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7 HAZARD MITIGATION Reducing Risk Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 7.1 Define hazard mitigation. Preimpact actions that provide passive protection at the time of disaster impact so there is less need for emergency response actions. Describe what FHMO stands for. Whenever a presidential disaster declaration is made, a federal hazard mitigation officer (FHMO) is appointed to manage hazard mitigation programs. The FHMO participates in the preliminary damage assessment, helps assess local mitigation issues, develops a mitigation strategy, and also evaluates state mitigation programs for the regional analysis and recommendation. Identify the IBHS program that provides materials for disaster planning and promoting business continuity. IBHS provides materials on disaster planning to promote business continuity after disasters through its Open for Business program. Define eminent domain and identify who has this power. Power held by the government that can force private owners to sell their property to the government at a fair market value if the property is to be used for a public purpose. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 7.2 Define channelization. The process of deepening and straightening stream channels. Describe the difference between a dam and a levee. Dams are elevated barriers sited across a streambed that increase surface storage of floodwater in reservoirs upstream from them. These structures can be made of concrete, earth, or earth with a rock core that provides additional strength. Dams have floodgates and spillways that allow their operators to release water from the reservoir. Levees are elevated barriers placed along the streambed that limit stream flow to the floodway. To be effective, a levee must be built on soil that provides a stable foundation. It is constructed of impervious soil, such as clay, that is compacted to prevent it from settling. Its surfaces are usually planted with grass or other low vegetation to prevent erosion. Define industrial hazard controls. Community protection works that are used to confine hazardous materials flows. Describe the difference between elevating on continuous foundation walls and elevating on open foundation walls. When elevating on continuous foundation walls, a contractor uses a set of jacks to raise the house slightly higher than the base flood (usually the 100-year flood). The contractor builds the existing foundation walls up to the desired level. Then the contractor lowers the structure back onto the new (higher) foundation. This method increases the height of the basement walls and provides secure storage. However, it is only suitable in locations where the risks of high velocity flow and wave action are low. When elevating on open foundations, the foundation supports the structure only at critical points. A foundation allows high velocity water flow and breaking waves to pass under with minimal resistance. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 7.3 Define RTK and list its legal provisions. The federal approach to reducing toxic chemical hazards focuses on local emergency planning and the community right-to-know (RTK). RTK provisions require that a community is informed when a facility stores hazardous substances in amounts that are greater than EPA thresholds. Describe how local governments can devise their own hazard mitigation programs. Local governments can institute mitigation including source control, protection works, land-use practices, building construction practices, and building contents protection. Explain how having insurance is a recovery preparedness measure. One of the interesting consequences of recent disasters is that the insurance industry has taken an active political role in encouraging individuals, businesses, and governments to undertake mitigation measures in order to reduce insurers’ financial exposure. Having insurance has sometimes been identified as a mitigation strategy, but this is not accurate. Instead, it is a mechanism for spreading the financial risk posed by hazards. Thus, it is a recovery preparedness measure. That is, insurance reimburses the policyholder for the monetary value of property that has been damaged or destroyed. Explain the concept of sustainable development. Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development recognizes the limits of nature. Disasters are a sign that current development practices are not viable over the long term. At the core of the debate over whether to rebuild low-lying parts of New Orleans is the issue of sustainable development. Sustainable development emphasizes the creation of communities that are less likely to experience major disasters and can recover from them if they do occur. Answers to Summary Questions The federal government cannot intervene directly in local land use or building construction practices. True or false? States must update hazard mitigation plans within six months of a Presidential Disaster Declaration as a condition for receiving federal disaster assistance. True or false? Which of the following does not influence land use practices? A. Risk communication B. Incentives C. Environment D. Sanctions A comprehensive mitigation plan assesses what in the community? A. Geography and history B. Demographic trends and economy C. Transportation and housing D Historic preservation and environmental protection E. All of the above Laws adopted since the 9/11 terrorist attacks have strengthened the RTK provisions. True or false? Which of the following is were guiding principles for Project Impact? A. Long-term efforts and investments in prevention measures are essential. B. Preventive actions must be decided at the local level. C. Private sector participation is vital. D. All of the above What practices are suitable for all types of hazards? A. Protection works B. Building construction practices C. Land use practices D. All of the above Answers to Review Questions Define eminent domain and describe why it is debated in federal court. Government has traditionally held the power of eminent domain. The government can force private owners to sell their property to the government at a fair market value if the property is to be used for a public purpose. Hazard mitigation faces important legal challenges in the United States. Several “regulatory takings” cases have been heard in the Supreme Court, the most famous of which was Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council (112 S.Ct., at 2886, 1992). These cases have sought to clarify the conditions under which jurisdictions can regulate the use of private property in order to accomplish a public purpose. Because eminent domain can force home owners to sell their property to the government, the power of the government is challenged in court by home owners. Describe the role of the FHMO. Whenever a Presidential Disaster Declaration is made, a Federal Hazard Mitigation Officer (FHMO) is appointed to manage hazard mitigation programs. The FHMO participates in the preliminary damage assessment, helps assess local mitigation issues, develops a mitigation strategy, and also evaluates state mitigation programs for the Regional Analysis and Recommendation. FEMA and the affected state establish a written agreement that defines the duties and responsibilities that the federal, state, and local governments will assume after a disaster. What are the five categories of mitigation strategies? Hazard source control, community protection works, land use practices, building construction practices, and building contents protection. Name the four types of levee failure mechanisms. The four failure mechanisms of levees are as follows: Wave action (A) causes levee failure by attacking the face of the levee and scouring away the material from which it is constructed. Overtopping (B) occurs when the water level exceeds the height of the levee. Once this happens, the flow of water over the top of the levee begins to erode a path that allows increasing amounts of water to flow through the opening. This can quickly flood the area behind the levee. Piping (C) occurs when an animal burrow, rotted tree root, or other disturbance in the levee creates a long circular tunnel through or nearly through the levee. Once the water reaches the “pipe,” it has an open path toward the landward face of the levee and can fail the levee. Seepage erosion (D) occurs when the height of the water in the river puts pressure on water that has seeped into the riverbed, under the levee, and into the soil on the landward side of the levee. The resulting flow of water can eventually cause boils of muddy water that erode a path for the water to flow underneath and then behind the levee. Describe what a capital improvement program is used for. CIPs are used to plan community infrastructure and critical facilities. They require a significant investment of public capital, so CIPs assess the need for these facilities. CIPs describe what type of facilities will be built, where they will be built, and how they will be financed. The amount of infrastructure that local government controls is small in some communities. However, local government can ensure the facilities it does control will be