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1. 1 INTRODUCTION TO EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT The Role of the Emergency Manager Learning Objectives Upon reading this chapter, students should be able to: Compare and contrast hazards, emergencies, and disasters Design a disaster preparedness program Design a plan for disaster response Chapter Summary This chapter identified the threats that emergency managers deal with: disasters, emergencies, and hazards. It described how the history of emergency management has changed (and evolved) just as the threats of today have changed with advances in technology, increases in terrorist activities, and developments of environmental hazards. This chapter also showed how students must prepare for threats through use of mitigation strategies, preparedness through disaster response and recovery plans, and response and recovery processes that focus on prevention, population protection, and minimization of damage. In the event of a disaster, emergency management also deals in relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction—activities important to communities that have suffered from a disaster. Finally, this chapter emphasized the need to combine mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery methods by implementing technological systems, risk communication, and sanctions and incentives. Key Terms Disaster Events that produce greater losses than a community can handle, including casualties, property damage, and significant environmental damage. Emergency Minor events that can cause a few casualties and a limited amount of property damage or an imminent event that is likely to strike soon and that requires prompt and effective action. Hazard A source of danger. Hazards have the potential to affect people’s health and safety, their property, and the natural environment. Mitigation A hazard management strategy that takes place before disasters strike that addresses the causes of a disaster, reducing the likelihood it will occur or limiting its impact. Natural disaster An event that occurs in the natural environment that results in casualties, property damage, and environmental damage. Natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and wildland fires. Recovery A hazard management strategy that has the goal of restoring the normal functioning of a community. Recovery begins as a disaster is ending and continues until the community is back to normal. Response A hazard management strategy that has the goal of protecting the population, limiting damage from the impact of an event, and minimizing damage from secondary impacts. Response begins when a disaster event occurs. Secondary impacts Disasters caused by a disaster, including events such as hazardous materials released by earthquakes. Terrorist disasters A deliberate attack that is intended to achieve political objectives by inflicting damage and casualties. Also referred to as terrorism. Technological disasters Events that result from the accidental failures of technologies, such as the release of hazardous materials from facilities where they are normally contained. Lecture Notes Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what personal experiences they had had with disasters. Be sure that students understand the difference between disasters and emergencies. Discuss basic mitigation strategies and ask students for examples of mitigation in their communities. Suggestions for Learning Activities Ask a first responder to come to class to discuss his or her experiences in various types of emergencies and disasters. Divide students into two groups. Ask one of them to list recent disasters and another one to list types of emergencies. At the end of the exercise, ask a representative of each group to discuss their list. Divide students into two groups. Ask one of them to list examples of technological accidents and another one to list types of technological disasters. At the end of the exercise, ask a representative of each group to discuss their list. Suggestions for Additional Resources If possible, show the students in the class the state emergency website. If not, ask them to look at it after class. Ask for them to list the type of information available on the site. Students can also find additional information on the FEMA website which is located at www.fema.gov 2 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT STAKEHOLDERS Influencing the Decision-Making Process Learning Objectives Upon reading this chapter, students should be able to: Compare and contrast stakeholders from social, economic, and governmental groups. Network with appropriate stakeholders to improve emergency planning. Evaluate how to involve communities in emergency management. Implement and evaluate an emergency management policy process. Chapter Summary As this chapter illustrated, we are all stakeholders. Your job and the decisions you make as an emergency manager affects stakeholders. In turn, stakeholder and policy makers can affect how you do your job. Everyone has a voice, and that voice is often seen in the power we hold over each other. This chapter discussed stakeholders, the power relationships you develop with them, and the roles they play in emergency management. It also looked at how you can involve stakeholders (including your neighbors) in emergency management planning and processes. To do this, emergency managers must practice negotiation skills and understand how policies are influenced. Emergency managers need to obtain resources from local, regional, or federal sources, in order to try to influence policy, and prepare communities for emergencies. This chapter also listed the important elements of an emergency management policy: how to formulate, adopt, implement, and evaluate one. Key Terms Business interruption The loss of revenue due to disruption of a business’s normal production of goods and services in exchange for money. Capacity A measurement of an organization’s ability to implement policy that