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Chapter 8 Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity 8.1 Hypothesis Testing 1) Which of the following characterizes experimental research? A) seeking the strength and direction of relationships B) hypothesis generating as the major aim C) high control and causal inferences D) the goal of observing contingent relationships Answer: C Rationale: Experimental research is characterized by high control over variables, allowing researchers to make causal inferences about the relationships between variables. This distinguishes it from other types of research such as correlational studies where causality cannot be inferred. 2) An experimental research hypothesis A) seeks correlational relationships. B) is a vague statement. C) is a specific prediction. D) is a general prediction. Answer: C Rationale: An experimental research hypothesis is a specific prediction about the relationship between variables that is testable through experimentation. It is not vague or general but rather focused and precise. 3) Testing research hypotheses A) is crucial in experimental research. B) is rare in research. C) occurs mainly at the naturalistic level of research. D) cannot be done at the experimental level of research. Answer: A Rationale: Testing research hypotheses is crucial in experimental research because it allows researchers to systematically investigate the effects of variables under controlled conditions, enabling them to make causal inferences. 4) The procedures for measuring or manipulating a concept are A) theoretical concepts. B) the statistical analyses to test the null hypothesis. C) operational definitions. D) problem statements. Answer: C Rationale: Operational definitions specify how a concept will be measured or manipulated in a study, providing clarity and consistency in research procedures. 5) Research hypotheses are important A) at all levels of research. B) at the idea-generating stage only. C) during observations only. D) at the experimental level only. Answer: A Rationale: Research hypotheses are important at all levels of research as they guide the research process, from generating ideas to making predictions and testing theories. 6) Which of the following is NOT an important step in developing a research hypothesis? A) making a statement of the problem B) making a search of existing literature C) developing an operational definition D) analyzing the observational data Answer: D Rationale: Analyzing observational data is not a step in developing a research hypothesis. Instead, it is a step that comes after data collection and is part of the data analysis process. 7) Research hypotheses at the experimental level are represented by which of the following statements? A) The relationship between variables is significant. B) There is a significant difference between groups. C) Variable A is contingent on variable B. D) Variable A will significantly affect variable B. Answer: D Rationale: In experimental research, hypotheses typically involve predicting the effect of one variable (independent variable) on another variable (dependent variable), such as stating that variable A will significantly affect variable B. 8) At the experimental level of constraint, the hypothesis is concerned with A) causality. B) the degree of relationship between variables. C) complex scientific theories of prediction. D) None of the above Answer: A Rationale: Experimental research is designed to establish causal relationships between variables, making causality a central concern at the experimental level of constraint. 9) At the correlational level, the hypothesis is concerned with A) causality. B) confounding relationships among variables. C) relationships among variables that might be used to make predictions. D) theories of prediction. Answer: C Rationale: Correlational research focuses on identifying relationships among variables that can be used to make predictions, rather than establishing causality. 10) One of the major differences between experimental research and research from other levels of constraint is A) that causality is not possible to establish through experimentation. B) that establishing causality is the major goal in experimentation. C) that experimental research does not need to use a high degree of control. D) that experimental research is more credible than low-constraint research. Answer: B Rationale: Establishing causality is a major goal in experimental research, distinguishing it from other types of research where causality may not be as readily established. Experimental research relies on manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships. 11) A crucial part of the experimental research process is A) establishing correlations. B) measuring, but not manipulating, variables. C) hypothesis testing. D) establishing preexisting groups. Answer: C Rationale: Hypothesis testing is a fundamental aspect of experimental research where researchers propose a specific hypothesis and then systematically test it through experimentation to determine its validity. This process involves manipulating variables to observe the effects on other variables, allowing researchers to draw conclusions about causality. 12) Initial research ideas are A) stated as questions. B) almost always discarded. C) the research hypotheses. D) put into declarative form. Answer: A Rationale: Initial research ideas are typically formulated as questions that researchers seek to explore or investigate further. These questions guide the direction of the research and help formulate hypotheses to be tested. 13) In an experiment, initial ideas A) state the research hypothesis. B) are discarded. C) are unnecessary. D) are refined into a problem statement. Answer: D Rationale: Initial ideas in an experiment are not yet fully formed hypotheses but rather starting points for the research process. These ideas undergo refinement into a problem statement, which specifies the research question or issue to be addressed in the study. 14) Initial ideas have survived your personal evaluation. The next step of the research process would be A) analyzing the data. B) forming the problem statement. C) establishing causality. D) None of the above Answer: B Rationale: Once initial ideas have been evaluated and refined, the next step is to form a problem statement. This statement crystallizes the research question or issue, setting the stage for designing the experiment. 15) The statement of the problem A) is never complete until all the data are collected. B) is a refinement of the initial ideas. C) is produced by adding the operational definitions. D) specifies the experimental manipulation. Answer: B Rationale: The statement of the problem is a refined version of the initial ideas that have been evaluated and developed further. It outlines the research question or issue to be addressed in the study, providing a clear direction for the research. 16) A good statement of the problem A) is not needed at the correlational level of research. B) is presented in the form of a question. C) depends entirely on the operational definitions. D) is primarily focused on the independent variable(s). Answer: B Rationale: A good statement of the problem is often framed as a question, as it clearly articulates the research issue or question being investigated. This helps to focus the research and guide the formulation of hypotheses. 17) Which of the following represents the best example of a problem statement at the experimental level of constraint? A) Are mathematical and verbal ability correlated? B) Does the presence of a stranger in the room increase the crying of an infant? C) What are some of the behaviors of herring gulls? D) What behaviors are associated with a rise in temperature? Answer: B Rationale: The best example of a problem statement at the experimental level of constraint is option B. It clearly poses a specific research question that can be empirically tested through experimentation, involving manipulation of variables (presence of a stranger) to observe their effects (increase in infant crying). 18) The classic research by Darley and Latane (1968) demonstrated the importance of A) coming to the aid of a bystander. B) having a large number of people present to prevent violent crime. C) constructing a good problem statement. D) basing a problem statement on common sense. Answer: C Rationale: Darley and Latane's classic research demonstrated the importance of constructing a good problem statement by examining the bystander effect. Their study highlighted how the formulation of a clear research question and problem statement can lead to significant insights into human behavior. 19) Which of the following is characteristic of a good statement of the problem? A) It should state clearly the expected relationships between variables. B) It identifies the statistical procedures. C) It need not, at this stage, suggest the possibility of empirical testing. D) It is not particularly important at lower levels of research. Answer: A Rationale: A characteristic of a good statement of the problem is that it should clearly articulate the expected relationships between variables. This helps to focus the research and guide the formulation of hypotheses that can be empirically tested. 