CH-1 Introduction to Emergency Management – Introduction to Emergency Management : Book Guide

1 INTRODUCTION TO EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT The Role of the Emergency Manager Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 1.1 Define hazard, disaster, and emergency. A hazard is a source of danger. Hazard refers to the potential for extreme events to affect people, property, and the natural environment in a given location. The term disaster is reserved for events that produce more losses than a community can handle. Disasters cause many casualties, much property damage, or significant environmental damage. The term emergency is used in two slightly different ways. We use the term to describe minor events that perhaps cause a few casualties and a limited amount of property damage. Emergency also refers to an imminent event that will is likely to strike soon. Define technological disaster and natural disaster. A natural disaster is an event that occurs in the natural environment that results in casualties, property damage, and environmental damage. Natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and wildland fires. Technological disasters are events that result from the accidental failures of technologies, such as the release of hazardous materials from facilities where they are normally contained. Provide an example of a technological disaster and natural disaster. Natural disaster examples include earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, wildland fires, severe storms, mudslides, lightning strikes, and tornadoes. Technological disasters examples include releases of hazardous materials. These types of disasters can be related to the use of technologies such as nuclear power plants and liquefied natural gas facilities. 4. Provide an example of a hazard, a disaster, and an emergency. Hazard - Nuclear and chemical technologies, severe weather, and seismic activity Disaster – Hurricane Katrina, Tsunamis, and 9/11 terrorist attack Emergency - Car crashes, house fires, and heart attacks Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 1.2 What are the two methods of measuring losses? Losses are measured in a variety of ways, including: number of deaths and injuries, and property damage. What are three factors that led to the increased importance of emergency management? Four factors have led to the increased importance of emergency management: Public awareness of hazards, emergencies, and disasters has increased as the cost of disasters has increased dramatically in recent years. Businesses understand disasters can disrupt their operations and even bankrupt them. Rapid population growth in the most hazardous geographical areas of the country has created increased exposure to disaster impacts. Emergency managers have increasingly undergone specialized training, leading to the development of emergency management as a profession. What agency was formed in response to widespread recognition that emergency management was too fragmented across federal agencies? FEMA was created in 1978. What is the role of an emergency manager? The emergency manager has a local job to influence events with local consequences. This is in keeping with FEMA’s practice of attempting to manage events locally whenever possible. Of course, this places a major burden on state and local government agencies. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 1.3 Define hazard mitigation. Hazard mitigation addresses the causes of a disaster, reducing the likelihood it will occur, or limiting its impact. Compare and contrast response and recovery. Emergency response begins when the event occurs. In some cases, hazard-monitoring systems alert authorities of an imminent disaster. Warnings such as weather forecasts can provide time to activate the emergency response organization before impact. Recovery begins as the disaster is ending and continues until the community is back to normal. 3. What are the three steps for performing a hazard/vulnerability analysis? Step 1 Identify hazards. Each community has its own set of hazards. A community could be in a hurricane-prone area. Or there could be a manufacturing plant that uses a large quantity of toxic chemicals. Step 2 Estimate the probability. How likely is it that the hazard will occur? Step 3 Project the consequences. What are consequences for each geographic area? Each population segment? Each sector of the local economy? 4. What are three of the considerations that influence hazard management decisions? Legal mandates, defined by federal, state, and local laws and regulations Local resources, such as a large tax base, an active Local Emergency Planning Committee (LEPC) and cooperative industry Local priorities, defined by the emphasis local officials give to emergency management State and federal resources, such as guidance manuals, technical training courses, and financial grants What is the primary purpose of hazard mitigation? The focus is to stop disasters before they happen. What are the goals of emergency response? Protecting the population. Limiting damage from the primary impact. Minimizing damage from secondary impacts. Answers to Summary Questions 1. An increase in the size of the human population contributes to the rising number of losses as a result of disaster in the United States. True or false? 2. Sanctions punish actions that increase hazard vulnerability. Incentives reward actions that reduce hazard vulnerability. True or false? 3. All of the resources used during recovery come from outside the community. True or false? 4. Which of the following are methods used to counter secondary threats? A. Fighting urban fires after earthquakes B. Identifying contaminated water supplies following flooding C. Preparing for flooding following a glacier melt during a volcanic eruption D. All of the above 5. Which of the following organizations merged with the Department of Homeland Security in 2002? A. Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC) B. State Emergency Response Commissions (SERC) C. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) D. The Defense Department 6. Hazard mitigation involves working with: A. Home owners B. Government agencies and business owners C. Schools and businesses D. Businesses, households, and government agencies Answers to Review Questions 1. What is emergency management? Emergency management applies science, technology, planning, and management to deal with extreme events that can injure or kill large numbers of people, do extensive damage to property, and disrupt community life. The emergency manager's role is to prevent or reduce losses that occur due to hazards, disasters, and emergencies. 2. What is the difference between a hazard, emergency, and disaster? A hazard is a source of danger. Hazards include both health and safety dangers. Hazards have the potential to affect people, property, and the natural environment. An emergency is an event that can cause a few casualties and a limited amount of property damage or an imminent event that is likely to strike soon and that requires prompt and effective action. Disasters produce more losses than a community can handle, including casualties, property damage, and significant environmental damage. 