includes budget allocations, staffing levels, and staff members’ knowledge and skills. CERTs (Community Emergency Response Teams) Homeowners organized as groups to perform emergency management tasks in their neighborhoods. CERTs may also be known as Neighborhood Emergency Response Teams, or other similar names, but they all organize and train neighborhood volunteers to perform basic emergency response tasks such as search and rescue, and first aid. Economic groups Business stakeholders that organize the flow of goods and services and who are affected anytime there is an interruption to business caused by a disaster. Expert power Power that is based on someone’s expertise on a particular topic. A physician has expert power. Focusing event A natural or technological disaster that draws public attention to the need for local disaster planning and hazard mitigation. Governmental groups Stakeholders who are part of the government’s structure. The foundation of the government structure is the town or the city. The next layer is the county. The third level is the state. Cities and counties have varying levels of power from one state to another because states differ in the powers they grant. Most emergency management policies are set at the federal and state levels. Hazard adjustments Actions that can reduce vulnerability to disasters. These include actions such as purchasing hazard insurance, living in safer locations, and renting or buying homes that are resistant to disaster. Homeland Security Act Signed in November of 2002, the Homeland Security Act (HSA) restructured emergency management by integrating many agencies having emergency- or security-related functions into the Department of Homeland Security. Information power Power that involves true, new, and relevant facts or arguments. Information power can be exercised by either introducing or withholding information. Legitimate power Power that arises from one person’s relationship to another and can come from a formal position. For example, any official elected by a fair voting process has legitimate power. Referent power Power that is based on a person’s desire to be like the power holder. For example, many want to look like a glamorous celebrity. That celebrity therefore has referent power, especially in the area of beauty. Reward and coercive power Power frequently referred to as the “carrot and the stick” approach. Coercive power can produce deception to avoid punishment. Moreover, punishment typically produces continuing hostility. Stakeholder Someone who has, or thinks they have, something to lose or gain in a situation. An emergency management stakeholder is affected by the decisions made (or not made) by emergency managers and policy makers. Social groups Stakeholders that are primarily defined by households, who control a substantial amount of the assets (buildings and their contents) that are at risk from disasters. Social groups also including neighborhood, service, and environmental organizations. Window of opportunity The time during which local emergency managers are most likely to be able to influence policy. A window of opportunity usually opens immediately after a focusing event has drawn attention to hazard and closes after attention moves on to other public issues. Lecture Notes Ask students for examples of local stakeholders. Ask a local emergency manager to come in and discuss policy adoption and implementation. Ask a local political official to come into class and discuss how emergency managers can effectively get their issues on the agenda of the local government. Suggestions for Learning Activities Take 9/11 as an example of a focusing event and take the students through the standard policy process stages as outlined on page 35 of the book. Take Hurricane Katrina as an example of a focusing event and take the students through the standard policy process stages as outlined on page 35 of the book. Divide students into three groups. Ask each one of them to list three windows of opportunity that have occurred in recent years in either their home state or in other states. After fifteen minutes, ask each group for their examples. Suggestions for Additional Resources Visit the United States Geological Survey website at www.usgs.gov. Visit the following website: http://www.9-11pdp.org/ for information on the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Watch the documentary, “When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts,” a documentary about Hurricane Katrina by Spike Lee. 3 BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION Planning for Emergencies Learning Objectives Upon reading this chapter, students should be able to: Organize and staff local emergency planning committees (LEPCs). Design an effective emergency management organization. Develop a planning process. Create an Emergency Operations Plan (EOP). Chapter Summary This chapter discusses organization, leadership, and communication skills as the keys to success as an emergency manager. LEMAs are organized groups, and they rely on organizational structure, clearly assigned tasks, effective management, and planning to succeed. Just as LEMAs should be organized and managed well, so should the tasks of developing emergency organizations, planning processes, and creating emergency operating plans. This chapter outlined the major steps of how to do these tasks. All of these tasks are outcomes-based and all of them will rely on your ability to organize resources, find funding, and communicate well. Key Terms Budget narrative A document that accompanies the budget and includes a request additional money. The narrative is submitted in written format and can include graphics to explain budget items. Capability assessment An evaluation of the degree to which your jurisdiction’s resources are sufficient to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Capability shortfall The difference between the level of resources a jurisdiction currently has and the level it will need