in a real word. Answer: B Rationale: Findings suggest that while we produce utterances, some of our cognitive processes are detecting and editing potential errors. 25) In one procedure designed to produce spoonerisms, participants are asked to silently read lists of word pairs that are models for the sound structure of target spoonerisms, then pronounce word pairs out loud. What have such studies found? A) spoonerisms with idioms are almost impossible to produce. B) spoonerisms are more likely when the error still results in real words. C) errors in blending idioms are more common when the idioms do not share the same underlying meaning. D) there is no correlation between errors and the production of real words. Answer: B Rationale: Studies have found that laboratory-induced spoonerisms are more likely when the error still results in a real word. 26) A reader comes across the ambiguous word ”bark” when reading a sentence, yet she has absolutely no difficulty understanding its intended meaning. Based on the research on lexical ambiguity, why was she able to disambiguate the word? A) Because of the degree of emotional reactivity she experienced when she heard the word. B) Because of the frequency with which she has used the word in the past week. C) Because of the contextual information. D) Because of the pattern of eye movements that she makes. Answer: C Rationale: The term "lexical" is related to the word "lexicon," which is a synonym for "dictionary." Lexical ambiguity means that there is more than one meaning for the word. Use of context to broaden the meaning allows us to disambiguate or differentiate the meanings of the word. People use information from the surrounding context to determine which meaning of a word is appropriate in a particular instance of use. 27) The sentence, "Visiting relatives can be a nuisance," best illustrates what type of ambiguity. A) lexical B) constant C) pseudo D) structural Answer: D Rationale: At first, there seems to be just one meaning, but a close analysis shows two noun phrases and two possible meanings. The sentence may refer to relatives who we are visiting; in this case the meaning is that we find a making a visit to the relatives a nuisance. The sentence may also mean that the relatives are visiting us, in which case the sentence is a statement that relatives who visit us are a nuisance. 28) Glancing over the shoulder of a man on the bus who is reading a newspaper, Dean sees the headline "Shooting of Hunters Terrible." What does Dean’s ability to disambiguate the meaning of the utterance depend primarily upon? A) the presence of contextual cues. B) Dean’s ability to visually represent the meaning. C) Dean’s memory for similar accidents. D) the isolation of propositions. Answer: A Rationale: We have some cognitive processes that allow us to use surrounding context to eliminate the ambiguity (to disambiguate). Broader context enables us to choose between the possible meanings. 29) What does our capacity to use context to resolve ambiguities demonstrate? A) there is often a mismatch between language production and language understanding. B) there is a good match between language production and language understanding. C) language production and language understanding are unrelated functions. D) language production suffers as a result of language understanding. Answer: B Rationale: Language processes use context powerfully and efficiently to resolve ambiguities. If speakers have made their utterances appropriate to the current context, listeners can let context guide their expectations about what the speakers mean. 30) In the context of language understanding, what is a proposition? A) a type of inference. B) a sarcastic request. C) the single most important idea contained in an utterance. D) a main idea in an utterance. Answer: D Rationale: A proposition is the main ideas of utterances, or the basic units of meaning representations. 31) Bill has just read the sentence, "The man in the back row has green hair." Based on research on propositional representation in memory, will the words "man" and "hair" be represented in memory together? A) Yes, because these words belong to the same proposition. B) Yes, because these words have strong meaningful associations. C) No, because they are separated by many other words in the actual sentence. D) No, because the link between the two words is somewhat unusual. Answer: A Rationale: If two words belong to the same preposition, they will be represented together in memory even if they are not close together in the sentence. 32) What can be concluded from the results of the early experiments in which researchers attempted to teach language to chimpanzees? A) They showed that chimps can be taught to communicate like humans. B) They indicated that humans were cueing the chimps to make appropriate linguistic responses. C) They determined that chimps could not acquire linguistic abilities. D) They led to controversy as to whether the chimps' linguistic abilities were equivalent to meaningful language. Answer: D Rationale: Early language studies with chimps led to skeptics who asked whether what the chimps were producing was really equivalent to language in the sense that humans use it. 33) What did Sue Savage-Rumbaugh discover when working with the apes Kanzi and Mulika? A) They can communicate through spoken language. B) They acquire the meaning for certain symbols by observing others. C) Their communication skills do not generalize to other apes. D) They cannot acquire the meaning of spoken words. Answer: B Rationale: Both apes received no specific training on the plastic symbols, and learned them from observing others. 34) What did Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth discover about the communicative capabilities of vervet monkeys? A) They modified their calls based on what their audience knew. B) They did not modify their calls based on what their audience knew. C) They did not change their rate of alarms whether they were with their own offspring or with monkeys unrelated to them. D) They could not make calls to signal the presence of different dangers. Answer: B Rationale: In one study, it was found that mother vervets produced the same calls whether her offspring had witnessed the events that evoked the calls or not. 35) Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf are giving a lecture on the relationship between language and thought. What hypothesis would they most likely put forward? A) there are cross-linguistic differences in thought. B) language is primarily a left-brain activity, whereas thought is a dual hemisphere activity. C) language processes are primarily learned, while thought processes are primarily inborn. D) each member of a language community thinks very differently from every other member of that same community. Answer: A Rationale: They concluded that differences in language create differences in thought. “…the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation (Sapir, 1941)." 36) A remote tribe has only three colour words. As a result, tribal members are less accurate at discriminating different hues within a category. Who would have most likely predicted such findings? A) Sapir and Whorf B) Cheney and Seyfarth C) Savage-Rumbaugh D) Chomsky Answer: A Rationale: Sapir and Whorf argue that the structure of the language an individual speaks has an impact on the way in which that individual thinks about the world. 37) Which statement best characterizes the results of research on the claim of linguistic relativity? A) Language may, in some circumstances, have an impact on thought. B) Despite years of research, no study has yet been conducted that shows differences in thought that can be connected to differences in language. C) It is clear that language differences affect differences in thought processes more than language differences affect differences in culture. D) To date, researchers have been unable to discover a methodology that will permit testing of the hypothesis of linguistic relativity. Answer: A Rationale: The structure of the language an individual speaks may have an impact on the way in which that individual thinks about the world. 