3. Why is hazard mitigation important? Hazard mitigation is important because it takes place before a disaster strikes and because it addresses the causes of a disaster. Mitigation can reduce the likelihood a disaster will occur or and limit the disaster’s impact if it does strike. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions 1. You are an emergency manager for New York City. How do you prepare for a possible terrorist attack? What would you ask residents to do? I would work with law enforcement agencies to assess the terrorists’ capabilities. I would also prepare to rapidly detect and assess the situation, mobilize relevant organizations and facilities, take action to limit casualties and damage, and coordinate the organizations responding to the incident. In addition, I would urge citizens to report suspicious behavior. 2. You are hired as an emergency manager in an industrial town. The town wants you to determine what hazards they are vulnerable to. How do you do this? Emergency management begins with a careful study of local hazards. This study is referred to as a hazard and vulnerability analysis. This process helps emergency managers decide which hazards require active management. There are three steps in performing a hazard/vulnerability analysis (Ketchum and Whittaker, 1982; Greenway, 1998). Step 1 Identify hazards. Each community has its own set of hazards. A community could be in a hurricane-prone area. Or there could be a manufacturing plant that uses a large quantity of toxic chemicals. Step 2 Estimate the probability. How likely is it that the hazard will occur? Step 3 Project the consequences. What are consequences for each geographic area? Each population segment? Each sector of the local economy? 3. You are an emergency manager for a small town in Florida that will be hit with a hurricane in two days. What steps do you take to prepare? Emergency response begins when the event occurs. In some cases, hazard-monitoring systems alert authorities of an imminent disaster. Warnings such as weather forecasts can provide time to activate the emergency response organization before impact. In other cases, such as earthquakes, pre-impact prediction is not available. However, a rapid assessment of the impact area can quickly direct resources to the most damaged areas. Emergency response has three goals: Protecting the population. Limiting damage from the primary impact. Minimizing damage from secondary impacts. Consequently, emergency response activities include: Securing the impact area Evacuating threatened areas Conducting search and rescue for the injured Providing emergency medical care Sheltering evacuees and other victims 2 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT STAKEHOLDERS Influencing the Decision-Making Process Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.1 Define stakeholder. Stakeholders are people who have, or think they have, something to lose or gain. How can households reduce their vulnerability to disasters (name three ways)? Households can take actions, called hazard adjustments, which can reduce their vulnerability to disasters by: Living in less hazard-prone locations Renting or buying residences that are more resistant to wind, water and ground-shaking Taking precautions (such as boarding up their house) to lessen the impact of the disaster Purchasing hazard insurance What are three private sector groups? Private sector groups include: religious organizations non-governmental organizations (NGOs) non-profit organizations (NPOs) community based organizations (CBOs) businesses Define CERT. Community Emergency Response Teams train emergency response volunteers at the neighborhood level, and organize them in groups capable of providing basic services such as triage, first aid, urban search and rescue, fire suppression, and damage and casualty estimates at the neighborhood level Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.2 Define business interruption. Business interruption is the loss of revenue due to a disruption. Disasters cause business interruption. What are utility stakeholders (name three)? A critical business stakeholder is public utilities, including: electricity water sewer services solid waste management telephone television internet access What role does the media play in disasters? The media are important to the success of emergency management programs. The media cover all phases of emergency management. The media warn the public of coming natural disasters. The media also educate the public about hazards. The media both consume and create the news. They consume “hard news” by describing disasters. They also create “soft news” by reporting about emergency preparation measures. This “soft news” builds support for emergency management. Emergency managers should know their local news media and create relationships with reporters and producers. Name some businesses that are active supporters of emergency management. Virtually all utilities, facilities that contain hazardous materials, and businesses on the coastline that are located in hazard prone areas. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.3 What are three regional stakeholders? Regional and state-level stakeholder agencies include: city and county councils flood control districts state-level coastal zone agencies geological services agencies, and soil conservation agencies What are three national stakeholders? National stakeholders agencies include: US Geological Survey Army Corps of Engineers National Weather Service Environmental Protection Agency What is the function of state and federal government in disasters? State governments have a number of important functions. State governments pass legislation that affects the decisions the local governments can make. For example, some states require local governments to engage in land use planning where other states do not (Burby, 1998). Moreover, state support for local emergency managers varies in terms of technical resources and funding. The Federal Government function - In the case of a major disaster, local governments request aid from the state. If a state believes the response and recovery will require more resources than are available, it requests a Presidential Disaster Declaration for access to federal assistance. Most, but not all, requests for Presidential Disaster Declaration are approved. If a request is denied it is because FEMA may disagree that local and state resources have been exceeded. Between the passage of the Stafford Act in 1988 and 1998, only about one-fourth of the requests were denied (Sylves 1998). The federal government tries to use an objective set of criteria for issuing declarations. However, the process still includes many subjective decision points. Also, there are political considerations that affect the process. Very few Presidents are willing to deny a state resources during a disaster. Define social groups, economical groups, and governmental groups. Social groups are stakeholders that are primarily defined by households, who control a substantial amount of the assets (buildings and their contents) that are at risk from disasters. Social groups also including neighborhood, service, and environmental organizations. Economic groups are business stakeholders that organize the flow of goods and services and who are affected anytime there is an interruption to business caused by a disaster. Governmental groups are stakeholders who are part of the government’s structure. The foundation of the government structure is the town or the city. The next layer is the county. The third level is the state. Cities and counties have varying levels of power from one state to another because states differ in the powers they grant. Most emergency management policies are set at the federal and state levels. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.4 What are three ways to get stakeholders involved in emergency management? Encourage relationships among stakeholders to improve the flow of information, services, and supplies Consult with all relevant agencies when making mitigation, response, and recovery plans Coordinate the stakeholders as emergency operations plans are made Coordinate the stakeholders as recovery operations plans are made Coordinate stakeholders during the emergency exercises Stage exercises frequently Ask the State Emergency Management Agency for assistance in evaluating exercises What are two ways to the get the community involved in hazard prevention? Talk up your work to your friends and neighbors. Discuss potential threats and the emergency management plans. Get informal reactions. Creating buzz about emergency management is an inexpensive and valuable way to get community support. Set up a hazard hotline. Advertise the hotline. This is a useful way to receive information. You can also use the hotline to warn and inform the public of hazards. The FBI, for example, has a hotline for tips on criminals and terrorist activities. Speak at schools, neighborhood and community organizations. Promote your work to people in the community that you don't personally know. Discuss potential threats and the emergency management plans. Form citizen committees to help advise on the emergency management plans and to get volunteers for carrying out the plans. For example, volunteers can fill sandbags, direct traffic, and serve on search-and-rescue teams. What does LEPC stand for? Local Emergency Planning Committees Why is it good for emergency managers to work with groups? Emergency managers can work with groups to ensure the adoption of policies that have several purposes. This way, the manager will have a base of support. For example, environmental groups are interested in preserving wetlands or riverine corridors for their scenic value and other reasons. These same lands can perform valuable functions by absorbing floods or by keeping housing out of a floodplain. To be successful, emergency managers must constantly find ways to work with stakeholders. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.5 1. Define reward and coercive power. Give an example that relates to emergency management. Reward and coercive power are frequently referred to as the “carrot and the stick” approach. The Federal Government can use this approach to encourage local emergency management organizations to implement Federal programs. Federal funding can be provided as a reward or withheld as punishment. 2. Define legitimate power. Give an example that relates to emergency management. Legitimate power arises from one person’s relationship to another and can come from a formal position. For example, any official elected by a fair voting process has legitimate power. The mayor of a community the power to choose the level of resources allocated to emergency management. 3. Define expert power. Give an example that relates to emergency management. Expert power is based on someone’s extensive knowledge of cause and effect relationships in a specific subject area. Physicians have expert power because they can diagnose illnesses from specific symptoms and they know how to treat those illnesses. An emergency management expert from a university may make recommendations to agencies that may be influenced by the expertise Define referent power. Give an example that relates to emergency management. Referent power is based on one’s desire to be like the power holder. For example, many want to look like a glamorous celebrity. That celebrity therefore has referent power. Millions of magazines are sold with the headline of “Beauty Secrets from the Stars.” In emergency management, a community may pursue similar resources and organizational structure as a community considered to have a model emergency management organization. Define information power. Give an example that relates to emergency management. Information power involves true, new, and relevant facts or arguments about a situation. Information power is exercised by either introducing or withholding information (Mechanic 1963). Information power is, in many respects, the most effective basis of power because it is socially independent. That is, once the new information is understood and accepted, its source becomes inconsequential. Several Federal agencies maintain vital information related to emergency management including the National Weather Service and the U.S. Geological Survey. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 2.6 1. What are three types of political agendas? The systemic, the governmental, and the institutional. 2. What are three situations in which the “window of opportunity” of policy setting might be closed? Windows could close because of any of the following situations: The problem is solved Persistent failure to take any action Another event occurs that shifts the public's attention Key stakeholders, or advocates, for that policy leave, or are pushed out of, their positions in a policy making body No possible course of action seems available 3. What are three things you must do to formulate a policy? Policy Formulation Checklist: Identify the hazards. Assess the probability and seriousness of each threat. Design policies with a full awareness of the local politics. Define clearly who are the targets of a policy (for example, what types of households and businesses). Define what activities are to be regulated (for example, land-use practices and building construction practices). Define which influence mechanisms are to be used (for example, technological advances, risk information, economic incentives, and legal penalties). The government has many alternatives. One option is to control lot sizes to limit the population at risk in hazard-prone areas. Also, the government can mandate that streets must be wide enough for large emergency vehicles such as fire trucks. Alternatively, building codes can restrict construction designs and materials. Create public awareness campaigns. Governments can promote the adoption of hazard-resistant land-use and construction practices. Two incentives are low interest loans and tax credits. Poor jurisdictions might not be able to provide these incentives. Governments can require hazard-resistant land-use and building construction practices for construction permits. This requires on-site inspections. Define focusing event and window of opportunity. A focusing event is a natural or technological disaster that draws public attention to the need for local disaster planning and hazard mitigation. A window of opportunity is the time during which local emergency managers are most likely to be able to influence policy. A window of opportunity usually opens immediately after a focusing event has drawn attention to hazard and closes after attention moves on to other public issues. Answers to Summary Questions 1. A stakeholder is someone who has nothing to lose. True or false? 