to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Contingency fund A sum of money in the budget that addresses the costs of resources that will be needed in case of an emergency. Disaster subculture Behavioral patterns among groups of residents who adopt routines to prepare for disasters. These groups have usually experienced disasters and have resolved to better prepare for them in the future. LEMC A Local Emergency Management Committee is a disaster-planning network that increases coordination among local agencies. Multi-year development plan A plan that documents the specific steps for reducing the capability shortfall. The development plan is typically based on five years and should identify specific annual milestones (specific, measurable achievements) to see if you are on target. Lecture Notes Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what qualities they believe make a good leader and what qualities they want in a boss. Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what makes them want to contribute to a team and what motivates teamwork. Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what meeting strategies they think should be implemented in the workplace. Suggestions for Learning Activities Ask the local chief administrative officer (CAO) to come in and discuss his/her role in emergency management. Ask students to research the local community resources such as the jurisdiction size, the median household income, the percentage of urban population, the community’s emergency management budget, and the size of the police and fire departments. Divide students into two groups. Ask one of them to discuss how to provide a positive work climate in the LEMC. Give each group 20 minutes. After the end of the time, ask a student representative from each group to present the group’s ideas. Take a hazard that the community is vulnerable to and ask the students to analyze the situation including the hazard exposure, physical vulnerability, social vulnerability, alternative hazard adjustments, and capability assessment. Suggestions for Additional Resources “Onsite and Offsite Emergency Preparedness for Chemical Facilities and Chemical Transportation,” article by Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry on the book companion website. “Preparedness for Emergency Response: Guidelines for the Emergency Planning Process,” article by Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry on the book companion website. Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.1 Describe the reporting structure of LEMA. As the local emergency manager, you will report to the CAO during emergencies. However, during the normal workweek, you will report to the head of a major agency, such as police or fire. All of these departments report to the CAO. Define an LEMC. A LEMC is a disaster-planning network that increases coordination among local agencies. Some of these LEMCs inform and prepare their communities for accidental releases of toxic chemicals. Define capability assessment and capability shortfall. Capability assessment is an evaluation of the degree to which your jurisdiction’s resources are sufficient to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Capability shortfall is the difference between the level of resources a jurisdiction currently has and the level it will need to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Explain how you get funding for a LEMA. Your most obvious source of funding is the CAO. There are other funding sources as well. FEMA has a range of programs that provide financial assistance. For example, you can receive matching funds through your State Emergency Management Agency. Each state has slightly different requirements. For example, Texas requires you to have a plan that meets a specific standard of quality and provides competitive awards based on planning, equipping training, and exercising activities. Continued financial support is based on meeting performance and financial requirements. You must also achieve the annual objectives. FEMA also supports programs for managing chemical hazards. Applications must list the objectives and how they will be achieved. LEMAs submit applications through their state emergency management agencies. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.2 What makes a LEMA effective? What makes a LEMA effective is: Organizational outcomes: Outcomes for effective LEMAs include high quality and quantity, timely, and low cost delivery of products such as hazard/vulnerability analyses, emergency operations plans, and recovery operations plans. Individual outcomes: Outcomes for the individual members of an effective LEMA include high job satisfaction, organizational commitment, individual effort and attendance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Planning process: An effective planning process includes productive planning activities, team climate development, situational analysis, and strategic choice. Define disaster subculture. Behavioral patterns among groups of residents who adopt routines to prepare for disasters. These groups have usually experienced disasters and have resolved to better prepare for them in the future. Name three extra-community resources. Such resources include: Federal agency technical reports State emergency planning agency technical support Industry training programs Computer software Membership in a statewide emergency management associations New ideas, plans, procedures, and equipment from private industry and neighboring jurisdictions How does a LEMA’s staffing effect its success? The more effective networks: Have members with more experience Have a wider range of local contacts Have written plans and were familiar with them Have personal experience in managing routine natural hazards such as floods Are more familiar with the policies and procedures of emergency-relevant state and federal agencies Other factors that affect the effectiveness of an emergency management network include: The number of members The number of hours worked by paid