built in locations that limit hazard exposure. They will also be built according to construction practices that limit physical vulnerability. Describe the difference between dry floodproofing and wet floodproofing. Structural protection from hydrological hazards is dry floodproofing. This seals the structure so floodwater cannot enter. Walls are sealed with an impermeable coating. Shields protect penetrations such as windows and doors. Backflow valves are installed in sewer drains so water cannot enter the structure. A simple backflow valve has a rubber ball that usually rests in the bottom of the drainpipe. It floats up to block the drain when floodwater backs up through the sewer system into the basement. Dry floodproofing is not recommended where the expected flood depth is three feet or more because hydrostatic pressure can collapse unreinforced masonry walls and buoyancy can fracture a slab floor or even cause the structure to “float.” Wet floodproofing allows water to enter empty portions of the structure during flooding. Equipment is moved to a higher location or protected in place by a floodwall. In addition, vulnerable materials that cannot be moved are replaced by flood resistant materials. What are the four types of flood control? The four types of flood control are stream channelization, dams, levees, and floodwalls. What is the purpose of zoning? Zoning was originally designed to separate “incompatible land uses.” For example, heavy industry, with its noise and pollution, is kept away from residential neighborhoods. Zoning also reduces the risk of technological disasters. Zoning can keep chemicals, nuclear materials, and explosives away from residents. Zoning can also keep residential and commercial property away from earthquake fault lines and floodplains. What are two hazards that can be mitigated by source control? Answers will vary but may include two of the following: Wildfire Flood Landslide Structural fire Explosion Chemical spill Radiological release Biological incident What types of mitigation strategies can people use to protect against storm surge and tsunamis? Answers will vary but may include the following: Land use practices Building contents controls Building construction practices Building contents protection Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions The federal government cannot intervene directly in local land use or building construction practices. However, it wants to change these practices because it pays for much of the high cost of disaster recovery. Years ago, the federal government tried to reduce losses by reducing hazard exposure. In the case of floods, this led to a program of dams and levees. Unfortunately, flood losses continued to increase so the federal government has more recently tried to intervene indirectly. States must update hazard mitigation plans within six months of a Presidential Disaster Declaration as a condition for receiving federal disaster assistance. How else might you suggest the federal government attempt to intervene in local land use or building construction practices? Give two specific examples. Sample answer: Incentives for hazard mitigation measures could include government grants, loans, tax deductions, and tax credits for money for mitigation projects. Of course, government cannot afford to support a mitigation program only through grants. Loans for repayment of principal would be less expensive. This would limit the subsidy to the amount of interest the government would have to pay for the use of the money. Tax deductions would allow taxpayers to deduct all or part of the cost of hazard mitigation projects from their income before taxes. Tax credits would allow deductions of all or part of the cost of the projects from the tax bill. You are building inspector in your local community. The emergency manager has asked you to create a report on building construction practices. What should you include in the report? Sample answer: I would include details on the soil the buildings are built on, the foundations that are used, the structural protection from different hazards, the structural protection from seismic hazards, the structural protection from airborne hazmat hazards, and how well the building codes are followed. A group of community leaders has asked you to describe the mitigation strategies that local government could implement without any outside assistance. What do you say to your audience? Sample answer: I would discuss building codes and practices, incentives, and sanctions that can be used to mitigate disasters. I would also discuss hazard source control, community protection works, land use practices, building construction practices, and building contents protection. 8 MYTHS AND REALITIES OF DISASTER RESPONSE How People and Communities Respond in an Emergency Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.1 Define panic. An acute fear reaction marked by a loss of self-control which is followed by nonsocial and nonrational flight behavior. Describe three conclusions about shock that Melick’s study shows. Shock appears most frequently in sudden events involving widespread destruction, traumatic injuries, or death. When the symptoms do appear, few people are affected. Fritz and Marks reported that 14% of victims showed evidence of the early symptoms associated with shock. Most reported only mild symptoms. These symptoms might include uneasiness or trouble sleeping. For example, Moore reported that 17 to 30% of families exposed to a tornado had at least one member who had “emotional upset.” Taylor’s study of another tornado reported that 27% of the victims had “trouble sleeping.” Shock lasts for a maximum of a few hours or days. It is rare for shock to last longer. This is not to say that the symptoms vanish. Depending upon the circumstances, studies have concluded that situational anxiety, phobia, and depression can persist for years. However, these disorders are psychological conditions that are distinct from disaster shock. Explain why an emergency managers’ belief in the panic myth can lead to fewer people taking protective action. Emergency managers make poor decisions if they believe these myths. For example, the belief that people will panic becomes a reason to withhold information about a threat. In fact, people are less likely to comply when they have vague or incomplete information. Explain how population segments differ in their willingness and ability to evacuate. There are many publics or population segments. Each differs in their hazard knowledge, family roles, and household resources. In particular, you need to distinguish among residents, transients, and special facility populations. These population segments differ in their willingness and ability to evacuate Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.2 Explain the importance of developing donation management plans? Donations and volunteers, although potentially an asset, can be a liability because they are unanticipated. It is essential to develop donations management procedures. One such plan is Supply Management (SUMA) developed by the Pan American Health Organization. Donations management procedures allow for integration of volunteers. They also create a routine for receiving, storing, and using material and equipment. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of socially integrative responses. Many volunteers direct help to victims in the form of needed clothing, food, and lodging. What is important is the positive social climate created by such altruism. Consensus following disasters is a short-lived phenomenon. For example, six months after the 9/11 attacks, there was conflict on how to distribute compensation funds. There is agreement that a therapeutic community develops in the short-term aftermath. It promotes positive psychological outcomes for disaster victims. Also remember, however, that it will be short-lived. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.3 Name three ways that warning methods differ. Warning methods differ in a variety of ways, including the following: Ability to get a message to the group(s) that are most at risk Ability to get people’s attention as they go about their daily activities Ability to provide specific information Ease with which a message can become distorted Number of people who receive the message over time Requirements for people sending and receiving warnings Feedback Identify the major sources of information that people rely on in disasters. Face-to-face Route alert (loudspeaker broadcast from a moving vehicle) Siren Commercial radio and television Tone alert radio Telephones Newspapers Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.4 Define evacuation trip generation. The number and location of vehicles evacuating from a risk area. Describe how drivers choose the routes they take when evacuating a city. There are four factors defining evacuees’ destination/route choice: Ultimate evacuation destination, the place where evacuees want to stay until they can return home. Proximate destination, the point at which the evacuees leave the risk area. Route choice, the roads evacuees take to get out of the risk area. Primary evacuation route utilization, the percentage of evacuating vehicles using official evacuation routes. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.5 Name three disaster impact zones. The innermost circle is the total impact zone where casualties and damage are the greatest. Immediately adjacent to the total impact area is the fringe impact zone. In this zone, casualties and damage are significant but not overwhelming. The next ring is the resource filter zone. Through this zone, information passes from the inner (total impact and fringe) zones to the outer (community aid and regional aid) zones. Explain whether emergency responders abandon their roles in a disaster. Examination of the Disaster Research Center’s studies of hundreds of emergencies showed no evidence of role abandonment. Name the four types of disaster response organizations. Established organizations perform their normal tasks within normal organizations. For example, police directing evacuation traffic. Extending organizations perform novel tasks within normal organizations. For example, crews from public works agencies digging through rubble to extricate trapped victims. Expanding organizations perform their normal tasks within novel organizations. For example, Red Cross volunteers working under the supervision of permanent staff to operate mass care centers. Finally, emergent organizations perform novel tasks within novel organizations. For example, neighbors forming a team to search for and extricate trapped casualties after an earthquake. Explain EMON. They termed such structures emergent multi-organizational networks (EMONs). EMONs typically comprise professional and volunteer personnel from government agencies within local government. EMONs also include representatives from state and federal agencies and representatives from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.6 Describe how people seek information about impending disasters. People threatened by disaster have multiple sources of information. None of these sources is considered completely credible. Nor is any single source expected to have all the information a household needs to protect itself. This can produce confusing and conflicting information unless different sources coordinate their risk communication. Explain how fear affects people. They do not experience debilitating shock or panic. Fear is a normal human reaction to conditions that threaten them or their loved ones. Fear rarely is so overwhelming that it prevents people from responding. However, it does impair people’s ability to reason through complex, unfamiliar problems. Fear is especially high when people lack information about the consequences of hazard exposure. Describe the basic principle about people’s action during a disaster. The initial response to a threatening situation might be to seek information. Those who conclude they are at risk take protective action. It is important that official warning messages include recommended protective actions. If authorities do not provide recommended actions, people take action anyway. They take the most appropriate actions they already know, or are told about by peers or the media. Explain the difference between warning compliance and spontaneous evacuation. Some of those at risk will comply with authorities’ recommendations. However, their compliance is rarely automatic. The level of compliance is contingent upon a variety of other factors: Information source. Message content. Receiver characteristics. Situational characteristics such as threat familiarity and urgency for response. Some of those who are not at risk will also comply with protective action recommendations. Spontaneous evacuation has been reported in response to hazard agents as varied as nuclear power plant accidents, and hurricanes. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 8.7 Describe the differences between the conditions experienced by Holocaust survivors and the conditions experienced by survivors of the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the survivors of Hurricane Katrina. The Holocaust was one of the most heinous crimes of the twentieth century. Many survivors, including concentration camp survivors, experienced posttraumatic stress disorder with symptoms of anxiety and depression as a result of extreme guilt for surviving. The WTC survivors witnessed death or handled the dead, were exposed to large scale property destruction and may have had relatives, neighbors or friends seriously injured or lose their lives. Although survivors of Hurricane Katrina experienced similar circumstances of stress to those of the WTC survivors, many Katrina survivors evacuated before the storm and the disaster struck. Identify the groups most likely to experience psychological consequences of disasters and describe the treatment they need. People who have witnessed death or handled the dead. People who have been exposed to large scale property destruction. People whose relatives, neighbors, or friends have been seriously injured or lost their lives. However, people become depressed even if less severe conditions occur. As authorities move from response recovery and reconstruction, they should anticipate the need for referrals for crisis counseling. Some people also need other short-term therapy to reduce long-term negative consequences. Identify the link between disasters and health problems. Even in the apparent absence of psychological symptoms, victims and nonvictims have developed physical health problems following disasters. Some of these health problems are unrelated to the disaster agent. Answers to Summary Questions Anti-social behaviors such as looting are common during and after disasters. True or false? Disasters are not associated with increases in mental health problems in the affected population. True or false? The positive impact of convergence is the increased resource base and increased morale. True or false? It is the source and content of the warning message that largely determine response to warnings. True or false? What percentage of casualties reach a hospital on their own or through the help of a friend or bystander? A. Over 75% B. 27% C. 46% D. Less than 10% Information passes from the inner zone through the outer zone through which of the following impact zones? A. Total impact B. Fringe impact C. Community aid D. Resource filter If authorities do not provide recommended actions, people will not take action. True or false? What can you expect of people when they respond to disaster? A. People threatened by disaster have multiple sources of information and will seek to find information. B. People generally experience fear. C. People will take action when they think they are at risk. D. All of the above. Answers to Review Questions Explain why myths about disasters can be dangers. The myths are not just wrong, they are dangerous. Emergency managers make poor decisions if they believe these myths. For example, the belief that people will panic becomes a reason to withhold information about a threat. In fact, people are less likely to comply when they have vague or incomplete information. Therefore, emergency managers’ belief in the panic myth can lead to fewer people taking protective action. This example illustrates why it is important to review studies that describe people’s actual disaster response patterns. The behavioral record is very clear with respect to three commonly held beliefs about disaster victims’ reactions—disaster shock, panic flight, and homogeneity of victim response. What evokes panic flight? Steps that evoke panic flight are: A perception of immediate and extreme danger The existence of a limited number of escape routes A perception that the escape routes are closing, necessitating immediate escape A lack of communication Describe the therapeutic community. Early researchers saw the therapeutic community as “an outpouring of altruistic feelings and behavior beginning with mass rescue work and carrying on for days, weeks, possibly even months after the impact” (Barton, 1969, p. 206). Regrettably, not enough research has been completed to know if Barton is correct. The therapeutic community may not be a lasting condition (Quarantelli & Dynes, 1976, 1977). Consensus following disasters is a short-lived phenomenon. For example, six months after 9-11 there was conflict on how to distribute compensation funds. There is agreement that a therapeutic community develops in the short-term aftermath. It promotes positive psychological outcomes for disaster victims. Also remember, however, that it will be short-lived. Name five warning methods. Answers will vary but may include the following: Face-to-face Route alert (loudspeaker broadcast from a moving vehicle) Siren Commercial radio and television Tone alert radio Telephones Newspapers What four factors define evacuees’ destination/route choice? Ultimate evacuation destination, the place where evacuees want to stay until they can return home Proximate destination, the point at which the evacuees leave the risk area Route choice, the roads evacuees take to get out of the risk area Primary evacuation route utilization, the percentage of evacuating vehicles using official evacuation routes Describe the different disaster response organizations produced as a result of contingencies. Established organizations perform their normal tasks within normal organizations. For example, police directing evacuation traffic. Extending organizations perform novel tasks within normal organizations. For example, crews from public works agencies digging through rubble to extricate trapped victims. Expanding organizations perform their normal tasks within novel organizations. For example, Red Cross volunteers working under the supervision of permanent staff to operate mass care centers. Finally, emergent organizations perform novel tasks within novel organizations. For example, neighbors forming a team to search for and extricate trapped casualties after an earthquake. What contingencies affect the level of compliance? Information source Message content Receiver characteristics Situational characteristics such as threat familiarity and urgency for response What are the three distinct patterns of expected citizen response to disasters? The first principle is that people threatened by disaster have multiple sources of information. The second basic principle is that people generally experience fear. The third basic principle is that people take action when they think they are at risk. The initial response to a threatening situation might be to seek information. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions As part of an initiative to educate the public about the dangers of myths that are related to disasters, you are writing an article for a website. Outline the key points you would make in the article. There are several long-standing myths about how people respond to disasters. These are dangerous, because they prejudice emergency managers’ anticipation of the public reaction, leading to them possibly not “tell the whole truth.” People with incomplete information may be skeptical about the actual danger facing them, and therefore less willing to evacuate their homes. They may decide to wait the storm out at home, for example, with pets and other precious possessions. But, studies have shown that people will act in their own best interest, given the information they have. Reports of widespread panic or shock during disasters are grossly exaggerated. Shock does occur with a small number of people, but the effects are usually mild and short-lived. Scenes of panicked mobs make for good drama in cinema, but they do not occur in reality unless there is extreme immediate danger, a lack of communication, and the belief that becoming trapped is imminent, such as building exits that are blocked or closing. Therefore, it is best to give people as much accurate information about a disaster as possible. This builds the public trust in authority and increases the odds of compliance with evacuation and other instructions. You live in the Midwest and are watching national news coverage of a hurricane disaster off the coast of Florida. The media predicts major damage and casualties. What kind of response can you expect from the surrounding Florida communities? What kind of response can you expect from those living in your part of the country? The weather service is predicting that a major hurricane will hit a particular area of Florida. I expect the residents of the targeted area to protect their homes and businesses by boarding up their windows with plywood. Some communities may try to build a sandbag barrier around certain structures. Most residents who are able will then pack up their cars and evacuate, but a few will remain behind. On television there will be the ubiquitous media reports of all these activities, as well as footage of a junior correspondent reporting from the path of the storm, with intermittent static heightening the drama. From my neighbors in the Midwest, there will be an outpouring of compassion and generosity. Donations will be made privately, by small companies, and by corporations, in the form of money, food, medical supplies, and services. Some may open their homes to disaster refugees who are family, friends, or even strangers. Some people will go to the disaster site to lend their services, particularly if they have medical training. The plight of companion animals left behind during disasters is particularly troubling to pet owners. Since I personally know people who volunteered to rescue stranded animals after Hurricane Katrina, I expect this type of mobilization again. You need to warn people of an approaching hurricane? What types of warning systems do you use and why? There is a hurricane approaching my area, and I will use several types of warning systems to alert the residents. In the early stages, while the storm is still far out at sea, there will be regular newspaper, television, and radio reports of its trajectory and status. As the storm grows nearer, the television and radio warnings will be accompanied by warning tones. There will be a crawler on the television screen constantly giving the latest information. An automated telephone calling system can be used for specific areas that are targeted for evacuation, as well as a public address siren. High-density areas can be effectively reached using a vehicle with a loudspeaker. As the vehicle slowly moves through the streets, evacuation orders can also be given as authorities walk house-to-house. You are evacuating a city; what factors do you consider when estimating evacuation times? When evacuating a city, I must consider the evacuation tendencies and times of the various types of residents. The basic US Census data that will be helpful to me are the size and geographical distribution of the resident population, the number of people per household, and the proportion of the population that is dependent on public transportation. I can get information about the size, distribution, and number of evacuating vehicles of the transient population from the convention and visitor’s bureau. In addition, I need to consider the number of evacuating vehicles and trailers per household. I also estimate the percentage of residents and transients that will evacuate when told to do so or even before being told to do so. These figures are known as the Protective Action Recommendation (PAR) warning compliance and PAR spontaneous evacuation data. Other more individual factors are the time of day various people tend to evacuate, the amount of time they need to prepare, their destination, and the route by which they intend to get there. Is the rate of compliance likely to be higher with a threat of flooding or with a threat of a nuclear power plant release of radioactive materials? How about the rate of spontaneous evacuation? Why? The rates of both warning compliance and spontaneous evacuation are likely to be higher with a threat of nuclear power plant release of radioactive materials than with the threat of flooding. One reason is that radioactive material release is a much more frightening, mysterious and invisible threat. People know that its effects might not be felt for a period of months or even years, and future generations can even be harmed. Even so, possessions would not be damaged, so people are more likely to lock the doors and windows, grab their pets, and go. With a flood, people’s homes and possessions are at stake in addition to their lives, and there is a tendency to stay home and try to save one’s property. And, since water is a benign substance that we use all day long, it is inherently less threatening than radioactive material. Many people in flood-prone areas have seen it all before, and feel that they can live through another flood. You are tasked with organizing volunteers who have shown up to help after a tornado has destroyed a community. How would you organize the volunteers? Volunteers that want to help after a tornado has destroyed my community can be organized according to Dynes typology of disaster organizations; that is, the 2x2 matrix formed by combining normal/novel tasks/organizations. For example, anyone trained in medicine, first aid, nursing, etc will be assigned to aiding the Red Cross in administering medical aid. This is a normal task performed by a novel group, or an expanding organization. Those skilled in rescue activities, such as firemen, will be work on rescue/recovery missions. This represents an established organization; a normal group performing normal tasks. Miscellaneous volunteers will be dispatched to provide comfort to bewildered victims, serve meals, contact family members, sort incoming donations, assist in the completion of government forms, etc. These activities would qualify as emergent activities, or novel personnel performing novel tasks. As an emergency manager, you need to understand the effects of stress factors on people who survive disasters in which they lost loved ones or in which they experienced guilt from survival. Research how stress affects those who experienced a traumatic experience, and then describe how the survivors of the tragedy cope with the effects. People who have survived disasters sometimes experience a range of psychological and physical health effects for some time afterward. Psychological effects can include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, phobia, depression, and “survivor syndrome,” which can present as guilt over surviving while so many others died. Physiological effects can encompass a myriad