20) In experimental research, a good statement of the problem will include A) statistical analyses. B) identification of at least two variables. C) data collection. D) specification of the number of participants. Answer: B Rationale: In experimental research, a good statement of the problem will include the identification of at least two variables. This helps to define the relationship between the variables and sets the stage for designing experiments to investigate this relationship. 21) A good statement of the problem A) is concerned only with inductive prediction. B) specifies the number of participants needed. C) includes the statistical procedures. D) should imply the possibility of empirical testing. Answer: D Rationale: A good statement of the problem should imply the possibility of empirical testing because research aims to investigate phenomena through observation and experimentation. Without the potential for empirical testing, the problem statement lacks practical utility in the scientific context. 22) In the research on autistic children discussed at several points in the text, A) the independent variable was disruption. B) the research was carried out at an experimental level. C) the study clearly showed a causal relationship. D) the dependent variable was disruption. Answer: D Rationale: In research, the dependent variable is the one being measured or tested for its response to changes in the independent variable. In the context of the research on autistic children, disruption (presumably referring to behavioral disruption) would likely be the dependent variable, as it is what is being observed or measured. 23) According to Kerlinger, one of the most important criteria of a good problem statement is A) that it should propose specific empirical research. B) that it should avoid discussing relationships between variables. C) that the problem should be posed in the form of a statement. D) that the problem should be stated clearly in the form of a question. Answer: D Rationale: Kerlinger emphasizes that a good problem statement should be stated clearly in the form of a question. This helps to provide clarity and direction to the research endeavor, guiding the formulation of hypotheses and the design of empirical investigations. 24) After the statement of the problem has been clearly defined and the major variables identified, the next step in developing a research hypothesis is to A) test the problem statement on research participants. B) operationally define the variables. C) analyze the data. D) interpret the results. Answer: B Rationale: Once the major variables are identified, the next step is to operationally define them, which means specifying how each variable will be measured or manipulated in the research context. This step is crucial for ensuring that the variables are measurable and that the research procedures are clear and replicable. 25) At all levels of constraint, variables are defined both A) theoretically and conceptually. B) operationally and practically. C) conceptually and operationally. D) dependently and independently. Answer: C Rationale: Variables are defined conceptually in terms of their theoretical meaning and operationally in terms of how they are measured or manipulated in a specific research context. Both conceptual and operational definitions are necessary for a comprehensive understanding of variables in research. 26) Developing a precise operational definition of a construct, such as relaxation, helps us A) to decide what area we want to do research in. B) to develop a complete theory of relaxation. C) to analyze our results statistically. D) to communicate our procedures to other researchers. Answer: D Rationale: Developing a precise operational definition of a construct like relaxation helps researchers communicate their procedures effectively to other researchers, ensuring consistency and clarity in the research process. This is crucial for replication and building upon existing knowledge in the field. 27) A good research hypothesis A) poses a causal question. B) involves at least three variables. C) specifies the correct statistical procedure to use. D) implies that the predicted relationship can be tested empirically. Answer: D Rationale: A good research hypothesis implies that the predicted relationship can be tested empirically because hypotheses are statements proposing a specific relationship between variables, which can be tested through empirical research methods. 28) Which of the following is NOT characteristic of a good research hypothesis? A) It is a declarative statement. B) It identifies at least two variables. C) It states a predicted relationship. D) It is in the form of a question. Answer: D Rationale: A good research hypothesis is typically a declarative statement that identifies at least two variables and states a predicted relationship between them. It is not typically formulated as a question because it asserts a specific expectation about the relationship between variables. 29) In the relaxation research with autistic children, autonomic arousal was A) an inferred state. B) an observed state. C) a fact. D) an artifact. Answer: A Rationale: Autonomic arousal, being an internal physiological state, is typically inferred rather than directly observed. In the context of research, it is often assessed indirectly through measures such as heart rate or skin conductance rather than directly observed. 30) A major criterion for a good research hypothesis is A) to make a statement about the relationship between variables. B) to state explicitly what type of conclusion is expected to be drawn. C) to avoid making a statement about the relationship between variables. D) to avoid studying anything controversial. Answer: A Rationale: A major criterion for a good research hypothesis is to make a statement about the relationship between variables because hypotheses are assertions about the expected relationship between variables, which forms the basis for empirical testing and inference in research. 31) In the relaxation research with autistic children, the intensity of disruptive behavior A) was measured before and after training. B) was measured after training, but not before. C) was not measured. D) was measured on an ordinal scale. Answer: A Rationale: By measuring the intensity of disruptive behavior both before and after training, researchers can observe any changes or improvements due to the training program, allowing for a comparison of effectiveness. 32) In experimental research, the research hypothesis A) is always stated as a question. B) is constructed by combining the operational definitions with the problem statement. C) can be discarded once the study begins. D) is constructed by restating the operational definitions. Answer: B Rationale: The research hypothesis is formulated based on the problem statement and operational definitions, as it articulates the expected relationship between variables, guiding the experimental investigation. 33) A research hypothesis A) states how to analyze the data. B) makes a statement about expected relationships among variables. C) is useful only at the experimental level of constraint. D) is stated in the form of a question. Answer: B Rationale: The research hypothesis predicts the relationship between variables in a study, providing a specific statement about what the researcher expects to find, guiding the direction of the analysis. 34) A research hypothesis A) is a tentative statement. B) must include at least three variables. C) is used only at the experimental level. D) cannot be directly tested. Answer: A Rationale: A research hypothesis is a tentative statement that suggests an expected relationship between variables, providing a direction for the research inquiry. It is subject to testing and evaluation. 35) Which hypothesis is directly tested in an experiment? A) one specific confounding variable hypothesis B) all of the confounding variables hypotheses C) the research hypothesis D) Both B and C Answer: C Rationale: The research hypothesis is directly tested in an experiment as it articulates the specific relationship between variables that the researcher aims to investigate and validate through empirical observation. 36) Theory is A) important only when facts are absent. B) critical in developing the research hypothesis. C) a proof of ideas being "right" or "wrong." D) generally of little use in factual-oriented, hard science. Answer: B Rationale: Theory provides a framework for understanding phenomena and generating hypotheses. It guides the development of research hypotheses by helping researchers formulate educated guesses about expected relationships between variables. 37) Most research involves A) the creation of new constructs. B) constructs that have already been studied extensively. C) testing causal hypotheses. D) correlational hypotheses. Answer: B Rationale: Most research builds upon existing knowledge by studying constructs that have already been explored to varying extents, aiming to contribute new insights or validate previous findings within the field. 38) In developing the research hypothesis, A) theoretical constructs should be avoided. B) theory plays a critical role. C) theory is of little value at this stage. D) at least three theoretical constructs are required. Answer: B Rationale: Theory plays a critical role in developing the research hypothesis as it provides a conceptual framework for understanding the phenomenon under investigation and guiding the formulation of specific hypotheses. 