staff The number of agencies represented on the LEMC Organization into subcommittees also found the total number of members Representation by elected officials and by citizens’ groups Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.3 Name the five major functions of the emergency planning process. The emergency planning process consists of five principal functions: Plan Activities Provide a Positive Work Climate Analyze the Situation Acquire Resources Choose a Strategy Describe how to run an effective meeting. To run an effective meeting: Schedule meetings on a regular basis; if possible schedule the meetings on the same day of the week and the same time of day Circulate an agenda before the meeting Keep written minutes Set goals and review progress at the meetings Schedule meeting times convenient for all staff (full-time, part-time, and voluntary) Name six strategies you can use to deal with a disaster. Resource building strategy Emergency resource strategy Elite representation strategy Constituency strategy Cooptation strategy Audience strategy Compare individual outcomes to organizational outcomes. How do they differ? How are they the same? For a LEMA to be effective, you need dedicated individuals. The success of an organization is based primarily on two factors. As discussed, an organization can only be as successful as its people are. Second, to be a success, an organization must have a well thought-out planning process. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.4 Name the eight steps of developing an emergency operation plan. Step 1: Establish a Preliminary Planning Schedule Step 2: Publish a Planning Directive Step 3: Organize the LEMC Step 4: Assess Disaster Demands and Capabilities Step 5: Write Plans Step 6: Evaluate and Revise Draft Plans Step 7: Obtain Community Review Step 8: Publish Plans in Final Form Describe the three sections of the planning directive. The first section states the purpose of the planning process, the legal authority under which it is being conducted, and the specific objectives. The second section describes the planning process, the LEMC organization, the other participating organizations, and your authority as the CAO’s representative. The third section addresses the process for plan approval and the anticipated deadline for publication of the final plan. Even though the CAO signs the directive, you should draft it to ensure all the necessary elements are present. Name three LEMC subcommittees. The Hazard/Vulnerability Analysis Committee The Planning, Training, and Exercising Committee The Recovery and Mitigation Committee The Public Education and Outreach Committee The Executive Committee (LEMC’s principal officers, Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, and subcommittee chairs) What are four things you must do to write the plans? To write the plans: Ensure the committees have talented people drafting each section of the plans Ensure each plan has the following sections: basic plan, annexes, and hazard-specific appendices Ask the representatives of each organization to draft their own sections. For example, the police will draft the section on law enforcement. Provide guidance regarding the structure and content of the plans Provide resources for committee members to use Set performance goals and deadlines Draft the basic plan Discuss goals annually with the CAO Answers to Summary Questions Which of the following is not a factor in determining your status as an LEMA emergency manager? A. Size of community B. Financial resources of the community C. Community's vulnerability to hazards D. Your age Most communities do not require paid staff to receive job reviews. True or false? What must you do to determine your ability to meet the goals of the LEMA? A. Create a new LEMA. B. Conduct a capability assessment and document the capability shortfall. C. Conduct goal-planning meetings. D. Determine the risks involved in meeting the goals. What documents the requests for new budget needs? A. Budget request form B. Budget review C. Budget narrative D. Budget allowance form Communities focus on hazard preparation when disasters are infrequent. True or false? Staffing does affect the effectiveness of LEMCs. True or false? To run an effective meeting, you should not do which of the following? A. Schedule meetings on a regular basis B. Circulate an agenda before the meeting C. Schedule meetings on different days and at different times to provide variety D. Keep written minutes Which of the following is not a factor in determining a strategy for dealing with disasters? A. The potential disasters B. The size of the community C. The availability of funding D. Personal characteristics LEMCs are more effective when members are assigned to specific tasks rather than having everyone contribute to all tasks. True or false? Answers to Review Questions What does the organizational chart for state and local agencies look like? Draw a diagram of the chart. How is the effectiveness of an emergency management organization measured? The following make a LEMA effective: Organizational outcomes: Outcomes for effective LEMAs include high quality and quantity, timely, and low cost delivery of products such as hazard/vulnerability analyses, emergency operations plans, and recovery operations plans. Individual outcomes: Outcomes for the individual members of an effective LEMA include high job satisfaction, organizational commitment, individual effort and attendance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Planning process: An effective planning process includes productive planning activities, team climate development, situational analysis, and strategic choice. What are the five steps in the planning process? The five steps in the planning process are: Plan Activities Provide a Positive Work Climate Analyze the Situation Acquire Resources Choose a Strategy Name three LEMC subcommittees and list their responsibilities. The following are some of the typical LEMC subcommittees and their responsibilities: The Hazard/Vulnerability Analysis Committee: Identifies the hazards to which the community is exposed Analyzes the vulnerability of residential, commercial, and industrial structures to hazards Analyzes the vulnerability of the infrastructure (fuel, electric power, water, sewer, telecommunications, and transportation) to hazards Identifies any secondary hazards that could be caused by an initial disaster impact Identifies the locations of facilities such as schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and jails whose populations are vulnerable because of the limited mobility of their resident populations Identifies the locations of other facilities with vulnerable non-resident populations The Planning, Training, and Exercising Committee: Writes the Emergency Operations Plan Develops a training program to improve emergency responders’ capabilities Develops training materials for disaster-related tasks that are not performed during normal operations or routine emergencies Develop training that provides an overview of disaster response Develops training that improves skills required for tasks that are infrequently performed, difficult, and critical to the success of the emergency response organization Develops the necessary training materials or obtains them from other sources Tests the plan through drills and exercises Recruits representatives from the primary emergency response and public health agencies The Recovery and Mitigation Committee: Develops a pre-impact recovery plan that will facilitate a rapid recovery Identifies mitigation projects that will reduce the community’s vulnerability to hazards Identifies projects to be completed before a disaster Identifies projects that will be implemented during recovery Recruit help from representatives from public works, community development, land use planning, and building construction agencies The Public Education and Outreach Committee: Communicates with the news media and the public Explains how the activities of the Planning, Training and Exercising committee will provide an effective response to the hazards Explains how the activities of the Recovery and Mitigation committee will provide an effective recovery plan Writes non-technical summaries that can be understood by households and businesses Develops slides or other graphic presentations to support talks to community groups Develops brochures to be distributed to the public The Executive Committee (LEMC's principal officers, Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, and subcommittee chairs): Ensures the LEMC sets specific, achievable objectives each year Ensures the LEMC accomplishes those objectives through an efficient expenditure of resources Obtains the resources to support the LEMC’s activities. Conduct a planning orientation so the members of the LEMC will develop a common understanding of the process. What are some ways you can ensure you provide an effective response to a disaster? Name three ways. Develop an effective plan. Gain community support. Build relationships between departments and agencies. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions You head up an LEMA in a small community, and you are the only person on the staff. What do you include your budget? Typical budget categories include: Staff salaries Office space Office equipment (e.g., copiers, computers, fax machines) Telephone (local and long-distance) Travel Materials and supplies (e.g., paper, toner) You are responsible for emergency planning in Miami, an area that is vulnerable to hurricanes. You come up with a plan that will limit damage from a hurricane. How can you get the money to fund the plan? Name three sources. The most obvious source of funding is the CAO. There are other funding sources as well. FEMA has a range of programs that provide financial assistance. For example, one can receive matching funds through your State Emergency Management Agency. Each state has slightly different requirements. For example, Texas requires plans that meet a specific standard of quality and provide competitive awards based on planning, equipping training, and exercising activities. Continued financial support is based on meeting performance and financial requirements. FEMA also supports programs for managing chemical hazards. Applications must list the objectives and how they will be achieved. LEMAs submit applications through their state emergency management agencies. The FEMA regional offices review the applications. I could also contact local sources for assistance. Industrial facilities, such as nuclear power plants, can help defray the costs of preparing their facilities for an emergency. Truck and rail carriers can provide training assistance. Commercial businesses can contribute to hazard awareness programs. You have recently taken over an LEMA that has a staff of 8. Morale among the staff is low because the staff doesn’t feel it has accomplished anything. You feel you can improve morale by showing the staff tasks you believe they can complete on a schedule. What specific steps would you take to give the staff a sense that they will accomplish something meaningful? Regardless of whether someone is a paid staff member, or a volunteer, they are likely to have some type of commitment to the organization. There are two types of commitment: affective and continuance. Affective commitment is an emotional bond to the organization. This type of commitment leads to high employee performance. A person's affective commitment is influenced by: Organizational leadership Their perceptions of their own competence Role clarity Identification with organization's goals Opportunity for reward A CAO has asked the agencies in your community to provide a report that outlines the steps they are taking to provide an emergency plan. What would you provide to the CAO to show what your LEMC is going to implement when writing your plan? I would provide a planning schedule and a planning directive. In addition, Every LEMA needs an Emergency Operations Plan, a