38) When compared to people who tell the truth, what does the research suggest about those who don’t? A) liars provide fewer details in their accounts. B) liars provide exact details in their accounts. C) liars provide more details in their accounts. D) liars resort to confabulation. Answer: A Rationale: A review of studies on the content of lies reported that liars provide fewer details in their accounts than people who are telling the truth. 39) What has been concluded about the brains of individuals who qualify as pathological liars? A) the pathological liars have more of the type of brain tissue that allows neurons to communicate with each other. B) the pathological liars have smaller hippocampi. C) there is no difference between the brains of pathological liars and those who are not liars. D) the pathological liars are born with overactive amygdala functions. Answer: A Rationale: These differences were found in the prefrontal cortex, which plays an important role in planning. This suggests that pathological liars are well equipped to plan their lies. The question is, which came first—the brain of this type, or the frequent lying that changed the brain? 40) What did F. A. Kekulé, who discovered the chemical structure of benzene, Michael Faraday, who discovered many properties of magnetism, and Albert Einstein, the brilliant physicist, have in common? A) They were all assisted in their work by their use of mental imagery. B) They were all savants. C) They all used verbal mental representations exclusively. D) They were all troubled by a unique form of dyslexia. Answer: A Rationale: Kekulé's discovery of the benzene ring occurred in a dream, and Einstein claimed to have thought entirely in terms of visual images. 41) In a study that is described in the textbook, participants had to decide whether rotated letters were normal or mirror images of themselves. What did an analysis of participant reaction times indicate? A) decision times were proportional to the degree to which each letter had to be mentally rotated. B) females had faster response times than males. C) the task proved impossible for most participants to perform. D) there was little relationship between the degree to which each letter had to be mentally rotated and reaction times. Answer: A Rationale: The reaction time to make the decision whether a rotated letter was in the normal or mirror image position was proportional to the amount of rotation, suggesting that the subject was imagining the figure being rotated in their mind. 42) According to Deborah Saucier, who is most likely to give directions by saying “stay on this road for 2 kilometres, then turn left and keep going for 5 kilometres”? A) Someone who is good at map reading. B) Someone who has a good compass sense of direction. C) Someone who is good at mental rotation. D) Someone who has high visual imagery. Answer: C Rationale: Saucier and colleagues (2002) found that mental rotation abilities are correlated with the ability to use Euclidian properties in a spatial navigation task. 43) How do the results of fMRI scans compare when participants were engaged in either a perception task or an imagery task? A) The brain scans were identical. B) More brain regions were activated for the imagery task. C) Brain regions for the imagery task were a subset of those for perception. D) Participants used special regions of the brain to create a visual image. Answer: C Rationale: The fMRI brain scans of participants who were engaged in the imagery task showed activity in a subset of brain areas activated in the perceptual task. No special brain regions were used to create the visual image. 44) In a study described in the textbook, people read passages that put them in the middle of scenes with objects spread around them. They read, for example, “Directly behind you at eye level is an ornate lamp attached to the balcony wall.” When asked to recall the details of the scenes, how did the participants respond? A) They took more time to say what objects were in front of them. B) They took more time to say what objects were behind them. C) They showed no differences in responses based on spatial position. D) They took more time to say what objects were the farthest distance away. Answer: B Rationale: The representations we form when we are reading actually place us, in a sense, in the scene. Researchers want to determine whether readers are faster or slower to access information about the scene depending on where the objects were in the mental space around them when they were reading. For example, readers were quicker to say what object was in front of them than to identify what object was behind them even though all details were introduced equally carefully. 45) Researchers studying spatial mental models have asked participants to develop mental representations of settings based on textual material. The participants are then asked to use these mental models to answer questions about objects in the setting. What were the findings? A) performance is affected by the order in which the objects are presented. B) where the objects are located in the participants' mental models affects their speed of access to the information. C) participants are faster to locate objects that are visualized as primary colours. D) few participants are able to respond correctly, suggesting that only some participants form mental models. Answer: B Rationale: For instance, readers were quicker to identify objects that were in front of them than they were to identify objects behind them. The representations we form while reading place us, in some sense, in the scene, so that we transform the verbal experience into a visual-spatial experience. 46) Carl is participating in an experiment where he will be asked a series of questions about his knowledge of a new neighbourhood. How will Carl best be able to learn the neighbourhood prior to responding to the questions? A) by being given a survey description of the neighbourhood. B) by learning specific routes to and from particular locations in the neighbourhood. C) by learning about one large landmark in the center of the neighbourhood that can be seen from a far distance. D) as the passenger in a vehicle that travels throughout the neighbourhood. Answer: A Rationale: Researchers found that survey descriptions allowed participants to form spatial mental models that were flexible enough to use to answer the questions. 47) In the context of problem-solving, which term refers to the steps one may take to move from an initial state to a goal state? A) rules. B) laws. C) principles. D) operations. Answer: D Rationale: The operations plus the initial state and the goal state, taken together, define the problem space. 48) In an experimental psychology class, the students watch a rat run from the start box to a goal box in a maze that has been set up to allow only left-hand turns. The rat's behaviour reminds the students of problem solving. In this context, what is equivalent to the maze? A) problem space. B) initial state. C) set of operations. D) goal state. Answer: A Rationale: The rat takes a series of turns (the set of operations) to get from the beginning of the maze (the initial state) to the end (the goal state). The combination of states and operations is the problem space. 49) Jane is working on a puzzle that requires her to work a ring across some pegs to the point where the ring fits on the final black peg. If Jane was focusing on the final black peg of this puzzle, which problem-solving term would be most applicable? A) internal state B) goal state C) set of operations D) algorithm Answer: B Rationale: The goal state of a problem is the information or state of the world you hope to obtain. 50) Which term best charaterizes problems in which the initial state, the goal state, and the operations are all clearly specified? A) well defined. B) framed. C) comprehensive. D) superordinate. Answer: A Rationale: A well-defined problem is one in which the initial state, the goal state, and the operations are all clearly specified. 51) Which type of problem best characterizes social issues such as homelessness, poverty, lack of education, and violence? A) inductive. B) deductive. C) well defined. D) ill defined. Answer: D Rationale: In these cases, the problem solver has to define the problem, define the goal, identify possible means to achieve the goal, and then figure out where to start. 