39) The research hypothesis is A) a single hypothesis. B) a complex statement involving four or more hypotheses. C) a complex statement involving three implicit hypotheses. D) None of the above Answer: C Rationale: The research hypothesis typically involves three implicit hypotheses, including the null hypothesis, the confounding variable hypothesis, and the causal hypothesis, collectively providing a comprehensive statement about the expected relationship between variables. 40) The research hypothesis involves which three hypotheses? A) the null, the statistical, and the analytic hypotheses B) the statistical, the null, and the causal hypotheses C) the null, the confounding variable, and the causal hypotheses D) the statistical, the confounding variable, and the analytic hypotheses Answer: C Rationale: The research hypothesis encompasses the null hypothesis (to be rejected), the confounding variable hypothesis (to be controlled for), and the causal hypothesis (to be supported), collectively forming the foundation for empirical testing and analysis. 41) The research hypothesis is a A) null statement. B) simple statement. C) complex statement. D) probability statement. Answer: C Rationale: The research hypothesis is typically a complex statement that suggests a relationship between variables or predicts an outcome. It is not a null statement (option A), a simple statement (option B), or a probability statement (option D). 42) The experimental research hypothesis encompasses which three hypotheses? A) the null, the statistical, and the correlational hypotheses B) the causal, the confounding variable, and the correlational hypotheses C) the relational, the differential, and the causal hypotheses D) the statistical, the confounding variable, and the causal hypotheses Answer: D Rationale: The experimental research hypothesis typically includes the statistical hypothesis (to determine if there is a significant difference), the confounding variable hypothesis (to address potential confounds), and the causal hypothesis (to establish causality). Option D reflects this understanding. 43) The research hypothesis includes A) only the null hypothesis. B) only the null and causal hypotheses. C) only the causal hypothesis. D) None of the above Answer: D Rationale: The research hypothesis typically includes more than just the null and causal hypotheses. It often encompasses various hypotheses related to the experimental design, including statistical hypotheses and hypotheses about potential confounding variables. 44) In what order are hypotheses tested or addressed in experimental research? A) The order varies, depending on the specifics of the experiment. B) the confounding variable, the statistical, and then the causal C) the statistical, the confounding variable, and then the causal D) the causal, the statistical, and then the confounding variable Answer: C Rationale: In experimental research, hypotheses are typically tested in the order of statistical hypotheses (to determine if there is a significant difference), followed by addressing potential confounding variables, and finally establishing causality. Option C reflects this sequence. 45) The null hypothesis states that A) statistically significant differences are due to extraneous factors. B) there are differences beyond chance between two conditions. C) the independent variable has the predicted effect on the dependent variable. D) there are no statistically significant differences between conditions. Answer: D Rationale: The null hypothesis states that there are no statistically significant differences between conditions, suggesting that any observed differences are due to chance variation or sampling error. 46) The first of the three embedded hypotheses to test in the example of relaxation training is the A) statistical hypothesis. B) confounding variable hypothesis. C) extraneous variable hypothesis. D) causal hypothesis. Answer: A Rationale: In the context of relaxation training, the first hypothesis to test would typically be the statistical hypothesis, which determines if there is a significant difference between conditions based on the intervention (relaxation training). 47) The null hypothesis states that A) the two conditions are conceptually different. B) there is no difference between the two conditions beyond chance differences. C) the two conditions are statistically different. D) the experimental treatment will produce an effect. Answer: B Rationale: The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the two conditions beyond what would be expected due to chance or random variation. 48) Statistical tests show A) that the causal hypothesis is true. B) whether there is a difference between conditions. C) that demographic variables are not involved. D) that an observed difference is due to extraneous variables. Answer: B Rationale: Statistical tests are used to determine whether there is a significant difference between conditions, which helps to evaluate the statistical hypothesis but does not directly confirm the truth of the causal hypothesis. 49) If the null hypothesis has been rejected, we should consider that A) the causal hypothesis can be accepted. B) the causal hypothesis cannot be rejected. C) extraneous variables may have affected the study. D) extraneous variables do not affect the hypothesis. Answer: C Rationale: If the null hypothesis is rejected, it suggests that there is a significant difference between conditions. However, this could be due to factors other than the independent variable, such as extraneous variables. Therefore, it's important to consider the potential influence of extraneous variables. 50) In order to accept the causal hypothesis, A) the null hypothesis must first be accepted. B) both the null and the confounding variable hypotheses must be accepted. C) both the null and confounding variable hypotheses must be rejected. D) only the confounding variable hypotheses need to be rejected. Answer: C Rationale: To accept the causal hypothesis, one must reject both the null hypothesis (indicating a significant difference between conditions) and the confounding variable hypothesis (indicating that other factors aren't influencing the results), thus supporting the conclusion that the observed effect is indeed caused by the independent variable. 51) The task of ruling out confounding variables as explanations of the results is done primarily A) during data interpretation. B) in low-constraint research. C) during the design phase of the research. D) during the data analysis. Answer: C Rationale: During the design phase of research, researchers carefully consider potential confounding variables and implement strategies to control for them. This includes selecting appropriate research designs, using randomization techniques, and implementing control measures to minimize the influence of extraneous variables. 52) In a study in which the null hypothesis has been rejected, we should be aware of the possibility of A) confounding variable hypotheses. B) Type II errors. C) change due to new observations. D) All of the above Answer: A Rationale: When the null hypothesis is rejected, it means there is evidence to suggest that the independent variable had an effect on the dependent variable. However, it's essential to consider the possibility that this observed effect could be due to confounding variables rather than the manipulated independent variable. 53) In a research study, we have rejected the null hypothesis. Next, we must rule out the A) confounding variable hypotheses. B) causal hypothesis. C) statistical hypothesis. D) None of the above Answer: A Rationale: After rejecting the null hypothesis, researchers must ensure that the observed differences between groups are not due to confounding variables. This involves systematically considering and controlling for alternative explanations for the results. 54) The confounding variable hypothesis suggests A) differences are due to the independent variable. B) statistically significant differences may be due to extraneous variables. C) the null hypothesis is rejected. D) causality can be inferred at the differential level of constraint. Answer: B Rationale: The confounding variable hypothesis posits that the observed differences between groups may be attributed to extraneous variables rather than the manipulated independent variable. It underscores the importance of considering and controlling for these extraneous variables in research design and analysis. 55) The confounding variable hypothesis states that A) the independent variable affects the dependent variable. B) statistical differences are due to extraneous factors that have a systematic effect on the independent measure. C) statistical differences are due to extraneous factors that have a systematic effect on the dependent measure. D) None of the above Answer: C Rationale: The confounding variable hypothesis asserts that the observed statistical differences between groups are a result of extraneous factors systematically influencing the dependent variable, rather than the manipulated independent variable. 56) Conclusions based on experimental research depend heavily on A) nonparametric statistical procedures. B) random selection of participants from a general population. C) ruling out alternative hypotheses. D) large numbers of participants. Answer: C Rationale: In experimental research, it is crucial to rule out alternative hypotheses, including confounding variables, to ensure that the observed effects are indeed due to the manipulated independent variable and not other factors. 