2. CERTs train emergency response volunteers at the neighborhood level. True or false? 3. Which of the following was started by FEMA and is a model that that involves businesses in reducing hazards and preparing for disasters? A. CERTs B. Project Impact C. Homeland Security D. America's Most Wanted 4. Which of the following is power that involves true, new, and relevant facts or arguments. A. Referent power B. Legitimate power C. Coercive power D. Information power 5. Which of the following is not an agenda type: A. Economic B. Governmental C. Institutional D. Systemic 6. If a state believes the response and recovery from a disaster will require more resources than it has available, it does what? A. Requests a Presidential Disaster Declaration B. Requests access to state funds C. Requests military troops D. Requests local volunteers 7. Zoning changes require public hearings. True or false? Only business people can be policy entrepreneurs. True or false? Answers to Review Questions 1. Define stakeholder. A stakeholder is someone who has something to lose or gain. An emergency management stakeholder is affected by the decisions made (or not made) by emergency managers and policy makers. 2. Who are stakeholders (name three) you influence to get involved in emergency management? Social, economical, and governmental stakeholders are the groups you can involve in emergency management. 3. What types of power do stakeholders have (name three)? Stakeholders have the following types of power: reward coercive legitimate expert referent information power 4. What must you consider when formulating a policy? You should consider the following when formulating a policy: Identify the hazards. Assess the probability and seriousness of each threat. Design policies with a full awareness of the local politics. Define clearly who are the targets of a policy (for example, what types of households and businesses). Define what activities are to be regulated (for example, land-use practices and building construction practices). Define which influence mechanisms are to be used (for example, technological advances, risk information, economic incentives, and legal penalties). The government has many alternatives. One option is to control lot sizes to limit the population at risk in hazard-prone areas. Also, the government can mandate that streets must be wide enough for large emergency vehicles such as fire trucks. Alternatively, building codes can restrict construction designs and materials. Create public awareness campaigns. Governments can promote the adoption of hazard-resistant land-use and construction practices. Two incentives are low interest loans and tax credits. Poor jurisdictions might not be able to provide these incentives. Governments can require hazard-resistant land-use and building construction practices for construction permits. This requires on-site inspections. What factors affect policy implementation? The following factors affect policy implementation: How easy the problem is to solve. Whether there is a clear link between the solution and the problem (for example, building dams to stop floods)? What level of technology and amount of resources is available to solve the problem? What is important about a focusing event? It draws public attention to the need for local disaster planning and hazard mitigation. Successful implementation requires the policy to be consistent with the agencies’ commitment and what? Capacity What is one way in which expert power differs from information power? Expert power is based on someone’s expertise; information is based on who has the information. The person with information power can provide or withhold information. What 1968 program did Congress create in response to the rising taxpayer burden for flood victims? National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Answers to Applying this Chapter Questions If you wanted to create a local hazard mitigation program, who would you involve? I would involve the economic, social, and political stakeholders. I would get businesses and individuals involved by educating them on how they can mitigate hazards. If you were in charge of FEMA, what power base would you have? You would definitely have expert power and information power. Depending on your relationships with others, you could also have legitimate power. The Director of FEMA could also have reward and coercive power with the stated by rewarding and punishing states based on certain goals and objectives. How can emergency managers influence policy? There are various ways to shape the policy agenda. First, use current events. A natural or technological disaster is a focusing event that draws public attention to the need for local disaster planning and hazard mitigation. For example, after the devastating tsunami of 2004, federal officials improved their early warning system. This window of opportunity is not open for long. The challenge for local emergency managers is to use this policy window while it is open. It is unknown how long such a policy window will stay open, or what will close it. The National Flood Insurance Program has been in place since 1968. You are in charge of evaluating its success. What criteria would you use and why? Criteria for evaluating hazard management policies include present and future reduction of losses and reduction of expenses. You are the emergency manager of an area that is home to a nuclear power plant. You have an emergency plan in case there is a major accident at the reactor. However, you want to get the community more involved with the emergency plan. What steps do you take to get the community involved? There are four simple ways to get the community involved in hazard prevention. Talk up your work to your friends and neighbors. Discuss potential threats and the emergency management plans. Get informal reactions. Creating buzz about emergency management is an inexpensive and valuable way to get community support. Set up a hazard hotline. Advertise the hotline. This is a useful way to receive information. You can also use the hotline to warn and inform the public of hazards. The FBI, for example, has a hotline for tips on criminals and terrorist activities. Speak at schools, neighborhood and community organizations. Promote your work to people in the community that you don't personally know. Discuss potential threats and the emergency management plans. Form citizen committees to help advise on the emergency management plans and to get volunteers for carrying out the plans. For example, volunteers can fill sandbags, direct traffic, and serve on search-and-rescue teams. You are in charge of coordinating response efforts to a terrorist attack. Your first scenario is a terrorist bombing the local university. First responders must arrive quickly. What agencies, businesses, and teams do you get involved and why? I would get campus security involved. I would get university administration as well. We would discuss evacuation drills. In addition, I would get nearby businesses involved and let them know of what evacuation routes they would need. I would also practice drills with first responders. Finally, I would ask that students report suspicious behaviors. 