Recovery Operations Plan, and a Hazard Mitigation Plan. To write the plans: Ensure the committees have talented people drafting each section of the plans Ensure each plan has the following sections: basic plan, annexes, and hazard-specific appendices Ask the representatives of each organization to draft their own sections. For example, the police will draft the section on law enforcement. Provide guidance regarding the structure and content of the plans Provide resources for committee members to use Set performance goals and deadlines Draft the basic plan 4 RISK PERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION Saving Lives Learning Objectives Upon reading this chapter, students should be able to: Design a risk communication plan. Create an implement a risk communication plan. Perform a protective action assessment. Involve the media and the public in risk communication. Chapter Summary Unfortunately, people ignore life-threatening risks unless they think the risks are real. They’ll go about their daily lives as if nothing is happening around them. Emergency managers must develop and use their communication skills to influence people’s perceptions of danger. Emergency managers must also involve the media and the public in risk communication. Success risk communication programs will save lives. Key Terms Adaptive plan The answer to the question “What is the best method of protection?” is an adaptive plan. Those at risk generally have at least two options—taking protective action or continuing normal activities. Escalating crisis A situation in which there is a significantly increased probability of an incident occurring that will threaten the public’s health, safety, or property. Information need A need that results from the answer to the question, “What information do I need to answer my question?” Information search plan A plan that results from addressing the question, “Where and how can I obtain this information?” Protection motivation A positive response to the question of whether or not there will be personal consequences if disaster occurs. Risk The possibility that people or property could be hurt. Risk is defined in terms of the likelihood that an event will occur at a given location within a given time period and will inflict casualties and damage. This risk must be effectively communicated to the people who are likely to be affected. Risk assessment An evaluation of what will be the personal consequences if the disaster occurs. Warning A risk communication about an imminent event that is intended to produce an appropriate disaster response. Lecture Notes Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what protective actions they have taken in response to different disasters. Ask students what they think of media coverage, in general, in response to disasters such as Hurricane Katrina. Ask students where they are most likely to receive their information on emergency warnings. From the media? From friends? Suggestions for Learning Activities Ask students to divide into two groups. One group should make a list of suggestions for a risk communication program for hurricanes. The other group should make a list of suggestions for a risk communication program for terrorist incidents. After twenty minutes, ask a representative from each group to list their suggestions. Divide students into three groups. Ask one group to write a press release about an approaching hurricane. Ask the second group to write a press release about a terrorist threat to subways. Ask the third to write a press release about an accidental chemical release that just occurred. Give each group thirty minutes. Afterwards, ask a representative from each group to read their press release. Ensure that all the necessary information is in the press release including a dateline, the organizational source, a summary lead sentence, and a brief description of any attachments. Discuss Hurricane Katrina and those who did not evacuate. Ask the students why some of those affected by Hurricane Katrina did not evacuate. Suggestions for Additional Resources The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina: Lessons Learned on the book companion website. “Understanding Citizen Response to Disasters with Implications for Terrorism,” article by Ronald W. Perry and Michael K. Lindell. Located on the book companion website. The FEMA website, www.fema.gov 5 PRINCIPAL HAZARDS IN THE UNITED STATES Causes and Effects Learning Objectives Upon reading this chapter, students should be able to: Organize hazards into categories. Formulate a plan for handling hazardous substances. Manage the risks associated with hazards. Create relationships with others to prepare for different types of hazards. Chapter Summary To manage hazards, emergency managers must understand the intricacies of a wide array of hazards. Each type of hazard has a different cause and effect. Each hazard also has a distinct set of characteristics and potential dangers. Not only do emergency managers need to know how to identify hazards, but they must also understand what to do to prepare for one, inform others of them, and aid others in the event a hazard threatens your community. If there is forewarning of an impending disaster, evacuation is often a good solution. If there is no warning, emergency managers must mitigate ahead of time or bear the consequences. Key Terms 100-year flood An arbitrary standard of safety that reflects a compromise between the goals of providing long-term safety and developing economically valuable land. Apparent temperature The combination of temperature and humidity into a heat index. Carcinogens Chemicals that cause cancer. Committed The fact that contamination by radioactive material on the skin or absorbed into the body will continue to administer a dose until it decays or is removed. Compressed gases Gases that are cooled to a liquid state so they will occupy a small enough volume to be transported at a reasonable economic cost. Core Molten rock at the center of the earth. Corrosives