57) In the example given in the textbook of relaxation training for autistic children, the "maturational factors" were A) independent variables. B) dependent variables. C) classification variables. D) potential confounding variables. Answer: D Rationale: Maturational factors, which refer to natural developmental changes over time, could potentially confound the results of the study on relaxation training for autistic children. They represent extraneous variables that need to be considered and controlled for in the research design. 58) The confounding variable hypothesis is ruled out A) by careful research design and inspection procedures. B) by directly testing it as a statistical hypothesis. C) through statistical methods. D) in the data collection phase of the research. Answer: A Rationale: The confounding variable hypothesis is addressed by meticulous research design, including the implementation of control measures and inspection procedures to minimize the influence of extraneous variables on the results. 59) Alternative explanations in science are also known as A) null hypotheses. B) rival hypotheses. C) research hypotheses. D) extraneous variables. Answer: B Rationale: Alternative explanations in science, which compete with the hypothesis being tested, are commonly referred to as rival hypotheses. These hypotheses need to be considered and evaluated to ensure the validity of scientific findings. 60) In research on the effects of noise on sleep, a researcher wonders whether disrupted sleep may be due to drinking coffee rather than to living near an airport. What type of hypothesis is this? A) a confounding variable hypothesis B) a null hypothesis C) a research hypothesis D) a moot hypothesis Answer: A Rationale: The researcher's concern about disrupted sleep being attributed to drinking coffee rather than living near an airport reflects a confounding variable hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that the observed effect may be due to an extraneous variable (coffee consumption) rather than the manipulated independent variable (noise exposure). 61) In research on the effects of noise on sleep, a researcher wonders whether disrupted sleep may be due to drinking coffee rather than to living near an airport. How would a researcher deal with the question posed in this hypothesis? A) By testing the hypothesis like any other hypothesis. B) By asking all participants to eliminate coffee from their diet for the duration of the study. C) By using post hoc statistical controls. D) By attempting to reject the null hypothesis. Answer: B Rationale: By asking participants to eliminate coffee from their diet, the researcher can isolate the effect of noise on sleep without the potential confounding factor of caffeine intake. This helps in establishing a clearer relationship between noise and sleep disruption. 62) The causal hypothesis states that A) the independent variable has the predicted effect on the dependent variable. B) the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable. C) the dependent variable has the predicted effect on the independent variable. D) the dependent variable is confounded with the independent variable. Answer: A Rationale: The causal hypothesis asserts that changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable. It predicts a directional relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 63) The causal hypothesis states that the ________ has the predicted effect on the ________. A) researcher; results B) dependent variable; independent variable C) independent variable; dependent variable D) null hypothesis; research hypothesis Answer: C Rationale: The causal hypothesis posits that changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable. Therefore, the independent variable is expected to have a predicted effect on the dependent variable. 64) In a well-run study, we can have ________ but NOT ________ in the results. A) certainty; predictability B) predictability; confidence C) interest; confidence D) confidence; certainty Answer: D Rationale: Confidence in the results indicates the degree of belief in their accuracy and validity. Certainty, however, implies absolute assurance, which is often not attainable in empirical research due to various factors such as sampling error and measurement limitations. 65) Most problem statements can be developed into A) several different research hypotheses. B) only one true research hypothesis. C) hypotheses that cannot be tested empirically. D) confounding variables. Answer: A Rationale: Problem statements often lend themselves to multiple research hypotheses because there can be different ways of addressing or investigating a particular problem or phenomenon. 66) In the two-group, posttest-only design involving autistic children, it was possible to A) compare scores on a pretest measure. B) randomly assign participants to groups. C) establish the cause of autism. D) avoid replication by answering all questions with one design. Answer: B Rationale: In the two-group, posttest-only design, random assignment of participants to groups helps in ensuring that any observed differences between the groups can be attributed to the treatment rather than pre-existing differences. 67) The same problem statement can be combined with different operational definitions A) only at the experimental level of constraint. B) during the data analysis phase of research. C) to generate different research hypotheses. D) in order to eliminate faulty operational definitions. Answer: C Rationale: Different operational definitions can lead to different research hypotheses because they influence how variables are measured or manipulated, thereby shaping the possible outcomes and interpretations of the study. 68) In an experiment, the causal hypothesis A) cannot be confirmed or disconfirmed. B) is accepted before the null hypothesis is rejected. C) is accepted only if the null hypothesis is accepted. D) can be accepted only if the null hypothesis is rejected. Answer: D Rationale: In experimental research, the causal hypothesis is accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating that the manipulation of the independent variable has a significant effect on the dependent variable. 69) A single problem statement can be A) used to develop only a single research hypothesis. B) developed into no more than two hypotheses. C) developed into several different hypotheses. D) used in only a single study. Answer: C Rationale: A single problem statement can lead to the exploration of various research hypotheses because there may be multiple plausible ways to investigate or address the underlying issue or phenomenon. 8.2 Validity and Threats to Validity 1) The concept that a procedure really does test what it is supposed to test is called A) determination. B) replication. C) reliability. D) validity. Answer: D Rationale: Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or procedure accurately assesses the construct or variable it is intended to measure. It ensures that the research accurately captures the intended phenomenon or relationship. 2) A major task of a researcher is to A) achieve absolute validity. B) try to answer all questions on a topic with one research design. C) understand all computations in statistical analyses. D) anticipate all potential threats to validity. Answer: D Rationale: Anticipating all potential threats to validity is crucial for ensuring the robustness and reliability of research findings. Researchers must actively identify and address any factors that could compromise the validity of their study, whether they are related to internal, external, construct, or statistical validity. This involves careful consideration of various sources of bias, confounding variables, and limitations in the research design or methodology. 3) The four types of validity are A) statistical, construct, external, and internal. B) face, statistical, construct, and absolute. C) statistical, construct, integral, and digital. D) face, statistical, annual, and perennial. Answer: A Rationale: The four types of validity commonly recognized in research methodology are statistical validity, construct validity, external validity, and internal validity. Each type addresses different aspects of the research process, including the accuracy and generalizability of findings, the soundness of measurement instruments, and the degree to which causal inferences can be drawn from the data. 4) The type of validity involved in testing the null hypothesis is A) face validity. B) statistical validity. C) construct validity. D) external validity. Answer: B Rationale: Statistical validity concerns the accuracy and appropriateness of statistical techniques used in data analysis. Testing the null hypothesis involves statistical procedures such as hypothesis testing and p-values, which are essential for evaluating the significance of research findings within a particular statistical framework. 5) Which of the following is NOT a type of validity? A) statistical B) construct C) internal D) posttest Answer: D Rationale: Posttest is not a type of validity; it typically refers to a measurement or assessment administered after an intervention or experimental treatment to evaluate its effects. Statistical, construct, internal, and external validity, on the other hand, are all important considerations in research methodology that address different aspects of the validity and reliability of study findings. 