3 BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION Planning for Emergencies Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.1 Describe the reporting structure of LEMA. As the local emergency manager, you will report to the CAO during emergencies. However, during the normal workweek, you will report to the head of a major agency, such as police or fire. All of these departments report to the CAO. Define an LEMC. A LEMC is a disaster-planning network that increases coordination among local agencies. Some of these LEMCs inform and prepare their communities for accidental releases of toxic chemicals. Define capability assessment and capability shortfall. Capability assessment is an evaluation of the degree to which your jurisdiction’s resources are sufficient to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Capability shortfall is the difference between the level of resources a jurisdiction currently has and the level it will need to meet the disaster demands identified in the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Explain how you get funding for a LEMA. Your most obvious source of funding is the CAO. There are other funding sources as well. FEMA has a range of programs that provide financial assistance. For example, you can receive matching funds through your State Emergency Management Agency. Each state has slightly different requirements. For example, Texas requires you to have a plan that meets a specific standard of quality and provides competitive awards based on planning, equipping training, and exercising activities. Continued financial support is based on meeting performance and financial requirements. You must also achieve the annual objectives. FEMA also supports programs for managing chemical hazards. Applications must list the objectives and how they will be achieved. LEMAs submit applications through their state emergency management agencies. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.2 What makes a LEMA effective? What makes a LEMA effective is: Organizational outcomes: Outcomes for effective LEMAs include high quality and quantity, timely, and low cost delivery of products such as hazard/vulnerability analyses, emergency operations plans, and recovery operations plans. Individual outcomes: Outcomes for the individual members of an effective LEMA include high job satisfaction, organizational commitment, individual effort and attendance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Planning process: An effective planning process includes productive planning activities, team climate development, situational analysis, and strategic choice. Define disaster subculture. Behavioral patterns among groups of residents who adopt routines to prepare for disasters. These groups have usually experienced disasters and have resolved to better prepare for them in the future. Name three extra-community resources. Such resources include: Federal agency technical reports State emergency planning agency technical support Industry training programs Computer software Membership in a statewide emergency management associations New ideas, plans, procedures, and equipment from private industry and neighboring jurisdictions How does a LEMA’s staffing effect its success? The more effective networks: Have members with more experience Have a wider range of local contacts Have written plans and were familiar with them Have personal experience in managing routine natural hazards such as floods Are more familiar with the policies and procedures of emergency-relevant state and federal agencies Other factors that affect the effectiveness of an emergency management network include: The number of members The number of hours worked by paid staff The number of agencies represented on the LEMC Organization into subcommittees also found the total number of members Representation by elected officials and by citizens’ groups Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.3 Name the five major functions of the emergency planning process. The emergency planning process consists of five principal functions: Plan Activities Provide a Positive Work Climate Analyze the Situation Acquire Resources Choose a Strategy Describe how to run an effective meeting. To run an effective meeting: Schedule meetings on a regular basis; if possible schedule the meetings on the same day of the week and the same time of day Circulate an agenda before the meeting Keep written minutes Set goals and review progress at the meetings Schedule meeting times convenient for all staff (full-time, part-time, and voluntary) Name six strategies you can use to deal with a disaster. Resource building strategy Emergency resource strategy Elite representation strategy Constituency strategy Cooptation strategy Audience strategy Compare individual outcomes to organizational outcomes. How do they differ? How are they the same? For a LEMA to be effective, you need dedicated individuals. The success of an organization is based primarily on two factors. As discussed, an organization can only be as successful as its people are. Second, to be a success, an organization must have a well thought-out planning process. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 3.4 Name the eight steps of developing an emergency operation plan. Step 1: Establish a Preliminary Planning Schedule Step 2: Publish a Planning Directive Step 3: Organize the LEMC Step 4: Assess Disaster Demands and Capabilities Step 5: Write Plans Step 6: Evaluate and Revise Draft Plans Step 7: Obtain Community Review Step 8: Publish Plans in Final Form Describe the three sections of the planning directive. The first section states the purpose of the planning process, the legal authority under which it is being conducted, and the specific objectives. The second section describes the planning process, the LEMC organization, the other participating organizations, and your authority as the CAO’s representative. The third section addresses the process for plan approval and the anticipated deadline for publication of the final plan. Even though the CAO signs the directive, you should draft it to ensure all the necessary elements are present. Name three LEMC subcommittees. The Hazard/Vulnerability Analysis Committee The Planning, Training, and Exercising Committee The Recovery and Mitigation Committee The Public Education and Outreach Committee The Executive Committee (LEMC’s principal officers, Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, and subcommittee chairs) What are four things you must do to write the plans? To write the plans: Ensure the committees have talented people drafting each section of the plans Ensure each plan has the following sections: basic plan, annexes, and hazard-specific appendices Ask the representatives of each organization to draft their own sections. For example, the police will draft the section on law enforcement. Provide guidance regarding the structure and content of the plans Provide resources for committee members to use Set performance goals and deadlines Draft the basic plan Discuss goals annually with the CAO Answers to Summary Questions Which of the following