52) Which term refers to a step-by-step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem? A) availability heuristic B) representativeness heuristic C) algorithm D) anchoring heuristic Answer: C Rationale: If you apply the rules, you will obtain the correct solution (e.g., if you apply the locker combination correctly, you will open the locker). 53) When playing chess, Sonya uses the strategy, "protect the king." Which term refers to the use of such "rules of thumb"? A) algorithms. B) inductive reaasoning. C) analogies. D) heuristics. Answer: D Rationale: Heuristics are used when algorithms are unavailable. Heuristics are more likely to be used for ill-defined problems than are algorithms. 54) Herb is a participant in a study of problem solving. To help understand the steps Herb is going through to solve the problem, the researcher has asked him to verbalize his ongoing thoughts. What do researchers studying problem solving call these verbalizations? A) think-aloud protocols. B) moment-by-moment introspections. C) subvocalizations. D) auditory thoughts. Answer: A Rationale: Researchers use think-aloud protocols to understand the way people apply both algorithms and heuristics to make their way through the problem space. To do this, researchers ask participants to verbalize their ongoing thoughts. 55) Debi is learning a complex dance routine but finds all of the details overwhelming. According to the research on problem solving, what should Debi do to improve her performance? A) adopt an availability heuristic. B) focus on the components that are easiest to perform. C) practice each behaviour separately until each component of the routine requires less effort. D) use think-aloud protocols to gain insight into the task demands. Answer: C Rationale: Research on problem solving has led to the conclusion that what often makes a problem difficult to solve is that mental requirements for solving a particular problem overwhelm processing resources. If the series of operations is too complex, you may not be able to see your way through from the initial state to the goal state. A useful procedure is to practice each separate component of the procedure so that, over time, each component requires fewer resources. 56) What does the "monk puzzle” presented in the textbook illustrate? A) functional fixedness adversely affects problem solving. B) the way a problem is represented will affect its difficulty. C) individuals tend to judge as valid those conclusions with which they agree. D) a mental set can increase the speed of problem solving. Answer: B Rationale: Sometimes we need to find a whole new way of thinking about something. The word "proof" may lead us in the wrong direction. If we can visualize two monks making this journey in different directions and then replace the two with one, we will make the problem easier. Thinking mathematically or verbally confuses us. Thinking visually helps. 57) Jerry’s chair has begun to wobble because a screw has gotten a little loose. Jerry puts in a work order to the maintenance department as a means to resolve the problem. Which term refers to Jerry’s inability to realize that a dime from his own pocket could also have been used as a means to resolve the problem? A) the availability heuristic. B) functional fixedness. C) inductive reasoning. D) the belief-bias effect. Answer: B Rationale: This is a mental block that keeps us from perceiving a new function (as a screwdriver) for an object usually used otherwise (the dime). This fixedness inhibits problems solving. 58) Kevi wants to hang her new painting, but she can’t find her hammer. She pulls off her shoe and uses the heel to pound in the nail. Which term best describes this scenario? A) the belief-bias effect. B) deductive reasoning. C) a think-aloud protocol. D) lack of functional fixedness. Answer: D Rationale: Functional fixedness is a mental block that adversely affects problem solving by inhibiting the perception of a new function for an object that was previously associated with a different function. 59) Which form of deductive reasoning was introduced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle over 2,000 years ago? A) the algorithm. B) the heuristic. C) the syllogism. D) inductive reasoning. Answer: C Rationale: Aristotle was concerned with defining the logical relationships between statements that would lead to valid conclusions. 60) Several sentences are written on the blackboard: "All teachers work hard. I am a teacher. I work hard." To what do these sentences likely refer? A) inductive reasoning. B) a heuristic. C) a syllogism. D) linguistic copresence. Answer: C Rationale: You see that it is defining logical relationships between the statements and that it will lead to a valid conclusion. 61) As a man skims over the instructions on the application for the Senior Soccer League, he reads the statement, "Anyone who is 40 years old or older and who is in good health may apply." Since he is over 40 years old and in good health, he assumes that he can apply. What type of reasoning has been applied? A) valid B) deductive C) logical D) formal Answer: B Rationale: Deductive reasoning involves the correct application of logical rules. We may have a general or abstract sense of formal logic, but we also bring to logical situations the knowledge we possess about the world as well as representational resources. 62) What can be concluded from the research on the ability of people to engage in deductive reasoning? A) Individuals generally lack confidence in their deductive reasoning abilities. B) Most individuals do not have a general, abstract sense of formal logic. C) The use of formal logic is equivalent to real-world deductive reasoning. D) The use of deductive reasoning is affected by one's specific knowledge of the world. Answer: D Rationale: We have a general sense of abstract formal logic, but our knowledge of the world, our biases about it, and other mental representations will affect the resources we use for reasoning. 63) Under which condition does belief bias exist? A) when there is a conflict between two types of mental processes used in deductive reasoning. B) when a real-world model cannot be used to validate conclusions. C) if a person has had no personal experience with the logical elements in the syllogism. D) if the individual making the judgment has committed logical errors in the past. Answer: A Rationale: People tend to judge as valid those conclusions they find believable and judge as invalid those conclusions they find unbelievable. One set of processes in deductive reasoning uses past experiences to provide rapid, automatic responses to problems. In other words, we depend on past experience to judge situations. The other set of processes allows for slower, conscious applications of formal logic. Research has confirmed that processes that bring past experience to bear on the conclusions we make win the conflict with the processes responsible for logical analysis. 64) Asia is working on the Wason selection task. She is shown four cards and is testing a rule. What should Asia do to improve her perfromance on this task? A) choose the cards that are the least obvious. B) attempt to reduce her anxiety level. C) apply her real-world knowledge. D) experiment with an unfamiliar rule. Answer: C Rationale: The experience we have accumulated with different situations allows us to make correct judgments without much difficulty. 65) Which statement about inductive reasoning is accurate? A) the two premises are assumed to be correct. B) conclusions may be likely, but not certain. C) the task is to determine if a conclusion that is given is valid. D) conclusions follow necessarily from the premises. Answer: B Rationale: Conclusions are based on probabilities drawn from available evidence, rather than on logical certainties. 66) Terri is driving on the 1st of July to a city that she has never visited. There is no place to park and the traffic seems very heavy. As she looks for a parking place, she see streams of people heading toward the main street which has been blocked off to traffic. Not certain of what to make of all this, Terri thinks a few seconds and determines that a parade is imminent. What process has Terri used to arrive at this conclusion? A) analogical problem solving. B) the availability heuristic. C) deductive reasoning. D) inductive reasoning. Answer: D Rationale: We use past information stored as schemas to generate expectations about the past or future. In this case, your past experiences with crowds and blocked traffic on this holiday lead you to surmise that a parade is coming. 