6) Experiments are conducted not only to find evidence for a position, but also to A) avoid tentative conclusions. B) prove one's theory. C) rule out rival hypotheses. D) determine the absolute truth. Answer: C Rationale: One of the primary purposes of experiments is to test hypotheses by systematically manipulating variables and observing their effects on outcomes. By ruling out rival hypotheses or alternative explanations for the observed results, researchers can strengthen the validity of their conclusions and make more confident inferences about causal relationships. 7) Construct validity examines A) the technical aspects of research. B) how well a study's results support the theory behind the research. C) aspects of participant behavior in studies. D) None of the above Answer: B Rationale: Construct validity assesses the extent to which a measurement or operationalization accurately represents the theoretical construct it is intended to measure. It evaluates the alignment between theoretical concepts or constructs and the methods used to measure or manipulate them in a study. Therefore, it focuses on the relationship between theory and empirical observations. 8) ________ validity refers to how well the study's results support the theoretical basis of the research. A) Internal B) External C) Construct D) Statistical Answer: C Rationale: Construct validity specifically pertains to the extent to which the results of a study align with the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which the research is based. It evaluates whether the operational definitions of variables accurately capture the underlying constructs of interest and whether the study's findings provide empirical support for the hypothesized relationships proposed by the theory. 9) Since the data on gender differences in mathematical ability tend to support both a nature and a nurture hypothesis, the ________ validity of any one interpretation is in doubt. A) internal B) construct C) statistical D) external Answer: B Rationale: The conflicting evidence regarding the nature versus nurture explanation for gender differences in mathematical ability highlights the uncertainty surrounding the construct validity of either interpretation. Construct validity is concerned with the accuracy of inferences drawn from data about the underlying theoretical constructs, and conflicting findings can cast doubt on the validity of any single interpretation or explanation. 10) External validity refers to A) generalizability of findings. B) the interaction between the independent and dependent variable. C) changes due to maturation. D) None of the above Answer: A Rationale: External validity pertains to the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized or applied to other populations, settings, or contexts beyond the specific conditions under which the research was conducted. It addresses the issue of whether the results obtained in one study are representative and applicable to broader populations or real-world situations. 11) If we wish to apply results of a study to a wider population, the type of validity that we would be concerned about would be A) statistical validity. B) internal validity. C) external validity. D) construct validity. Answer: C Rationale: When researchers aim to generalize the findings of a study to broader populations or realworld contexts, they are concerned with external validity. External validity assesses the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific sample, conditions, or settings in which the research was conducted, thus ensuring the relevance and applicability of the findings to wider populations or situations. 12) The degree to which we can generalize the results of a study to other participants and conditions is called A) construct validity. B) general validity. C) external validity. D) internal validity. Answer: C Rationale: External validity refers to the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and conditions beyond those in the study itself. It assesses the relevance and applicability of research findings to the broader world. Therefore, the correct answer is C) external validity. 13) Suppose a psychoanalyst studies enuretic children seen in her private practice. She observed that each child suffers from Oedipal conflicts and thus concluded that all enuretic children suffer from such conflicts. This conclusion illustrates a problem with what type of validity? A) absolute B) statistical C) internal D) external Answer: D Rationale: The scenario describes an issue with external validity. External validity concerns the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized beyond the specific conditions or participants studied. In this case, the psychoanalyst's conclusion may not apply to all enuretic children, indicating a lack of external validity. 14) In order to generalize across different times, places, or conditions, a researcher must A) sample across those times, places, or conditions. B) use a random sample of participants. C) use a large enough sample size. D) use powerful statistics. Answer: A Rationale: To generalize across different times, places, or conditions, researchers must sample across those variations. This involves ensuring that the study includes diverse participants or conditions representative of the broader population or context being studied. Therefore, the correct answer is A) sample across those times, places, or conditions. 15) In considering whether the independent variable was responsible for observed changes in the dependent variable, the type of validity that we would be addressing is A) external validity. B) internal validity. C) construct validity. D) statistical validity. Answer: B Rationale: Internal validity concerns the extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not to other factors. Therefore, when considering whether the independent variable caused the observed changes in the dependent variable, we are addressing internal validity. 16) What concept is at the very heart of experimentation? A) external validity B) internal validity C) replication D) participant selection Answer: B Rationale: Internal validity is at the core of experimentation because it ensures that changes in the dependent variable are indeed caused by the manipulation of the independent variable and not by other factors. Therefore, the correct answer is B) internal validity. 17) When we can conclude that it was the independent variable and not some other variable that caused the change in the dependent variable, then the study has good A) external validity. B) conceptual validity. C) internal validity. D) None of the above Answer: C Rationale: Internal validity pertains to the degree to which the observed changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable and not to extraneous variables. Therefore, if we can conclude that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable, the study has good internal validity. 18) ________ validity involves the demonstration of causality. A) External B) Internal C) Statistical D) Construct Answer: B Rationale: Internal validity involves establishing a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It demonstrates whether changes in the dependent variable are indeed caused by the manipulation of the independent variable. Therefore, the correct answer is B) Internal. 19) When it can be concluded that the independent variable alone brought about the observed changes in the dependent variable, a study can be said to be A) generally valid. B) externally valid. C) internally valid. D) statistically valid. Answer: C Rationale: Internal validity refers to the extent to which the observed changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable. If it can be concluded that the independent variable alone caused the observed changes, then the study is said to have good internal validity. 20) The concern over generalizing from the laboratory to the real world is a concern for A) internal validity. B) ecological validity. C) construct validity. D) statistical validity. Answer: B Rationale: Ecological validity refers to the extent to which findings from a study can be generalized to real-world settings. It is concerned with whether the study's results accurately reflect behaviors and outcomes as they naturally occur outside of the laboratory. Therefore, the correct answer is B) ecological validity. 21) Failure to rule out ________ variables results in threats to ________ validity. A) confounding; internal B) confounding; external C) dependent; internal D) dependent; external Answer: A Rationale: Confounding variables are extraneous variables that systematically vary with the independent variable and can thus confound the interpretation of results. Failure to control for confounding variables can threaten the internal validity of a study, as it becomes unclear whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or to the confounding variables. Therefore, the correct pair is A) confounding; internal. 