Substances that destroy living tissue at the point of contact because they are either acidic or alkaline. Crust Solid rock and other materials at the Earth’s surface that is defined by large plates floating on the mantle and moving gradually in different directions over time. Discharge The volume of water passing a specific point per unit of time. Earthquake A sudden release of energy that has been built up as two tectonic plates attempt to move past each other. Epicenter A point on the earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter. Explosives Compounds or mixtures that undergo a rapid chemical transformation that is faster than the speed of sound. Eye of the hurricane The area of calm that has a 10-20 mile radius. The eye is surrounded by bands of high wind and rain that spiral and form a ring around the eye. Eyewall of the hurricane The spiral the forms a ring around the eye of a hurricane. Firestorms Fires that are distinguished from other wildfires because they burn so intensely that they create their own local weather and are virtually impossible to extinguish. Flammable liquids Liquids that evolve flammable vapors at 80F or less, thus posing a threat similar to flammable gases. Flammable solids Solids that self-ignite through friction, absorption of moisture, or spontaneous chemical changes. Flood An event in which abnormally large amount of water accumulates in an area in which it is usually not found. Gas A substance that expands to fill the available volume in a space. Hardscape Impermeable surfaces, such as building roofs, streets, and parking lots. Hazmat Hazardous materials that are “capable of posing unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property.” Hurricane The most severe type of tropical storm. Hypocenter A point deep within the earth from which an earthquake’s energy is released. Intensity The measure of energy release at a given impact location, which can be assessed either by behavioral effects or physical measurements. Interface fires Fires that burn into areas containing a mixture of natural vegetation and built structures. Landslide The downward displacement of rock or soil because of gravitational forces. Liquid A substance that spreads to cover the available area on a surface. Magnitude The measure of energy release at the source. Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter scale where a one-unit increase represents a 10-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude and a 30-fold increase in energy release from the source. Mantle An 1800 mile thick layer between the core and the crust. Miscellaneous dangerous goods A diverse set of materials such as air bags, certain vegetable oils, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and white asbestos. Natural hazards Extreme events that originate in the natural environment. The natural hazards are commonly categorized as meteorological, hydrological, and geophysical. Oxidizers and organic peroxides Chemicals that include halogens (chlorine and fluorine), peroxides (hydrogen peroxide and benzoyl peroxide), and hypochlorites. These chemicals destroy metals and organic substances and enhance the ignition of combustibles. Radioactive materials Substances that undergo spontaneous decay, emitting radiation in the process. Radionuclides Radioactive substances that vary in atomic weight. Severe storms A storm whose wind speed exceeds 58 mph, that produces a tornado, or that releases hail with a diameter of 3/4 inch or greater. Source term The mix of chemicals or radionuclides involved in a given release. Stage The height of water above a defined level that is used by emergency managers predict the level of flood casualties and damage. Storm surge An increased height of a body of water that exceeds the normal tide. Technological hazards Hazards that originate in human-controlled processes but are released into the air and water. The most important technological hazards are explosives, flammable materials, toxic chemicals, radiological materials, and biological hazards. Tornadoes Windstorms that form when cold air from the north collides with a warmer air mass. Tsunamis Sea waves that are usually generated by undersea earthquakes, but by volcanic eruptions or landslides. Vapor The molecules that are in a gaseous state of a substance that is a liquid at normal temperature and pressure. Volcanoes Geological structures that transport a column of molten rock from the earth’s mantle to the surface. Wildland fires Fires that burn areas with nothing but natural vegetation for fuel. Lecture Notes Bring student’s experiences into the conversation by asking them what disasters they have experienced first hand. Ensure that students understand the difference between natural hazards and manmade hazards. Discuss what hazards the local community is vulnerable to. Suggestions for Learning Activities Divide students into three groups and assign each group one of first three questions from the “Applying This Chapter” questions. After thirty minutes ask a representative from each group to give their answer. Ask a safety expert from a local manufacturing facility to come in and discuss their safety plans and how they safeguard against accidents. Lead the students in a discussion of what we have learned about emergency management from their performance in Hurricane Katrina and what should be changed. Lead the students in a discussion of what we have learned about emergency management from their performance in 9/11 and what should be changed. Suggestions for Additional Resources The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina: Lessons Learned on the book companion website. “Household Adjustment to Earthquake Hazard: A Review of Research,” article by Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry. Located on the book companion website. “Summary of Lessons Learned 9/11.” Located on the book companion website. Instructor Manual for Introduction to Emergency Management Michael K. Lindell, Carla Prater, Ronald W. Perry 9780471772606