67) In the past when Aurora has gotten lost while driving, she has been more likely to stop and ask for directions than to look at a map. Now that she is lost again, she decides to stop by a convenience store to ask for directions. What does Aurora’s behaviour illustrate? A) deductive reasoning. B) logical problem solving. C) the belief-bias effect. D) analogical problem solving. Answer: D Rationale: You have faced this problem in the past and can draw an analogy between the past and the present. The past is informing the present. In this case, if you continue with the same behaviour, the expectation is that it will work and you won’t stay lost. 68) Misha is attempting to solve a problem through analogical reasoning. How should Misha increase her chances of being successful? A) focus on making creative links among ideas. B) use past experiences with similar problems. C) make use of abstract analogies. D) avoid a dependence upon common underlying structures. Answer: B Rationale: This allows you to find similarities between the past situations and the current problem. You are using inductive reasoning to access tried-and-true methods that speed current problem solving. 69) After using the same mathematical formula to solve the first nine problems of her homework assignment, a student automatically starts problem number ten using the same solution strategy. Which term best reflects this approach? A) a mental set. B) syllogistic thinking. C) a pragmatic reasoning schema. D) belief bias. Answer: A Rationale: A mental set is a preexisting state of mind, habit, or attitude that can enhance the quality and speed of perceiving and problem solving (as it did for the first nine problems). It can also inhibit or distort mental activities when old ways of thinking or acting don't work in a new situation. 70) Mental sets can enhance problem solving under some conditions. However, under which conditions are they generally inappropriate? A) When one has to solve a problem quickly. B) When the problem solving situation changes. C) When it is necessary to rely on what has worked in the past. D) When one is solving mathematics problems. Answer: B Rationale: When the situation changes, we may hamper problem solving by trying to fit old solutions to new problems. We need to consider a broader spectrum of past solutions and situations to find productive ways of managing new situations. 71) In a study that is described in the textbook, participants carried out two types of reasoning tasks while their brains were undergoing PET scans. What were the results of this study? A) reasoning tasks produced an equal amount of activity in right and left hemispheres. B) inductive and deductive reasoning produced greater activation in the right hemisphere. C) inductive and deductive reasoning produced greater activation in the left hemisphere. D) deductive reasoning produced greater activation in the right hemisphere, and inductive reasoning produced greater activation in the left hemisphere. Answer: D Rationale: Deductive reasoning produced greater activation in the right hemisphere while inductive reasoning produced greater activation in the left hemisphere. 72) Amy is a participant in a PET scan study that requires her to answer questions using deductive reasoning. Which part of Amy’s brain would show greater activation? A) the right hemisphere B) the left hemisphere C) the frontal lobe D) the occipital lobe Answer: A Rationale: Deductive reasoning produced greater activation in the right hemisphere, whereas inductive reasoning produced greater activation in the left hemisphere. 73) According to Herbert Simon, what underlies the "bounded rationality" of human thought processes? A) the tendency of humans to be too constrained by past experiences. B) utilizing deductive reasoning rather than inductive problem-solving techniques. C) applying limited resources to situations that require a quick response. D) the overwhelming evolutionary significance of language development. Answer: C Rationale: We can very rarely be completely certain that we have made the right decision because we have only limited knowledge of the past and we can only guess at the future. Our human thinking powers are limited in comparison with the environments we must manage, so we must find "good enough" solutions and "good enough" behaviours. 74) According to the text, which term refers to the process of selecting and rejecting options? A) problem solving B) framing C) judgment D) decision making Answer: D Rationale: Judgment is the process by which people form opinions, reach conclusions, and make critical evaluations of events and people based on available material. Decision making is the process of choosing between alternatives. 75) Which of the following is an example of judgment? A) He chose chemistry as his major. B) She bought the less expensive dress, even though she liked the other one better. C) She didn't think their marriage would work. D) He took the afternoon flight because it was nonstop. Answer: C Rationale: A judgment is an opinion, conclusion, or critical evaluation of events or people. 76) Which of the following is an example of decision making? A) She chose the job that paid less but offered more opportunities for advancement. B) He felt the teacher was pompous, arrogant, and self-centered, just like himself. C) She loves the taste of fresh fruit on her morning cereal. D) Though it wasn't true, he told people that the reason he didn't go to graduate school was because he couldn't afford it. Answer: A Rationale: Decision making is the process of choosing between alternatives, that is, selecting and rejecting available options. 77) After the opera, Serge asks Ben what he thought about the performance. According to Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, what will Ben most likely do? A) develop a mental chart listing the pros and cons of the performance. B) rely on heuristics to derive an opinion about the performance. C) ask Serge what he thinks before he makes a judgment. D) use a deductive reasoning procedure. Answer: B Rationale: We don't have resources or time to use a formal method of analysis to answer. Instead, we use a repertoire of fast and frugal heuristics that yield judgments that are most often correct. Heuristics reduce the complexity of making judgments. 78) At the bookstore, Sunshine finds a book entitled, Make Better Judgments! It deals with the pitfalls of heuristic use, and she considers reading it. Realistically, how might Sunshine’s increased knowledge of the kinds of errors that result from heuristics affect her future judgments? A) Given that heuristics are resistant to learning, the book should have little impact on Sunshine’s behaviour. B) Since heuristics are seldom used, Sunshine’s judgments should remain relatively unchanged. C) Having knowledge about heuristic errors does not guarantee that they will never occur. D) Once Sunshine becomes familiar with heuristic errors, her future judgments should be vastly improved. Answer: C Rationale: Though heuristics often lead to correct judgments, psychological research has identified circumstances in which heuristics might generate errors. It’s important to know about those circumstances. However, much of the time, heuristics operate outside conscious awareness. For that reason, it’s not always possible to stop and recognize that you have experienced circumstances in which errors are likely. 79) Which term refers to the practice of basing judgments on how easily information comes to mind? A) the availability heuristic. B) the representativeness heuristic. C) an anchoring bias. D) deductive reasoning. Answer: A Rationale: The availability heuristic is a judgment based on the information readily available in memory. 80) People are likely to overestimate the absolute number of minority individuals who are involved in criminal activity because the mass media typically overrepresents the number of minority individuals engaged in criminal behaviour. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon? A) anchoring bias. B) the availability heuristic. C) a frame. D) decision aversion. Answer: B Rationale: We base our judgments on what is most readily available in memory. 81) Since they began watching the news nightly on television, a couple has developed a fear of flying. They are convinced that many more people die in plane crashes than in automobile accidents. Which cognitive strategy is at the root of this false belief? A) the representativeness heuristic. B) an anchoring bias. C) the availability heuristic. D) functional fixedness. Answer: C Rationale: A plane crash is more likely to make the evening news than is an automobile crash. Because of the content of the evening news memories of plane crashes are more available than memories of automobile accidents. The relative availability of those memories influences the couple’s judgments. 82) Which scenario would most likely be attributed to the availability heuristic? A) People overestimate the wealth of a person after hearing a ridiculously high estimate. B) People are more likely to overestimate the age of males who have beards. C) Whales are falsely thought to be fish because they look like fish. D) Students who live on college campuses underestimate the average age of the general population. Answer: D Rationale: Students live among other students; therefore, the most easily retrieved information about population has to do with youth, a concept overrepresented in the students’ memories. 83) Using the availability heuristic, how should one impress others with the seriousness of homelessness in the world? A) use metaphors to illustrate the number of homeless people. B) dramatize the plight of a single family. C) show pictures of shelters where the homeless go for help. D) ask individuals to imagine themselves in the situation of a homeless person. Answer: B Rationale: We base our judgments on information that is readily available in memory—the ease with which we can retrieve the information and the content of the memories. If the content is easily retrieved and dramatic, as the single family is likely to be, it will more likely influence our judgments about homelessness than if it is hard to imagine, abstract, or logical. 84) Clay is asked to list in order four countries with respect to their literacy rates, something about which he has no specific knowledge. If Clay’s responses are typical, what is the accuracy of his judgment most likely to depend upon? A) his use of the representativeness heuristic. B) his general knowledge about each country. C) the mood he is in when he makes the ratings. D) the anchoring heuristic. Answer: B Rationale: There will be a correlation between the content of what we know (how often we have heard or read about a country) and our judgments (our estimates regarding literacy). Information stored in memory that is biased by its availability is likely to lead to errors in judgment. 85) Although she has never been snowboarding, a girl feels that she will not enjoy the sport because she does not like cross-country skiing. What cognitive strategy is she using? A) availability heuristic B) anchoring heuristic C) representativeness heuristic D) framing Answer: C Rationale: You assume that if something has characteristics of a category, it must, in fact, be a member of that category. 86) Josh is so excited to try surfing tomorrow. He has never tried it before, but he is certain that he will be able to master it because he is a talented skateboarder. Which cognitive strategy is Josh using? A) Availability heuristic B) Serial processing C) Representativeness heuristic D) Inductive reasoning Answer: C Rationale: The representativeness heuristic is a cognitive strategy that assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics regarded as representative of that category. 87) What problem does one face when using the representativeness heuristic? A) it is counter to the use of inductive reasoning. B) one is not using past information that may be useful. C) judgments based on similarity are generally unfounded. D) it may cause one to ignore other types of relevant information. Answer: D Rationale: The representativeness heuristic may cause you to ignore other types of relevant information. This can be overcome by considering the structure of all the alternatives. 88) When does a bias based on the anchoring heuristic occur? A) When the recollection of past events in one's life promotes depression. B) When one does not see other potential uses for an object. C) When judgments are unduly influenced by initial estimates. D) When judgments are based on typical members of a category. Answer: C Rationale: People's judgments of the probable value of some event or outcome represent insufficient adjustments up or down from an original starting value. We are influenced strongly by the anchor even when that information is of little if any use. We start with the anchor and keep adjusting to a plausible value. The problem occurs when the final value represents insufficient adjustments. 89) Participants in an experiment were asked to estimate the duration of Mars’ orbit around the sun. What was the average estimation? A) shorter than it actually is. B) much longer than it actually is. C) almost exactly what it really is. D) the same duration as the Earth’s orbit. Answer: A Rationale: Research suggests that to arrive at an answer, students will start with a known value, the duration of Earth’s orbit, as an anchor. Knowledge that Mars is farther from the sun will result in adjusting away from the anchor to a larger value. Adjustment will be made until a plausible answer is reached. In this experiment, participants’ estimates were far shorter than the duration of Mars’ orbit around the sun actually is, even after they adjusted up from the duration of Earth’s orbit. This research demonstrates that when we use an anchor and adjust up or down to find the answer we are seeking, we should make an effort to confirm that the plausible value is in fact the correct value. 90) In a study on the anchoring heuristic that is described in the textbook, students were given a relatively high, arbitrary identification number to copy into their questionnaires, and then were asked to estimate the number of physicians listed in a telephone book. Some students were warned that the ID number might affect their judgments. What did the researchers discover? A) students who were warned performed more accurately than control group students. B) the use of the anchoring heuristic led to more accurate responses in all students. C) the estimates were affected by the arbitrary identification number, even when students were warned. D) the estimates were rarely affected by the arbitrary number, regardless of whether students were warned. Answer: C Rationale: Those who were given the number made a higher estimate than those who were not given the number, demonstrating influence by the anchor (the numerical value of the identification number). 91) What do studies of decision making demonstrate? A) people behave as "rational" actors.". B) participants have a strong tendency to look at situations positively. C) provided that informational content is kept constant, the wording of a scenario is irrelevant. D) the way in which a question is phrased can influence one's decision. Answer: D Rationale: Our choices would likely change if we were asked to reject an option (we focus on the negatives) rather than being asked to choose an option, in which case we focus on the positives. 92) In the context of decision making, what is a "frame"? A) a particular description of a choice. B) a false alternative or lure. C) the blame for a poor decision placed on another. D) a relevant memory. Answer: A Rationale: The perception of a gain or loss often depends on the way in which a decision is framed. If you expect a $100 raise and you get a $1,000 raise, you feel very differently than if you expect $5,000 and get $1,000. 93) Two students are taking a physics test. The optimistic student expects to get an A, while the pessimistic student expects to get a C. When the test results are determined, it happens that they both received Bs. Which outcome is most likely? A) the optimistic student will be happy with her grade. B) the pessimistic student will be happy with her grade. C) The optimistic student will lower her expectations for the next test. D) The pessimistic student will raise her expectations for the next test. Answer: B Rationale: The optimistic student will likely feel very unhappy. What seems like a gain or loss will be partly determined by expectations, even though objectively both students have exactly the same grade. 