22) Failure to rule out ________ results in threats to ________ validity. A) all independent variables; internal B) alternative explanations; internal C) alternative explanations; external D) all dependent variables; internal Answer: B Rationale: When conducting research, it's crucial to ensure that any observed effects can be attributed to the manipulated independent variable rather than to other factors. Failure to rule out alternative explanations introduces confounding variables, which threaten the internal validity of the study. This can lead to erroneous conclusions about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Therefore, option B is correct. 8.3 Major Confounding Variables 1) Maturation is particularly relevant in studies involving A) prison inmates. B) children. C) autistic adults. D) adult rats Answer: B Rationale: Maturation refers to the natural changes that occur within individuals over time, such as physical, cognitive, and emotional development. Children undergo rapid and significant maturation, making it a crucial consideration in studies involving them. In contrast, adult rats may undergo less noticeable changes over the course of a study, and the maturation process in prison inmates or autistic adults may not be as relevant or as impactful as it is in children. 2) Researchers must be particularly alert to ________ when conducting research with growing children. A) maturational changes B) fire laws C) regression to the mean D) sampling bias Answer: A Rationale: When conducting research with growing children, researchers must be particularly alert to maturational changes. Children undergo significant developmental changes over time, which can influence research outcomes. Monitoring and accounting for these changes are essential to ensure accurate and reliable results. Fire laws, regression to the mean, and sampling bias may be relevant in other contexts but are not specifically associated with conducting research with growing children. 3) Threats to internal validity due to ________ are greatest when a long time has passed between pretest and posttest measurements. A) regression to the mean B) history C) effects of testing D) scoring errors Answer: B Rationale: Threats to internal validity due to history are greatest when a long time has passed between pretest and posttest measurements. History refers to external events or factors that occur between the pretest and posttest measurements and could potentially influence the outcome of the study. The longer the time lapse between these measurements, the greater the likelihood of intervening historical events affecting the results. Regression to the mean, effects of testing, and scoring errors are different threats to internal validity and are not specifically related to the time lapse between pretest and posttest measurements. 4) Historical factors are particularly important to consider when we are A) paying participants for their participation in research. B) doing cross-cultural research. C) measuring dependent variables responsive to environmental changes. D) measuring dependent variables such as height and weight. Answer: C Rationale: Historical factors are particularly important to consider when measuring dependent variables responsive to environmental changes. These historical factors could include events or changes in the environment that occur between measurements and could potentially confound the results of the study. In contrast, paying participants for their participation, conducting cross-cultural research, and measuring physical attributes like height and weight may involve other considerations but are not inherently tied to historical factors. 5) When there is a significant time lapse between pretest and posttest measures, the confounding variable most likely to affect results would be A) history. B) regression to the mean. C) instrumentation. D) selection. Answer: A Rationale: When there is a significant time lapse between pretest and posttest measures, the confounding variable most likely to affect results would be history. History refers to external events or factors that occur between measurements and could potentially influence the outcome of the study. A significant time lapse increases the likelihood of such historical events occurring and impacting the results. Regression to the mean, instrumentation, and selection are potential confounding variables but are not specifically tied to the time lapse between measurements. 6) Failure to rule out an effect that might be due to events that occur during a study introduces A) additional dependent variables. B) a type of researcher bias. C) the confounding effect of history. D) a threat to statistical validity. Answer: C Rationale: Failure to rule out an effect that might be due to events that occur during a study introduces the confounding effect of history. History refers to external events or factors that occur between measurements and could potentially influence the outcome of the study. If such events are not controlled or accounted for, they can confound the results by introducing alternative explanations for the observed effects. This is different from researcher bias or threats to statistical validity, which are distinct issues in research methodology. 7) A confounding factor that can occur when observation procedures change during the study is called A) regression. B) maturation. C) selection. D) instrumentation. Answer: D Rationale: A confounding factor that can occur when observation procedures change during the study is called instrumentation. Instrumentation refers to changes in the measurement instruments or procedures used to collect data, which can introduce bias or error into the results. Changes in observation procedures may affect the consistency or reliability of the measurements, making it difficult to determine whether observed differences are due to the intervention being studied or to changes in measurement procedures. Regression, maturation, and selection are different types of confounding factors. 8) The effects of repeated testing represent a threat to internal validity primarily because A) participants get bored. B) the researcher gets tired of giving the same test over and over. C) of regression to the mean. D) participants may gain proficiency through repeated practice. Answer: D Rationale: The effects of repeated testing represent a threat to internal validity primarily because participants may gain proficiency through repeated practice. This phenomenon, known as practice effects or testing effects, can lead to improvements in performance on subsequent administrations of the same test, independent of the intervention being studied. This can confound the results by making it difficult to determine whether changes in performance are due to the intervention or simply to repeated exposure to the test. Boredom or fatigue may affect participant engagement but are not the primary concern regarding threats to internal validity. Regression to the mean is a different phenomenon unrelated to repeated testing. 9) Testing effects are most pronounced in A) measures of skill. B) elderly participants. C) young participants. D) nonverbal tests. Answer: A Rationale: Testing effects are most pronounced in measures of skill. When participants repeatedly engage in tasks requiring specific skills, they tend to improve their performance over time due to practice effects. This improvement in performance can confound the results of the study, particularly if the intervention being studied also aims to improve the same skill. While testing effects can occur across various demographic groups, they are particularly noticeable in measures of skill where participants have the opportunity to improve through practice. Testing effects are not specific to elderly or young participants or to nonverbal tests, although they may manifest differently depending on the characteristics of the participants and the nature of the tests. 10) Unbeknownst to a school's testing staff, a young child serves as a participant in a psychological study during which she is administered an IQ test on three occasions. When she takes the same IQ test at her school two months later, her IQ has jumped from 110 to 125. What can we say about the IQ test? A) The test was valid. B) All IQ tests are meaningless. C) The improved score is probably due to practice effects. D) The external validity of the test has been compromised. Answer: C Rationale: The significant increase in IQ score after repeated testing suggests the phenomenon of practice effects, where familiarity with the test format and content can lead to improved performance. This indicates that the increase in IQ is likely not reflective of a true change in intelligence but rather due to the child becoming more accustomed to the test format and content over time. 11) What confounding variable occurs when the researchers gradually change their observation criteria over the course of the study? A) regression toward the mean B) instrumentation C) maturation D) history Answer: B Rationale: Confounding due to instrumentation occurs when changes are made to the measuring instruments or observation criteria during the course of the study, leading to inconsistencies in measurement and potentially confounding the results. 12) Confounding due to instrumentation refers to A) changes in measuring instruments. B) changes in the dependent variables. C) changes in the observers' behavior. D) Either or both A and C Answer: D Rationale: Confounding due to instrumentation encompasses changes in the measuring instruments used or changes in the behavior of observers, both of which can introduce inconsistencies in measurement and confound the results of the study. 