is not a factor in determining your status as an LEMA emergency manager? A. Size of community B. Financial resources of the community C. Community's vulnerability to hazards D. Your age Most communities do not require paid staff to receive job reviews. True or false? What must you do to determine your ability to meet the goals of the LEMA? A. Create a new LEMA. B. Conduct a capability assessment and document the capability shortfall. C. Conduct goal-planning meetings. D. Determine the risks involved in meeting the goals. What documents the requests for new budget needs? A. Budget request form B. Budget review C. Budget narrative D. Budget allowance form Communities focus on hazard preparation when disasters are infrequent. True or false? Staffing does affect the effectiveness of LEMCs. True or false? To run an effective meeting, you should not do which of the following? A. Schedule meetings on a regular basis B. Circulate an agenda before the meeting C. Schedule meetings on different days and at different times to provide variety D. Keep written minutes Which of the following is not a factor in determining a strategy for dealing with disasters? A. The potential disasters B. The size of the community C. The availability of funding D. Personal characteristics LEMCs are more effective when members are assigned to specific tasks rather than having everyone contribute to all tasks. True or false? Answers to Review Questions What does the organizational chart for state and local agencies look like? Draw a diagram of the chart. How is the effectiveness of an emergency management organization measured? The following make a LEMA effective: Organizational outcomes: Outcomes for effective LEMAs include high quality and quantity, timely, and low cost delivery of products such as hazard/vulnerability analyses, emergency operations plans, and recovery operations plans. Individual outcomes: Outcomes for the individual members of an effective LEMA include high job satisfaction, organizational commitment, individual effort and attendance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Planning process: An effective planning process includes productive planning activities, team climate development, situational analysis, and strategic choice. What are the five steps in the planning process? The five steps in the planning process are: Plan Activities Provide a Positive Work Climate Analyze the Situation Acquire Resources Choose a Strategy Name three LEMC subcommittees and list their responsibilities. The following are some of the typical LEMC subcommittees and their responsibilities: The Hazard/Vulnerability Analysis Committee: Identifies the hazards to which the community is exposed Analyzes the vulnerability of residential, commercial, and industrial structures to hazards Analyzes the vulnerability of the infrastructure (fuel, electric power, water, sewer, telecommunications, and transportation) to hazards Identifies any secondary hazards that could be caused by an initial disaster impact Identifies the locations of facilities such as schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and jails whose populations are vulnerable because of the limited mobility of their resident populations Identifies the locations of other facilities with vulnerable non-resident populations The Planning, Training, and Exercising Committee: Writes the Emergency Operations Plan Develops a training program to improve emergency responders’ capabilities Develops training materials for disaster-related tasks that are not performed during normal operations or routine emergencies Develop training that provides an overview of disaster response Develops training that improves skills required for tasks that are infrequently performed, difficult, and critical to the success of the emergency response organization Develops the necessary training materials or obtains them from other sources Tests the plan through drills and exercises Recruits representatives from the primary emergency response and public health agencies The Recovery and Mitigation Committee: Develops a pre-impact recovery plan that will facilitate a rapid recovery Identifies mitigation projects that will reduce the community’s vulnerability to hazards Identifies projects to be completed before a disaster Identifies projects that will be implemented during recovery Recruit help from representatives from public works, community development, land use planning, and building construction agencies The Public Education and Outreach Committee: Communicates with the news media and the public Explains how the activities of the Planning, Training and Exercising committee will provide an effective response to the hazards Explains how the activities of the Recovery and Mitigation committee will provide an effective recovery plan Writes non-technical summaries that can be understood by households and businesses Develops slides or other graphic presentations to support talks to community groups Develops brochures to be distributed to the public The Executive Committee (LEMC's principal officers, Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, and subcommittee chairs): Ensures the LEMC sets specific, achievable objectives each year Ensures the LEMC accomplishes those objectives through an efficient expenditure of resources Obtains the resources to support the LEMC’s activities. Conduct a planning orientation so the members of the LEMC will develop a common understanding of the process. What are some ways you can ensure you provide an effective response to a disaster? Name three ways. Develop an effective plan. Gain community support. Build relationships between departments and agencies. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions You head up an LEMA in a small community, and you are the only person on the staff. What do you include your budget? Typical budget categories include: Staff salaries Office space Office equipment (e.g., copiers, computers, fax machines) Telephone (local and long-distance) Travel Materials and supplies (e.g., paper, toner) You are responsible for emergency planning in Miami, an area that is vulnerable to hurricanes. You come up with a plan that will limit damage from a hurricane. How can you get the money to fund the plan? Name three sources. The most obvious source of funding is the CAO. There are other funding sources as well. FEMA has a range of programs that provide financial assistance. For example, one can receive matching funds through your State Emergency Management Agency. Each state has slightly different requirements. For example, Texas requires plans that meet a specific standard of quality and provide competitive awards based on planning, equipping training, and exercising activities. Continued financial support is based on meeting performance and financial requirements. FEMA also supports programs for managing chemical hazards. Applications must list the objectives and how they will be achieved. LEMAs submit applications through their state emergency management agencies. The FEMA regional offices review the applications. I could also contact local sources for assistance. Industrial facilities, such as nuclear power plants, can help defray the costs of preparing their facilities for an emergency. Truck and rail carriers can provide