94) When decisions turn out badly, one is likely to experience regret. In addition to decisions about one’s career path, in what other area do decisions result in the greatest regret? A) the purchase of a home B) marriage C) dating life D) education Answer: D Rationale: These two domains provide a very wide range of opportunities, which makes it quite easy to wonder whether we made the right decisions. 95) Tara browses all the DVDs in the store until she has convinced herself that she has found exactly the best one. In the context of decision making, which term best characterizes Tara? A) maximizer B) compulsive C) satisfier D) indecisive Answer: A Rationale: Not all decision makers are the same. Research has demonstrated that there are both maximizers and satisfiers in the world. Maximizers typically are content when they find an item that is above some threshold. Satisfiers keep try to find the very best item. 96) Philip Tetlock recruited a sample of 284 experts with strong credentials for making political predictions about certain countries or regions of the world. What did Tetlock discover? A) experts outperformed their lesser-known peers in making political predictions. B) experts did better in their areas of expertise than when they used their general knowledge to make predictions about other areas. C) experts’ predictions about their areas of expertise did not exceed what would have been expected by chance. D) if individuals are certain that they are listening to an expert, they are confident that the information will be accurate. Answer: C Rationale: If the participants had true expertise, they should have been right in their predictions more often than chance. They actually did worse than chance. They also did no better in their areas of expertise than when they used their general knowledge to answer questions. 97) Despite the pioneering efforts of F. C. Donders, researchers today rarely use reaction time as a way of testing how some cognitive process is carried out. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Reaction time remains a fundamental measure in cognitive psychology and related fields. While the methods and technologies for measuring reaction time may have evolved since the time of F. C. Donders, it is still widely used in research to understand various cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and decision-making. 98) Processes are serial when they overlap in time; processes are parallel when they take place one after the other. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This statement contradicts the typical definitions of serial and parallel processing. Serial processing involves completing one task before moving on to the next, while parallel processing involves performing multiple tasks simultaneously. Therefore, the statement is false. 99) Controlled processes require attention; it is often difficult to carry out more than one controlled process at a time. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Controlled processes, which require conscious effort and attention, are indeed difficult to perform simultaneously because they compete for cognitive resources. This concept aligns with the limited capacity of attention and the challenges associated with multitasking, especially when it involves tasks that demand cognitive control. 100) According to H. Paul Grice, the cooperative principle is an overarching rule of audience design. Specifically, speakers should produce utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the ongoing conversation. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: H. Paul Grice's cooperative principle outlines guidelines for effective communication, emphasizing the importance of clarity, relevance, and cooperation between speakers and listeners. It suggests that speakers should contribute information that is necessary, truthful, and appropriate to the ongoing conversation, thus facilitating mutual understanding and efficient communication. Therefore, the statement is true. 101) With respect to language understanding, structural ambiguity refers to a situation in which a word has two meanings. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Structural ambiguity actually refers to ambiguity arising from the structure or syntax of a sentence, where a sentence can be parsed in multiple ways leading to different interpretations. It's not about individual word meanings but rather about how the words combine to form meanings. 102) According to the linguistic relativity hypothesis of Sapir and Whorf, the structure of the language an individual speaks has an impact on the way in which that individual thinks about the world. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The linguistic relativity hypothesis, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, suggests that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. This implies that speakers of different languages may have different cognitive patterns and perspectives due to linguistic differences. 103) In problem solving, the initial state and goal state make up the problem space. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The problem space includes all possible states that could be reached from the initial state by applying operators. It consists of the initial state, the set of operators that can be applied, and the goal state, but it's not limited to just these two states. 104) The task of balancing a checkbook is a good example of a well-defined problem. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Balancing a checkbook typically involves following a specific set of rules or procedures to reconcile expenditures with deposits. The problem has clear goals and constraints, making it well-defined in the context of problem-solving. 105) Heuristics are cognitive strategies that always provide the right answer for a particular problem. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that may lead to a solution but do not guarantee an optimal solution. They are often used in situations where finding the perfect solution is impractical or impossible due to time or resource constraints. 106) "Functional fixedness" is the term used to refer to the inability to think of a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to perceive objects only in terms of their typical uses and to overlook their potential alternative uses. This cognitive bias can inhibit problemsolving by limiting the individual's ability to consider unconventional solutions. 107) A test of reasoning ability includes a number of problems in which two or more statements or premises are presented and it is the task of the test-taker to draw a conclusion. This type of problem is an example of inductive reasoning. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: This type of problem is an example of deductive reasoning, not inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from general principles or premises, whereas inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations. 108) People engaged in analogical problem solving will try to remember similar problems they have experienced in the past and solutions that were successful. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Analogical problem-solving involves drawing parallels between a current problem and similar problems encountered in the past. By recalling successful strategies used in similar situations, individuals can adapt and apply these strategies to the current problem. 109) When solving problems, there are times when a "mental set" may be helpful to performance, and other times when it may be harmful to performance. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: A mental set, which is a tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences, can either facilitate or hinder problem-solving. While it may help in applying familiar strategies to similar problems, it can also lead to rigidity and prevent consideration of alternative approaches. 110) Processes of judgment and decision making do not allow us to deal efficiently with uncertainty. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Judgment and decision-making processes often involve dealing with uncertainty, as decisions are made based on incomplete information or in situations where outcomes are uncertain. Various strategies, such as weighing probabilities or considering potential outcomes, are employed to manage uncertainty and make informed decisions. 111) Participants in a research study judged that the letter k is found more often at the beginning of words than in the third position, based on information that was readily available in memory. This error is judgment is an example of the representativeness heuristic. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The scenario described doesn't align with the representativeness heuristic, which involves making judgments based on how closely something resembles a typical case or prototype. In this case, the judgment about the frequency of the letter "k" in words doesn't involve representativeness but rather availability heuristic, where judgments are influenced by how easily instances or associations come to mind. 112) A woman has six children—three boys (B) and three girls (G). According to the representativeness heuristic, you are more likely to believe that she had these children in the G-B-G-B-B-G order than in the B-B-B-G-G-G order because your past experience with birth orders allows you to assume this. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: The representativeness heuristic involves making judgments based on how closely something matches a particular prototype or stereotype. In this case, people may assume the G-B-G-BB-G order is more likely because it conforms to the alternating pattern typically associated with boys and girls, despite the actual order being equally probable. 113) Reference points are important in decision making. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Reference points serve as benchmarks against which outcomes are evaluated in decision making. They can influence perceptions of gains and losses, affecting decisions such as risktaking and financial choices. 114) Research on the way decisions are framed suggests that framing in terms of gains leads to better decision making than framing in terms of losses. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: Research on framing effects indicates that framing decisions in terms of losses often leads to greater risk aversion and more cautious decision making compared to framing in terms of gains. This phenomenon is known as loss aversion and is a key aspect of prospect theory. 115) Of all the decisions we make in our lives, we are most likely to express the greatest regret regarding our education and career choices because there are few alternatives from which to choose. A) True B) False Answer: False Rationale: The likelihood of expressing regret over specific decisions can vary greatly depending on individual circumstances, values, and the availability of alternatives. While education and career choices are undoubtedly significant, the level of regret experienced can differ widely among individuals and may not necessarily be the highest. 116) We can conclude from Philip Tetlock’s research that with respect to politics, no one can routinely predict the future. A) True B) False Answer: True Rationale: Philip Tetlock's research on expert political judgment concluded that even political experts have limited ability to predict future events accurately. This finding underscores the complexity and uncertainty inherent in political forecasting, suggesting that routine prediction of political outcomes is challenging for experts and non-experts alike. 117) The domain of __________ occupies the intersection of philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive psychology, and computer science (artificial intelligence). Answer: cognitive science Rationale: Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses the study of the mind and its processes, including perception, memory, reasoning, and decision-making. It draws from various disciplines such as philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive psychology, and computer science to understand how the mind works and how it interacts with the world. 118) A(n) __________ is a speech error in which there is an exchange of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or sentence. Answer: spoonerism Rationale: Spoonerisms are named after Reverend William Archibald Spooner, who was known for making such speech errors. They occur when the initial sounds or letters of two or more words in a phrase or sentence are swapped, often resulting in a humorous or nonsensical utterance. 119) Research has suggested that meaning representation begins with basic units called __________, which are the main ideas of utterances. Answer: propositions Rationale: Propositions are the basic units of meaning that convey the main ideas or assertions of an utterance. They represent the relationships between entities or events and serve as building blocks for understanding language and forming coherent thoughts. 120) In our conversations with others, missing information is often filled in on the basis of a sample of evidence or on the basis of prior beliefs and theories. These logical assumptions are called __________. Answer: inferences Rationale: Inferences are logical deductions or assumptions made to fill in missing information based on available evidence, prior knowledge, beliefs, or theories. They are essential for making sense of incomplete or ambiguous communication and are integral to the process of understanding language and forming judgments. 121) In the formal definition of a problem, __________ are the steps you may take to move from an initial state to a goal state. Answer: operations Rationale: Operations in problem-solving refer to the specific actions or steps that can be taken to transition from an initial state, where the problem is presented, to a goal state, which represents the desired solution. Identifying and executing appropriate operations are crucial for solving problems effectively. 122) A(n) __________ is a step-by-step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem. Answer: algorithm Rationale: An algorithm is a systematic, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a solution to a specific type of problem. Algorithms are precise and deterministic, meaning that if followed correctly, they will always produce the correct solution within a finite number of steps. 123) A participant in a study of problem solving is asked to verbalize his ongoing thoughts while working on a task. The researcher is using a procedure referred to as a(n) __________. Answer: think-aloud protocol Rationale: A think-aloud protocol involves asking participants to verbalize their thoughts, reasoning processes, and decision-making strategies as they work on a task or solve a problem. This technique provides insight into the participant's cognitive processes and allows researchers to understand how individuals approach and tackle different tasks. 124) People tend to judge as valid those conclusions for which they can construct a realworld model, and judge as invalid those for which they cannot. If your prior knowledge, attitudes, or values distort your reasoning process by influencing you to accept invalid arguments, you have fallen victim to the __________ effect. Answer: belief-bias Rationale: Belief bias refers to the tendency for individuals to evaluate the validity of arguments based on their prior knowledge, attitudes, or values rather than purely on logical reasoning. This bias can lead people to accept invalid arguments that align with their beliefs and reject valid arguments that contradict their beliefs. 125) A(n) __________ is similar to a textbook problem in which initial state, goal state, and operations are all clearly specified, whereas a(n) __________ may not have a clear initial state, goal state, or clearly defined operations. Answer: well-defined problem; ill-defined problem Rationale: Well-defined problems are those that have clearly specified initial states, goal states, and operations or steps to reach the solution, much like textbook problems. In contrast, ill-defined problems lack clear parameters or may have ambiguous initial states, goal states, or operations, making them more challenging to solve and requiring more creativity and problem-solving strategies. 