of health ailments, such as insomnia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, headaches, and even heart disease and certain kinds of cancer. Survivors of disaster often need psychological counseling to help them cope with the trauma of the event, the guilt of surviving it, the grief over losing loved ones, and the stress of putting their lives back together. At the very least, financial assistance, whether by donations, federal aid, or low-interest loans, is needed by most victims to help them recover and regain a sense of control over their lives. As an emergency manager, you have been asked to describe adaptive behavior of people responding to disaster. Your audience assumes that the average person will evacuate from the disaster area before the disaster hits. You know there are many potential problems because of individual circumstances. What problems do you suggest discussing with your audience? Why is it important to explain these problems of adaptive behavior and what cannot be assumed about individual circumstances? I am an emergency manager making a speech on adaptive behavior during disaster response. I need to convey to my audience that there is a wide spectrum of individual circumstances that affect people’s ability and propensity to respond in a certain manner. My audience assumes that the population consists of people like them: those who have cars, credit cards, daytime jobs, trust in authority, families to help them in an emergency, etc. In order to help them understand people different from themselves, I will describe a few scenarios: a single mother with three young children and no vehicle, a senior citizen who is frail, hard of hearing and doesn’t even hear the evacuation warnings, a middle-aged couple who survived a disaster several years ago and is reluctant to leave their possessions and home. It is my hope that by asking the audience to imagine themselves in these predicaments, they will understand the breadth of personal experience that determines how a person might react in a stressful situation such as a disaster. 9 PREPAREDNESS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONSE Organizing a Response Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 9.1 Explain the similarities and differences between creating an EOP in a small city and a large city. Larger communities with many resources and personnel, and perhaps higher levels of staff turnover, tend to have formalized processes. They rely more heavily upon written documentation and agreements. In smaller communities, the planning process might generate few written products and rely principally on informal, personal relationships. Define policy entrepreneur. An issue champion who has the expertise and legitimacy to promote emergency planning. Explain why two similar hazard agents will likely require the same type of response. When two hazard agents are similar, they will likely require the same type of response. This provides multiple use opportunities for personnel, procedures, facilities, and equipment. This simplifies the EOP by reducing the number of functional annexes. In addition, it simplifies training and enhances the reliability of organizational performance during emergencies. Name the five characteristics that emergency response personnel must understand to promote effective multiorganizational participation. To perform their functions effectively, emergency response personnel must be aware of each emergency organization’s mission, organizational structure, style of operation, communication systems, and procedures for allocating scarce resources. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 9.2 Define damage assessment. An evaluation that begins by identifying the boundaries of the impact area and proceeds to estimating the total amount of damage to buildings and infrastructure in the impact area. This information is used to support a request for a presidential disaster declaration. Describe hazard source control? A method to control the source of the hazard. Explain how population protection preparedness is different for a toxic chemical release and an earthquake. Rapid onset incidents such as toxic chemical releases might require using siren systems to alert people to turn on their radio or television sets. For earthquakes there is no forewarning and preparedness is performed years or decades in advance. Describe the purpose of a joint information center (JIC). The JIC provides public information to the media. It provides extra phone lines for media personnel, develops background information about the community, gathers information on its hazards, and provides information on emergency management organizations. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 9.3 List four of the seven principles of the Incident Command System (ICS). Standardization: All communities must use a common emergency response organization structure with standardized names and functions for subunits. Functional specificity: There is a division of labor so each of these units is assigned a specific function to perform. Manageable span of control: Subunits are established to limit the number of personnel directly supervised by each unit manager. This is usually five subordinates but can range from three to seven. Unit integrity: People from a given professional discipline (e.g., police or fire) are assigned to the same unit. Unified command: A single incident commander (IC) manages most incidents. A unified command team manages response when multiple agencies have responsibility for a given incident. Management by objectives: Senior incident managers develop action plans that include specific, measurable objectives. They evaluate their effectiveness by monitoring the achievement of these objectives. Comprehensive resource management: The IC or unified command team directs the allocation of all resources to response tasks. This includes personnel, facilities, vehicles, and equipment. Explain the differences between IMS and ICS structures. The ICS was originally designed specifically for large-scale incidents, especially fire services in Southern California. It was changed so ICS could be used as readily in small events as large ones. The command function was changed to include specialized advisors, the operations function was expanded to include routine departmental response demands, and connections to a municipal EOC and police incident commanders were included. The revised structure was called the Incident Management System (IMS). Its advantage was that daily use on all incidents—minor and major—would enhance its effectiveness for major incidents. IMS is now widely used in the American fire services. It is also used in Canadian, British, and Australian fire services. The major advantage of IMS is to make all resources available for every incident. This is true whether the incident is a routine emergency or a large-scale disaster. Name the seven activities that the IC performs during an incident. Conduct initial situation evaluation and continual reassessments Initiate, maintain, and control communications Identify the incident management strategy, develop an action plan, and assign resources Call for supplemental resources, including EOC activation Develop an organizational command structure Continually review, evaluate, and revise incident action plan Provide for continuing, transferring, and terminating command Explain why an EOC important? An EOC is important because resources are often widely dispersed throughout a jurisdiction. Specialized resources might only be located in other jurisdictions or higher levels of government. The specific resources needed to respond to a particular type of incident at a given location cannot be predicted in advance. Moreover, many organizations participate in the incident response. Each organization must have a capability for receiving and processing information about the incident. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 9.4 Briefly describe the three organizational structures that can help you in emergency response. MMRS tend to be concentrated in high population density areas and other areas that are terrorist targets. Forty-three states have at least one MMRS program. The initial purpose of this program was to enhance local efforts to manage large mass casualty incidents arising from terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction. The mission was driven by the fact that, for local governments, federal help for terrorist attacks is 48 to 72 hours away. The purpose of UASI is to prevent, respond to, and recover from acts of terrorism. In launching UASI, high-threat, high population density areas were identified. The level of funding for each area has been based in part upon the vulnerability assessments and needs assessments. NIMS was created in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. NIMS is a standardized system for managing emergency preparedness and emergency response that builds on the ICS/IMS framework. One of the reasons for establishing a national system is that different jurisdictions and different professions had developed different versions of IMS or ICS. Explain the goals of the MMRS program. The goal is to ensure cities can operate by themselves until support arrives. Another goal is for the city to develop a strong local incident management system that can effectively integrate federal resources. What is the purpose of UASI? The purpose of UASI is to prevent, respond to, and recover from acts of terrorism. Compare NIMS and IMS. NIMS is broader than IMS because it addresses emergency preparedness as well as emergency response. There are six components to NIMS. The first component, labeled command and management, includes the basic features of IMS plus a definition of “multiagency coordination systems” and “public information systems.” Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 9.5 Define functional annex. The part of an EOP that describes how the emergency response organization will perform a function needed to respond to disaster demands. The annexes of an all-hazards EOP should collectively list all of the emergency response functions needed to respond to all hazards. Name the four types of hazard agents that terrorists can use. Chemicals, biological agents, radiological or nuclear materials, or explosives. Answers to Summary Questions Emergency planning should be recognized as a continuing process. True or false? Hazard source control is a part of the incident management protection. True or false? IMS uses all the following terms to describe different sized groupings of personnel, equipment, and apparatus except _______. A. Sections B. Branches C. Commands D. Sectors Under the MMRS program, cities are required to integrate county and state agencies. True or false? Which of the following is a component of NIMS? A. Preparedness B. Detect and classify C. Hazard monitoring D. Hazard source control Answers to Review Questions An overemphasis on detail in the planning process causes four problems. Name these problems. The anticipation of all contingencies is simply impossible (Lindell & Perry, 1980). Specific details tend to get out of date quickly. You then have to constantly update the plan (Dynes, et al., 1972). Very specific plans often contain so many details that all emergency functions appear to be of equal importance. This causes response priorities to be unclear or confused (Tierney, 1980). The more detail incorporated into planning documents, the more complex they become. This makes it more difficult for people to understand how everyone’s roles fit into the overall response. If they don’t understand everyone’s roles, they can’t implement the plan effectively. Name and explain the four basic emergency response functions. Emergency assessment: Detecting a threat, predicting its potential impact, and determining how to respond. Hazard operations: Taking actions to limit the magnitude of the disaster impacts. Population protection: Take protective actions to minimize the number of casualties. Incident management: Mobilizing and directing resources to respond to an emergency. List the eight tasks that the EOC must perform. Establish the EOC design team. Analyze the organization of the EOC. Assess the flows of resources associated with each position. Determine the workstation requirements for each position. Assess the environmental conditions needed to support each position. Determine the space needs for each position. Develop a conceptual design for the EOC. Document the design basis for the EOC. Explain how MMRS links multiple response systems. Horizontal linkages involve working with other departments in the same jurisdiction. For example, first responders, public health, law enforcement, must work together along with behavioral health services. There also are vertical linkages. For example, public health participation involves city, county, and state agencies. Private sector organizations are included in the planning process to establish contact with groups that provide critical services in mass casualty incidents. Examples of these groups include hospitals, funeral director associations, and environmental clean up companies. Cities must have a plan on how they will receive and use federal assets. This includes being able to receive and distribute pharmaceuticals from the national stockpile. The provisions of the EOP’s general plan are captured under seven separate headings. Name and explain these headings. Purpose. This briefly states the mission of the plan. It summarizes the basic plan. Situation and assumptions. This reviews the community’s vulnerability analysis. It also describes any policies that limit the authority of the emergency response organization. Concept of operations. This describes the sequence of emergency response activities. Organization and assignment of responsibilities. This describes the structure of the emergency response organization. Administration and logistics. This section describes the policies for expanding the emergency response organization through mutual aid and volunteers. It also addresses policies for identifying resource needs, acquisition of additional resources, tracking resources allocation, and compensation. Plan development and maintenance. This section defines how the plan will be reviewed and updated. Authorities and references. This section addresses the legal and administrative basis for the EOP. It refers the reader to other documents, such as the hazard vulnerability analysis for further details. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions Weather forecasters are predicting a Category 5 hurricane will strike the Atlantic coast between Myrtle Beach, SC, and Kitty Hawk, NC. As an emergency manager, what steps should you take to prepare for this disaster? I am the emergency manager of an area that is predicted to be the target of a Category 5 hurricane. I will activate the Emergency Operations Center (EOC) and the Emergency Operations Plan (EOP). The National Weather Service will continue to broadcast warnings on television and radio. For a Category 5 storm, the EOP calls for mandatory evacuation of the targeted area. This will be announced via the media and vehicles with loudspeakers and enforced by law enforcement. All city and school buses will be made available to evacuate residents with no vehicles. Emergency fire, rescue, and medical personnel will be called to the vicinity of the EOC to handle situations as they arise. Shelters will be set up at inland schools and other public buildings to house evacuees. Shipments of water, food, clothing, blankets, basic medical supplies, etc, will be trucked to these inland shelters. Federal aid will be applied for as quickly as possible after the storm hits. Several explosions have occurred in your community. It is a suspected terrorist attack. Are there any extra steps you need to take around the incident scene in case it is later classified as a crime scene? The area in which several explosions took place in my community needs to be treated as a crime scene in case it turns out to have been a terrorist act. The area should be cordoned off. Other than rescue personnel, medical personnel, and survivors, no non-critical person should be allowed to enter or leave the scene. A search of the surrounding area should be conducted to see if any suspicious people are fleeing. Trained dogs and/or special equipment should be brought in to see if traces of explosives are detected before the odor dissipates. The entire scene should be recorded on video and still cameras to preserve as much evidence as possible. Two trucks collided on a busy highway. One truck was carrying livestock, while the other truck was carrying gasoline. What steps would you take to deal with this event? When a truck carrying livestock collides with one carrying gasoline, emergency medical, firefighting, and hazmat personnel should immediately be dispatched. Their first priority will be to rescue the truck drivers if they have not already left their vehicles. Gasoline is a hazardous, inflammable material, so the potential for fire is imminent. The fire or hazmat teams should begin to contain and clean up the spill. We will protect the local population by evacuating nearby residents and keeping drivers away from the area. Environmental affects need to be monitored, particularly if the spill contaminated a waterway. The owner of the livestock should be contacted so he can assess his losses and round up any stragglers that were not killed during the accident. You are working with other agencies to discuss community emergency preparedness. What should be the relative priority for planning, training, and exercising? Community emergency preparedness can be broken down into three distinct activities: planning, training, and exercising. All three are important, but training and exercising are not worthwhile without planning. Planning is the first function, and the most crucial. But emergency preparedness plans should be continually reviewed and updated to account for new threats, new sectors of the community, and new commercial and residential development. Training and exercising go hand-in-hand, but I feel exercising is more important than training, because it provides experience not only for the personnel conducting the exercises, but those observing as well. These observations can be used to make adjustments in the plan. Training increases personnel comfort level with disaster response, but people come and go in an