13) If a human observer becomes more proficient in the course of a study, the type of threat to internal validity is called a change in A) proficiency. B) instrumentation. C) research bias. D) regression to the mean. Answer: B Rationale: If a human observer becomes more proficient over the course of the study, it can lead to changes in the observation criteria or measuring instruments, which is a form of confounding known as instrumentation. 14) The concept of regression to the mean suggests A) participants with extreme scores will score more extreme on a second test. B) scores of participants on a second test would be the same or similar to the first test. C) scores of participants on a second test would be less extreme on average on a second test. D) None of the above Answer: C Rationale: Regression to the mean suggests that extreme scores on a first test are likely to be less extreme on average on a second test, as extreme scores are often influenced by random factors and tend to regress towards the population mean upon retesting. 15) If we select participants on the basis of extremely high or low scores on a test, the most likely threat to validity is A) testing bias. B) diffusion of treatment. C) attrition. D) regression to the mean. Answer: D Rationale: Selecting participants based on extreme scores introduces the risk of regression to the mean, where extreme scores are likely to become less extreme upon retesting due to the influence of random factors. 16) Which confounding factor is most likely to occur when participants are selected because their pretest measures were unusually high? A) regression to the mean B) testing C) attrition D) selection Answer: A Rationale: When participants are selected based on unusually high pretest measures, there is a high likelihood of regression to the mean, where extreme scores tend to become less extreme upon retesting. 17) Because any behavior varies in frequency, intensity, and duration, a researcher must be careful to control for A) researcher bias. B) sampling error. C) measurement error. D) regression to the mean. Answer: D Rationale: Given that behaviors can vary in frequency, intensity, and duration, controlling for regression to the mean is essential to ensure that observed changes in behavior are not merely due to random fluctuations and are instead reflective of true changes. 18) The concept of regression to the mean is particularly important when A) doing research involving children. B) selecting research participants on the basis of gender or some other categorical variable. C) selecting research participants on the basis of extreme scores on some measure. D) doing research during daylight savings time. Answer: C Rationale: Regression to the mean is particularly relevant when selecting research participants based on extreme scores on some measure, as extreme scores are more likely to regress towards the mean upon retesting. 19) If some of the top scorers on an exam don't perform as well on a second exam, this could be explained by the phenomenon known as A) poor motivation. B) equilibration. C) attrition. D) regression to the mean. Answer: D Rationale: If top scorers on an exam do not perform as well on a second exam, it could be attributed to the phenomenon of regression to the mean, where extreme scores tend to become less extreme upon retesting. 20) During a research study it becomes apparent that the procedures being used are causing differential dropout rates. This creates the possibility of confounding due to: A) sequence effects. B) diffusion of treatment. C) selection variability. D) attrition. Answer: D Rationale: Attrition refers to the loss of participants during the course of a study. When dropout rates differ between groups, it can introduce bias and confound the results, as the characteristics of those who drop out may differ systematically from those who remain in the study. 21) The inability to assign participants randomly to groups gives rise to which of the following confounding variables? A) diffusion of treatment B) selection C) attrition D) sequence effects Answer: B Rationale: Selection refers to differences in the composition of groups due to non-random assignment. Without random assignment, there's a risk that the groups being compared might differ systematically in ways that could confound the results. 22) Assume we are studying two groups. One group is scheduled on Wednesday morning and another on Wednesday afternoon. Participants are selected on availability. The confounding variable in this study is: A) selection. B) attrition. C) testing. D) instrumentation. Answer: A Rationale: The timing of the sessions (morning vs. afternoon) could lead to differences in the characteristics of participants in each group if they are selected based on availability rather than randomly assigned. This introduces the confounding variable of selection bias. 23) The possibility of confounding due to ________ is particularly important in lowconstraint and differential research. A) selection B) regression to the mean C) attrition D) effects of repeated testing Answer: A Rationale: In low-constraint and differential research, where groups may not be controlled or matched effectively, selection bias becomes a significant concern as it can distort the comparison between groups. 24) When participants are lost differentially, any observed effect can be confounded by: A) diffusion of treatment. B) attrition. C) history. D) attribution. Answer: B Rationale: Differential loss of participants (attrition) can bias the results of a study because the characteristics of those who drop out may differ from those who remain, thus confounding the observed effects. 25) If during testing it becomes apparent that participants in different groups are talking about the research procedure, the confounding variable to consider is: A) selection. B) attrition. C) diffusion of treatment. D) sequence effects. Answer: C Rationale: When participants communicate about the research procedures between groups, it can lead to contamination of the treatment conditions, known as diffusion of treatment, which can confound the results. 26) When research participants give information to prospective participants about the procedures, the research could be affected by the confounding variable of: A) the bystander effect. B) diffusion of responsibility. C) diffusion of treatment. D) regression to the mean. Answer: C Rationale: When participants share information about the research procedures with others, it can lead to diffusion of treatment, where knowledge of the treatment conditions spreads, potentially influencing behavior and confounding the results. 27) In a study using a within-subjects design, a likely confounding variable is: A) attrition. B) sequence effects. C) selection. D) regression to the mean. Answer: B Rationale: In within-subjects designs, sequence effects, where experiences with previous conditions influence responses to subsequent conditions, are a common confounding variable due to the order in which conditions are presented. 28) Sequence effects are particularly likely in what type of research? A) between-subjects designs B) between-groups designs C) naturalistic and case-study research D) within-subjects designs Answer: D Rationale: Sequence effects, where the order of conditions influences responses, are most likely to occur in within-subjects designs where participants experience multiple conditions. 29) When experiences with previous conditions affect responding to subsequent conditions, A) instrumentation effects might occur. B) the possible confounding is called sequence effects. C) attrition is likely to be a confounding factor. D) subject effects will be present. Answer: B Rationale: When responses to subsequent conditions are influenced by experiences with previous conditions, it introduces the confounding variable known as sequence effects, where the order of conditions affects the outcome. 30) To control for sequence effects, it would be necessary to A) use more than one order of conditions. B) select participants on the basis of high scores on a measure. C) randomly assign participants to groups. D) ask participants not to tell anyone about the research procedures. Answer: A Rationale: Sequence effects refer to the influence of the order in which conditions are presented on participants' responses. Using more than one order of conditions helps to control for this effect by balancing out any potential biases introduced by the order of presentation. Randomly assigning participants to different orders helps ensure that any effects observed are not solely due to the sequence in which conditions were experienced. 31) Which confounding variable can ONLY occur in within-subjects studies? A) regression to the mean B) diffusion of treatment C) sequence effects D) testing Answer: C Rationale: Sequence effects are unique to within-subjects designs because participants experience multiple conditions in a specific order. This order can influence participants' responses, making it a confounding variable specific to within-subjects studies. 