126) Regarding language production, quantity, quality, relation, and manner are maxims of __________. Answer: Grice's cooperative principle Rationale: Grice's cooperative principle is a theory of communication proposed by philosopher H.P. Grice. It suggests that in conversation, people adhere to four maxims: quantity (providing just enough information), quality (being truthful), relation (being relevant), and manner (being clear and concise). These maxims guide effective communication by promoting clarity, relevance, and mutual understanding between speakers and listeners. 127) More than 125 years ago, the Dutch physiologist F. C. Donders devised a new method to study the "speed of mental processes." Describe the rationale on which this method was based, then compare the use of this method to the techniques that psychologists are currently using to study mental processes, including the use of reaction time and mental processes. Answer: Donders invented a series of mental tasks he thought were different from one another in terms of mental steps involved. His fundamental assumption that more mental steps take more time is still assumed in much of cognitive research today. Include an example of this technique, an explanation of reaction time and an example of its use, and the use of mental processes and resources in current research. 128) Describe how cognitive psychologists break down processes such as problem solving or language use into their component processes. Use serial and parallel processes, controlled processes, and automatic processes to help explain how complex mental processes are carried out. Answer: Refer to "Mental Processes and Mental Resources" for the answer. Cognitive psychologists build one block of understanding at a time to see how each block is composed and to see how they fit together. A brief description of controlled and automatic processes as well as reaction time is suggested. Examples from problem solving or language production specifically may be used but are not required. 129) Language users both produce and understand language. How do speakers design their utterances to suit particular audiences? Describe and give examples of Grice's four maxims that cooperative speakers live by and explain the concept of common ground. Answer: Include and explain briefly Grice’s maxims—quantity, quality, relation, and manner. An accurate speaker has knowledge of the listener and will match what he says to the accurate knowledge of what the listener is likely to know and understand. Include Herbert Clark’s ideas of listeners and their expectations of common ground. Talk about community membership, copresence for actions, and perceptual copresence. 130) What evidence is there that other species are capable of language? Outline studies that have been done in the lab and field to answer this question. Answer: Overview early studies with chimpanzees and sign language, and later SavageRumbaugh’s study with the bonobos Kanzi and Mulika. For the field, Cheney and Seyfarth’s study with vervet monkeys. 131) A friend of yours has a problem. His teacher has assigned him to make a presentation on problem solving and reasoning, but he doesn't know where to begin. You suggest that he might start with how problems are defined, how researchers might study problem solving, and why people have difficulty solving problems. Then, he might compare and contrast deductive and inductive reasoning, and show how people use heuristics when making judgments and decisions. Summarize what your friend's presentation might look like. Answer: Define problem solving in terms of problem spaces and processes. Define algorithms and think-aloud protocols. Include the idea that we can more easily find new solutions if we are very aware of the old ones and do not have to use many resources remembering the well-used approaches. Include definitions of inductive and deductive reasoning and how they complement one another. 132) What are heuristics, and how are they useful? Give some examples of where heuristics lead to incorrect judgments. Answer: Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that provide shortcuts in making judgments. Describe availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic. 133) Why do frames play such a large role in decision making? Answer: A frame is a particular description of a choice. Choice can be influenced by whether it is presented in a survival frame or a mortality frame. 134) What happens when people ask whether they made the right decision? How does knowing the costs associated with particular decisions influence choice? How does anticipating regret affect decision making? Answer: People may feel regret if a decision turns out badly. Knowing the costs associated with particular decisions can increase regret. If we anticipate regret, we’re more likely to take time and research our decision, or we may engage in decision aversion. 1) Cognition is a synonym for __________. A) perception B) learning C) thinking D) intelligence Answer: C Rationale: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thinking, experiencing, and sensing. While perception is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli, learning involves acquiring new knowledge or skills, and intelligence refers to overall mental capacity, cognition specifically pertains to the thinking process. 2) A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings is called _____. A) perception B) learning C) language D) intelligence Answer: C Rationale: Language is a system of communication that uses symbols (such as words) to convey meaning. It allows individuals to express their ideas, thoughts, and feelings to others. While perception involves the interpretation of sensory information, learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills, and intelligence refers to mental capacity, language specifically refers to the communication system. 3) Problem-solving methods that guarantee solutions if appropriate and properly executed are called __________. A) prototypes B) algorithms C) heuristics D) non-compensatory models Answer: B Rationale: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures or formulas that, if followed correctly, ensure a solution to a problem. They provide a systematic approach to problem-solving and are used in various fields, including mathematics, computer science, and everyday life. 4) A formula is an example of a(n) __________. A) logarithm B) algorithm C) response set D) heuristic Answer: B Rationale: A formula represents a specific set of mathematical or logical operations designed to solve a particular problem or calculate a result. As algorithms are step-by-step procedures or formulas that guarantee solutions if properly executed, a formula fits this definition. 5) Rules of thumb that do not guarantee a solution but may help bring one within reach are called __________. A) functional sets B) heuristics C) algorithms D) problem states Answer: B Rationale: Heuristics are general problem-solving strategies or "rules of thumb" that may not guarantee a solution but can help in reaching a solution more efficiently. They provide shortcuts or guidelines for problem-solving but do not ensure success in every case. 6) Ivan is a consultant who has been asked to solve a technical problem for an electronics firm. When he arrives at the firm, he finds that the problem is exactly like a problem he has solved before. The first time he solved the problem it took him 37 hours. This time it takes him 26 hours. The MOST likely reason for his faster solution this time is __________. A) means-end analysis B) hill-climbing C) mental set D) creating subgoals Answer: C Rationale: A mental set refers to a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often based on previous experiences or strategies that have been successful in similar situations. In this case, Ivan's previous experience with solving the same problem likely allowed him to adopt a familiar approach, leading to a quicker solution. Test Bank for Psychology and Life Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo, Serge Desmarais, Tammy Ivanco 9780205037117, 9780205859139
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