organization, and, with them, any experience gained through training courses. You are the local emergency manager for a small coastal town that is vulnerable to hurricanes. You need to design and organize an EOC. Where should the EOC be located? Why? Who will be in charge of it? The EOC for a small coastal town that is vulnerable to hurricanes should be located in a safe, somewhat inland location. It should be near enough to the potential disaster area to maintain an effective presence without being inside the potential disaster area. The building should be conveniently located near good roads and highways, so that emergency personnel can quickly get to the area. Ideally, the EOC should be in the basement of a building constructed in a high-lying area. This would minimize the threat of wind damage and flood damage during such a storm. Your community is joining with others to fight a large wildfire that is burning near subdivisions on the outskirts of town. You are the senior advisor stationed at the incident command post. What are your duties? As senior advisor at an incident command post near a large wildfire, I have several duties. First I must evaluate the initial situation (and I will continue to monitor the fire throughout its duration). I then establish and maintain communications with all critical personnel. I will make an action plan based on the pre-existing incident management strategy. The strategy will alert me if there are any businesses in the area that house potentially explosive materials. Wildfire firefighters will be immediately dispatched to the scene. Law enforcement officers will canvass the area, giving evacuation orders to the subdivisions that are in immediate danger. Other officers will direct evacuating traffic. Medical personnel will be called to the area to deal with residents’ and firefighters’ injuries. The Emergency Operations Center will be activated, and the action plan will be reviewed throughout the incident to see if revisions are necessary. The weather must be strictly monitored because wind speed and direction impact the progress of the fire. 10 ORGANIZATIONAL EMERGENCY RESPONSE Handling an Emergency Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 10.1 Identify emergency response functions and their specific actions. Emergency assessment Local threat detection and emergency classification Local hazard monitoring Damage assessment Hazard operations Hazard source control Protection works Building construction practices Contents protection practices Population protection Protective action selection Population warning Search and rescue Impact zone Hazard exposure control access control and security Emergency medical care Environmental surety Incident management Agency notification and mobilization Mobilization of emergency facilities/equipment Communication/ documentation Analysis/planning Internal direction and control Define emergency classification system. A method of organizing a large number of potential incidents into a small set of categories. These categories link the threat assessment to the level of activation of the responding organization. Explain the difference between hazard monitoring and environmental monitoring. Hazard and environmental monitoring are closely linked. This is because some hazards originate in the atmosphere. Other hazards are transmitted through it. In the case of hurricanes, you can forecast the impact by monitoring data on the storm’s current location, projected track, strike probability, intensity, size, and speed. In the case of toxic chemical releases, you can forecast the impact by modeling the release rate and duration together with the wind speed and direction, and atmospheric stability. In addition, you should anticipate the possibility of fires that could produce additional releases. You should also anticipate the possibility of precipitation and wind shifts. Rain can cause water soluble toxic chemicals to “wash out” of the atmosphere. Wind shifts will change the areas at risk. Define damage assessment and rapid damage assessment. Damage assessment is a process that focuses on measuring the disaster impacts on public and private property. This function is most often thought of in terms of recovery. Damage assessment is a continuing process that begins during emergency response. Rapid damage assessment is the first stage of damage assessment that provides you with immediate information about the magnitude of the impact. It defines the boundaries of the physical impact area and assesses the intensity of damage within that impact area. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 10.2 Explain how hazard source control measures can intervene at the hazard generation stage. There are a number of hazard source control measures that can be used to intervene at the stage of hazard generation. For example, wildfires can be suppressed by extinguishing them with water. Hazmat releases can be terminated by patching or plugging leaking storage tanks. Explain why the applicability of hazard operations actions varies considerably from one hazard to another. You should establish guidelines for choosing hazard operations actions. Your SOPs should contain rules that define the conditions under which each hazard operations action should be used or avoided. They should also cross-reference any checklists required in implementing those actions. As a specific example, one method of mitigating a release of a flammable toxic gas is deliberate ignition. You should be clear about who can authorize such action. You should describe the conditions under which ignition should be attempted. You should describe when discretion is permitted, and when it should not be attempted Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 10.3 Describe the major requirements of an effective evacuation protocol. An effective evacuation protocol establishes the lead agency for the relocation effort. It lays out evacuation traffic management procedures that coordinate the timing and direction of evacuee movement. You should work with transportation officials and law enforcement personnel to select evacuation routes and establish procedures for maintaining a steady flow of vehicles. Procedures should designate the personnel and resources needed for traffic management. They should designate the locations where such resources are stored. Procedures should include contact information for the person who can release and deploy resources. List the four reasons to implement access control and security. The first is to prevent looting. People commonly overestimate the incidence of looting after disasters in the U.S. However, visible control points are a helpful deterrent. They also reassure evacuated property owners. Second, security measures ensure that people are not exposed to the hazard agent by inadvertently entering the impact area. Third, security measures allow responders to implement hazard operations and perform population protection tasks without being impeded. Finally, security measures limit the number of responders and risk area residents that might be affected by secondary devices planted as part of a delayed terrorist attack. This makes access control an essential part of exposure control for secondary hazards. Explain the morgue functions that the county medical examiner’s office typically performs. The morgue functions performed by the office typically include the following: Receiving human remains. Safeguarding personal property. Identifying the deceased. Preparing and completing case file records on each deceased. Photographing, fingerprinting, and collecting DNA specimens as appropriate. Producing death certificates. Coordinating and releasing remains for final disposition. Name the three ways that emergency personnel can achieve the ALARA objective. Minimizing the amount of time spent in hazardous areas (time). Staying as far away from hazard sources as necessary (distance). Insulating themselves from the hazard (shielding). Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 10.4 Define concept of operations. A summary statement of what emergency functions are to be performed and how they are accomplished. List the seven specific functions that are the core of the incident management function. Agency notification and mobilization Mobilization of emergency facilities and equipment Communication/Documentation Analysis/Planning Internal direction and control External coordination Public information Administrative and logistical support List the objectives of agency notification. The aims of notification are to identify the organizations needed, alert them to begin their own activation processes, and prepare them to initiate the response. Describe the responsibilities of the PIO. The PIO must keep incident managers informed about the information demands of the news media and the public. The information demands of the media can be determined by the specific questions reporters ask. The information demands of the public can be determined by routinely monitoring the content of calls to the jurisdiction’s rumor control center. Any questions that are asked repeatedly should be addressed in press conferences. In addition, the PIO should schedule regular media briefings. Provisions should be made for the rapid preparation of graphic materials, such as maps, to be used in briefings. Such materials should describe the location of the disaster impact zone. It will help those conducting briefings in describing the response. The PIO facilitates all requests for media orientation tours. The PIO is responsible for providing appropriate personal protective equipment for the media at the incident scene and ensuring its proper use. Finally, the PIO advises the EOC when conditions have reached the point that the public information function needs to be moved from the incident command post to the EOC or from the EOC to the joint information center. Answers to Summary Questions A hurricane warming indicates the possibility of hurricane conditions (sustained winds of at least 74 mph) within a designated section of coast within 36 hours. True or False? Hazard operations measures are feasible for all hazards. True or False? What do people need in an evacuation? A. Mass care B. Evacuation transportation support C. Evacuation traffic management D. B and C only E. All of the above What is true about EOCs? A. EOCs are the hub of the emergency information processing within the jurisdiction. B. EOCs are the hub between the jurisdiction and external sources of assistance. C. To be effective, an EOC needs to be large and expansive. D. A and B only E. All of the above Answers to Review Questions What does threat detection include? Recognizing that a threat exists Assessing its magnitude, location, and timing of impact Determining how to respond How can you establish guidelines for choosing hazard operations actions? Your SOPs should contain rules that define the conditions under which each hazard operations action should be used or avoided. They should also cross-reference any checklists required in implementing those actions. What might people need to implement protective actions? Money Knowledge and physical skill Facilities and vehicles Tools and equipment Time and energy Social cooperation Name and explain the three specific activities that internal direction and control involves. Management oversight, policymaking, and coordination with local agencies. The first activity, management oversight of disaster operations, involves monitoring the performance of field units to verify that they are responding in accordance with the EOP and agency SOPs. This does not mean that the EOC assumes tactical direction of on-scene operations. The Incident Commander is best positioned for such decisions. Instead, the EOC focuses on providing information and resource support to the Incident Commander. The EOC monitors the response to ensure that the disaster demands are being addressed. Often, these demands change over time. The demands of initial impact might decline and new demands may arise from secondary threats. The second activity in internal direction and control is policymaking. When a disaster strikes, the EOP ordinarily serves as the framework for coordination. It defines the functional assignments for different response organizations. It defines the chains of command and lists available resources. It defines the procedures for requesting mutual-aid. If a disaster generates demands that are not adequately addressed in the EOP or SOPs, incident managers might need to improvise solutions. The Executive Team will need to authorize the improvised procedures. The third activity is coordination with local agencies. This involves ensuring that emergency response agencies not reporting directly to the Incident Commander receive current information about the status of the incident and response. In addition, it involves giving each agency instructions to perform unplanned activities that evolve from the policymaking process. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions There is a train derailment at the edge of your town and a tank car of liquefied natural gas is burning. Next to it is a tank car filled with chlorine gas. The wind is currently blowing away from town. Why do you need to monitor weather conditions with this hazard? A train derailment at the edge of my town has resulted in a tank car of liquefied natural gas that is burning with a tank car of chlorine gas nearby. Thankfully, the wind is blowing away from town and toward an unpopulated area. However, as with any release or potential release of dangerous gases, it is crucial to monitor weather conditions, especially wind speed and direction. If the wind should change direction, the fumes could reach the town, necessitating an evacuation. The practice of recording the release and movement of fumes is known as plume monitoring. A tornado has destroyed a major part of your city’s industrial area. Why would you need to implement access control and security measures? Access control and security measures will be implemented in an industrial area that has been hit with a tornado. These are necessary to prevent unauthorized people from entering the area. One reason is to prevent looting and protect the property of the businesses in the industrial park. Another reason is to protect people from accidental exposure to any hazards that exist in the area. Also, if only emergency responders are allowed in the affected area, they are free to move about as they need to and can work more safely and efficiently. Finally, these measures are necessary to protect the public in case of terrorist attacks, in which secondary explosive devices may have been planted to target emergency responders after the initial attack. There has been an earthquake in the town for which you are the local emergency manager. You immediately see the need for heavy rescue. What steps do you take to directly address this need? Heavy rescue is needed because an earthquake has struck my town and caused several buildings to collapse. Heavy rescue refers to significant building pieces that have to be removed with cranes and other special equipment. Volunteers are of no use in situations such as these. Immediately I contact the nearest sources of heavy rescue equipment and have them deployed to the scene. The local fire department is also called, even though they may not have heavy rescue equipment, they will be needed because of the fires that ruptured natural gas lines can cause. While the rescue crews are traveling to the scene, I get an update on the specific buildings that suffered damage. I prioritize the buildings based on the amount of damage, the number of potentially trapped people, and their relative vulnerability, i.e. children, the elderly, and the infirm. I communicate this information to the heavy rescue equipment operators. Emergency medical teams are also dispatched to the area and set up a center for triage so that the most critical cases can be handled first. Ambulances will be available to transport victims to local hospitals. A Public Information Officer is assigned so that accurate information can be disseminated from one source. The roof of the local convention center collapsed during a major exhibition. How will you handle this mass casualty incident? There has been a collapse of the roof of the local convention center, trapping many people inside. Heavy rescue crews will be dispatched to the area immediately, as will regular fire personnel and emergency medical teams. Firefighters may be needed if there are fires in the building. Medical teams will set up a triage center near the scene so victims can be prioritized according to how critical their injuries are. Ambulances will transport patients to local hospitals. Victims that are conscious and have minor injuries will be directed to a temporary reception center to be registered, and then to a temporary mass care facility that will meet their immediate comfort needs. Food, water, and mental health professionals will be available there. Since most of the convention attendees are from out of town, there will be even more concern from their family members than usual, because they are unfamiliar with the area and unable to come to the scene. In addition to assigning a Public Information Officer, a central call center will be established and the number will be publicized on network news broadcasts. As victims are registered at the reception center, this information will be made available to the call center. Outgoing calls will be provided for victims or can be made on their behalf. What would you say to the press if you were the PIO responsible for the communication after an explosion at a local factory where you were not sure if and how many fatalities occurred? “Members of the press, I regret that I do not have much new information to share with you. As you know, a short time ago an explosion occurred at a local factory. There were 64 employees on duty at the time of the explosion, and 5 visitors within the facility. I do not have any information yet about whether fatalities have occurred, or how many. Emergency rescue and medical teams are dealing with this disaster right now. It is more important that they tend to people in need than it is for them to communicate with me about casualties. I will provide full updates to you as soon as I receive more information.” Solution Manual for Introduction to Emergency Management Michael K. Lindell, Carla Prater, Ronald W. Perry 9780471772606