training assistance. Commercial businesses can contribute to hazard awareness programs. You have recently taken over an LEMA that has a staff of 8. Morale among the staff is low because the staff doesn’t feel it has accomplished anything. You feel you can improve morale by showing the staff tasks you believe they can complete on a schedule. What specific steps would you take to give the staff a sense that they will accomplish something meaningful? Regardless of whether someone is a paid staff member, or a volunteer, they are likely to have some type of commitment to the organization. There are two types of commitment: affective and continuance. Affective commitment is an emotional bond to the organization. This type of commitment leads to high employee performance. A person's affective commitment is influenced by: Organizational leadership Their perceptions of their own competence Role clarity Identification with organization's goals Opportunity for reward A CAO has asked the agencies in your community to provide a report that outlines the steps they are taking to provide an emergency plan. What would you provide to the CAO to show what your LEMC is going to implement when writing your plan? I would provide a planning schedule and a planning directive. In addition, Every LEMA needs an Emergency Operations Plan, a Recovery Operations Plan, and a Hazard Mitigation Plan. To write the plans: Ensure the committees have talented people drafting each section of the plans Ensure each plan has the following sections: basic plan, annexes, and hazard-specific appendices Ask the representatives of each organization to draft their own sections. For example, the police will draft the section on law enforcement. Provide guidance regarding the structure and content of the plans Provide resources for committee members to use Set performance goals and deadlines Draft the basic plan 4 RISK PERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION Saving Lives Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 4.1 Define adaptive plan and information search plan. List the reasons for needing each. The answer to the question “What is the best method of protection?” is an adaptive plan. Those at risk generally have at least two options—taking protective action or continuing normal activities. Information search plan is a plan that results from addressing the question, “Where and how can I obtain this information?” Uncertainty about risk identification and risk assessment can stimulate questions directed to officials and, more likely, the news media. Define protection motivation. A positive response to the question of whether or not there will be personal consequences if disaster occurs. Define risk and risk assessment. Risk is the possibility that people or property could be hurt. Risk is defined in terms of the likelihood that an event will occur at a given location within a given time period and will inflict casualties and damage. This risk must be effectively communicated to the people who are likely to be affected. Risk assessment is an evaluation of what will be the personal consequences if the disaster occurs. Define warning. A risk communication about an imminent event that is intended to produce an appropriate disaster response. What are the three possible outcomes of a communication action implementation? First, people can confirm the threat and proceed to take protective action. Second, if the information source is unavailable, people can try to find different sources. Third, if the new information contradicts previous information, then people can try to resolve the conflict. Often this involves considering the relative credibility of the information sources. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 4.2 Why is it important to set goals for the Risk Communication Program? Hazard awareness is an important first step in the process of hazard adjustment. People must be informed about the hazards to which their community is exposed and should be given this information from different perspectives. For example, people should know what a disaster would mean in terms of the public health. In addition, they need to know how likely it is that a disaster will occur where they live. In the case of hurricanes, a reasonable goal is to ensure residents understand the causes of hurricanes, the probabilities of being struck by a hurricane over the next ten years, and the threats hurricanes bring. Also, local residents should understand the risk to themselves and their families, damage to their property, and disruption to daily activities. What are the key message factors in a risk communication program? The four key message factors are: Personal risk Personal responsibility Guidance for protective action Sources for further information What are the tasks in the program development step? Task 1. Staff and train a crisis communication team. Establish a crisis communication team. Task 2: Establish procedures for maintaining an effective communication flow during an escalating crisis or emergency response. Task 3: Develop a comprehensive risk communication program. The four key message factors are: Task 4: Plan to make effective use of informal communication networks Task 5: Establish procedures for obtaining feedback from the news media and the public What are the five tasks you must complete to implement the risk communication program? Task 1: Build source credibility by increasing perceptions of expertise and trustworthiness. Task 2: Use a variety of channels to disseminate hazard information. Task 3: Describe community or facility hazard adjustments being planned or implemented. Task 4: Describe feasible household hazard adjustments. Task 5: Evaluate program effectiveness. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 4.3 Define escalating crisis. A situation in which there is a significantly increased probability of an incident occurring that will threaten the public’s health, safety, or property. When there is an emergency and authorities act, what are some of the actions they should take? Classify the Situation Activate the crisis communication team promptly. Determine the appropriate time to release sensitive information. Select the communication channels that are appropriate to the situation. Maintain source credibility with the news media and the public. Provide timely and accurate information about the hazard to the news media and the public. Evaluate performance through post-incident critiques. Why are television anchors generally trusted? Television anchors are trusted because they are familiar, authoritative, and have developed a track record of accuracy. When evaluating performance through post-incident critiques, members of the crisis communication team should review what? All members of the crisis communication team should review the goals of the risk communication program, the event logs kept during the incident, and other available documentation to identify weaknesses in performance. Answers to Summary Questions Those who do not believe the threat is real are likely to continue their normal activities. True or false? As perceived probability and magnitude increase, so do people’s likelihood of taking protective action. True or false? What is not one of the five basic risk communication functions