8.4 Subject and Experimenter Effects 1) Orne (1962) argues that every psychological experiment is a(n) ________ in which both participants and researchers are involved in a common undertaking. A) island B) social situation C) naturalistic experiment D) necessary but unpleasant event Answer: B Rationale: Orne highlights the social aspect of psychological experiments, emphasizing that both participants and researchers are engaged in a shared activity within a social context. 2) Subject effects can occur as a confounding factor when A) there are too few participants. B) the conditions are not clearly differentiated. C) participants are aware they are being observed. D) participants are tested under more than one condition. Answer: C Rationale: Subject effects, also known as participant or demand characteristics, occur when participants modify their behavior based on their awareness of being observed or the researcher's expectations. This can confound results by influencing participants' responses. 3) Experimenter effects A) refer to a biasing effect due to the actions of the experimenter. B) do not occur at the experimental level of constraint. C) occur when two hypotheses are improperly mixed. D) occur if the experimenter has assigned too many participants to a group. Answer: A Rationale: Experimenter effects occur when the behavior or expectations of the experimenter inadvertently influence participants' responses or experimental outcomes, introducing bias into the study. 4) Experimenter expectancy is A) the expectation of participant bias. B) the bias due to nonrandom assignment of participants. C) the hopes of the researcher for no confounding variables. D) the potential biasing effect of the researcher. Answer: D Rationale: Experimenter expectancy refers to the researcher's unintentional bias or expectations about the outcome of the study, which can influence their behavior and interactions with participants, leading to biased results. 5) When participants are "on guard," they tend to behave differently, which can result in A) guarded optimism. B) behavior modification. C) subject effects. D) personality disorder. Answer: C Rationale: When participants are "on guard" or aware of being observed, they may modify their behavior, leading to subject effects or demand characteristics, which can confound the results of the study. 6) Unintentional cues given to participants about how to behave to satisfy the researcher are called A) unconscious cues. B) paralinguistic cues. C) cue prompting. D) demand characteristics. Answer: D Rationale: Demand characteristics are unintentional cues given to participants that influence their behavior to align with the researcher's expectations or hypotheses, potentially confounding the results of the study. 7) If a participant has an expectation that a certain experimental manipulation will have an effect, the research can be biased by A) the placebo effect. B) demand characteristics. C) the optimism effect. D) the Melville effect. Answer: A Rationale: The placebo effect occurs when participants' expectations or beliefs about an experimental manipulation lead to changes in their behavior or experience, independent of the actual treatment. This can bias the results of the study. 8) The placebo effect occurs A) only in studies using suggestion. B) only in studies involving medication. C) when participants have fairly specific expectations of an experimental treatment. D) when participants have no preconceived notions about any aspect of the research. Answer: C Rationale: The placebo effect can occur when participants have specific expectations about an experimental treatment, regardless of whether it involves medication or suggestion. These expectations can influence their responses, leading to biased results. 9) Experimenter expectancies might be responsible for all of the following EXCEPT A) directly influencing the participant's behavior toward support of the hypothesis. B) selecting data that best support the hypothesis. C) minimizing demand characteristics. D) interpreting results in a biased manner. Answer: C Rationale: Experimenter expectancies refer to the unconscious biases or expectations that researchers may have, which can influence various aspects of an experiment. Options A, B, and D all involve ways in which experimenter expectancies can affect the research process, such as influencing participant behavior, data selection, and interpretation of results. However, minimizing demand characteristics is not directly related to experimenter biases but rather involves strategies to reduce the likelihood that participants will change their behavior in response to perceived expectations of the experimenter. 10) Which of the following statements is NOT an example of experimenter expectancy? A) participants trying to be "good participants" B) data selection to support the hypothesis C) choosing favorable statistical tests D) changing instructions from one group to another Answer: A Rationale: Experimenter expectancy refers to the unconscious biases or expectations of the researcher that can influence the conduct or outcomes of an experiment. Options B, C, and D all involve actions or decisions made by the experimenter that can be influenced by their expectations. However, participants trying to be "good participants" is not directly under the control of the experimenter's expectations but rather reflects a general tendency of participants to behave in socially desirable ways, which may or may not align with the experimenter's expectations. 11) Experimenter expectancy was studied by A) Olne. B) Silverman and Becket. C) Rosenthal and Fode. D) Rosencrantz and Livingston. Answer: C Rationale: Experimenter expectancy, also known as the Rosenthal effect or observer-expectancy effect, was studied extensively by Robert Rosenthal and Kermit Fode. They conducted seminal research demonstrating how experimenter biases could influence the outcomes of experiments, particularly in the context of expectations affecting the behavior of research subjects. 12) The psychologist most responsible for our understanding of experimenter expectancy effects is A) Rosenhan. B) Rosencranz. C) Gildenstern. D) Rosenthal. Answer: D Rationale: Robert Rosenthal is the psychologist most closely associated with our understanding of experimenter expectancy effects. His research, particularly the work done with Kermit Fode, significantly contributed to our understanding of how experimenter biases can impact experimental outcomes and the interpretation of results. 8.5 Ethical Principles 1) Why is it ethically important to control confounding variables? A) Because risk is always balanced against return in research. B) Because confounding variables present significant risks to participants, especially regression to the mean. C) Because control procedures reduce the risk of dangerous things happening during a study. D) All of the above Answer: A Rationale: Controlling confounding variables is ethically important primarily because it helps maintain the balance between risks and benefits in research. Ethical considerations in research demand that risks to participants are minimized while maximizing the potential benefits. By controlling confounding variables, researchers can enhance the reliability and validity of their findings, ultimately ensuring that the risks borne by participants are justified by the potential benefits of the research. 2) Which confounding variable cannot be completely controlled because of ethical constraints on the research? A) regression to the mean B) maturation C) instrumentation D) attrition Answer: A Rationale: Regression to the mean cannot be completely controlled due to ethical constraints on research. This is because attempting to manipulate or control this variable may involve withholding treatment or intervention from participants who may be experiencing extreme conditions, which would be unethical. Regression to the mean refers to the tendency for extreme values to return to average levels over time, which can confound research outcomes if not properly addressed. 3) Which confounding variable cannot be completely controlled because of ethical constraints on the research? A) maturation B) selection C) testing D) instrumentation Answer: B Rationale: Selection cannot be completely controlled due to ethical constraints on research. Ethical considerations often require that participants be recruited in a fair and unbiased manner, which may result in a lack of control over certain aspects of selection bias. Selection bias occurs when the sample selected for the study is not representative of the population, potentially skewing the results and limiting the generalizability of the findings. 4) Which confounding variables cannot be completely controlled because of ethical constraints on the research? A) maturation and history B) maturation, selection, and regression to the mean C) attrition and selection D) regression to the mean and instrumentation Answer: C Rationale: Attrition and selection cannot be completely controlled due to ethical constraints on research. Attrition refers to the loss of participants from a study over time, which may occur for various reasons such as dropout or withdrawal. Attempting to control attrition completely may involve coercion or undue influence, which is unethical. Selection bias, as discussed earlier, is also challenging to control entirely due to ethical considerations surrounding participant recruitment and consent. Test Bank for Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry Anthony M. Graziano, Michael L. Raulin 9780205900923, 9780205907694, 9780135705056