to address in the continuing hazard phase? A. Strategic analysis B. Operational analysis C. Resource mobilization D. Program development E. Capability assessment Most people do not believe the risks of technological facilities are greater than those of natural hazards. True or false? The hazards that produce the greatest community conflict are those having a potential for inflicting significant harm on bystanders. True or false? You cannot exert control over people’s definition of a situation by defining a system for classifying threat levels. True or false? Answers to Review Questions What is a risk perception and why is it important? Risk perception is how people interpret risks. Perception is important because “perception is reality” and if people believe they are in danger then they will take action to protect themselves and their property. What affects people's perception of risks? People’s perceptions of risks are affected by their gender, age, and ethnicity as well as the credibility they assign to the source of information. What is a protective action? Give one example. A protective action is an action someone takes to prevent damage or injury to themselves, their family members, or their property. What three things need to happen after people receive a warning, but before they start the stages of information processing that lead them to take protective action? People must receive information. Warnings transmitted on television and radio are only effective if people have them turned on. Consequently, these warning mechanisms are much less effective between 11:00pm and 6:00am when most people are asleep. Of course, most television and radio sets are completely ineffective when electric power is lost, as is frequently the case after earthquakes. People must heed (pay attention to) the available information. Many people in tornado-prone areas know the spring is the peak season for tornado activity. During those months, they check weather forecasts more frequently. They might look for environmental cues such as cloud formations. However, others may not be paying attention to their environment. People who are engaged in tasks that require intense concentration are less likely to notice gathering storm clouds and might not notice warnings. People must comprehend the information. Environmental cues must be correctly processed. That is, people must know a funnel cloud is a sign of a tornado to understand that the threat. Warnings and communication efforts must be understood as well. Warnings given in English will not help Spanish speakers. A tornado siren will not mean anything to someone who doesn't understand what the signal means. Only a few people will understand highly specialized technical terms such as millirem and pyroclastic flow. What are three of the perceived implementation barriers inhibiting residents from taking protections action? Lack of knowledge and skill. In the case of evacuation, this may include a lack of knowledge of a safe place to go and a safe route to travel. Lack of access to a personal vehicle. Many evacuations require traveling long distances to reach safety, so those who don’t have their own vehicles must rely on other means. Some evacuees who lack their own vehicles are given rides by friends, relatives, neighbors, or coworkers, but others must rely on buses organized by their local governments. Lack of personal mobility due to physical handicaps. A small but significant percentage of the population requires assistance because they (and, frequently, other members of their households) are unable to evacuate themselves. Separation of family members. Some family members may be away from home when an evacuation is received and the other family members do not want to leave until they return. Until family members establish communication contact and agree upon a place to meet, evacuation is unlikely to occur (Killian, 1952; Drabek & Boggs, 1968; Drabek & Key, 1976; Haas, Cochrane & Eddy, 1977). Perceived cost of actions to protect personal safety is a consideration. Such costs include out-of-pocket expenses, opportunity costs (e.g., lost pay), and effort. The high cost can lead people to delay its implementation until they are certain it is necessary. What are the components of a good, detailed adaptive plan? A procedure for reuniting families if members are separated Advance contact to confirm the destination is available Alternative routes Alternative methods of transportation Name the possible outcomes of communication action implementation. First, people can confirm the threat and proceed to take protective action. Second, if the information source is unavailable, people can try to find different sources. Third, if the new information contradicts previous information, then people can try to resolve the conflict. Often this involves considering the relative credibility of the information sources. Name the eight warning stages and actions of a Communication Action Implementation plan. The Protective Action Decision Model (Adapted from Lindell & Perry, 2004) Steps Activity Question Outcome 1 Risk identification Is there a real threat that I need to pay attention to? Threat belief 2 Risk assessment Do I need to take protective action? Protection motivation 3 Protective action search What can be done to achieve protection? Decision set (alternative actions) 4 Protective action assessment and selection What is the best method of protection? Adaptive plan 5 Protective action implementation Does protective action need to be taken now? Threat response 6 Information needs assessment What information do I need to answer my question? Identified information need 7 Communication action assessment and selection Where and how can I obtain this information? Information search plan 8 Communication action implementation Do I need the information now? Decision information • What are the five basic risk communication functions to address in the continuing hazard phase? Strategic analysis, operational analysis, resource mobilization, program development, and program implementation When analyzing the community, what do you need to know about the community? Ethnic composition Communication channels Perception of authorities Levels of education Income distribution What are the five tasks to complete when performing an operational analysis? Task 1: Identify and assess feasible hazard adjustments for the community and its households/businesses. Task 2: Identify ways to provide incentives, sanctions, and technological innovations. Task 3: Identify the available risk communication sources in the community. Task 4: Identify the available risk communication channels in the community. Task 5: Identify specific audience segments. What are three things you must do to develop specific messages for different groups? Know the geographic and demographic characteristics of your community. Know where each group likes to find information. Radio stations, in particular, focus on specific audiences defined by age and ethnicity. Make sure messages are in the appropriate languages for different groups of non-English speakers. Some communities have dozens of different languages and dialects spoken there. If members of a community group tend to be fatalistic about hazards, be sure to target them with messages emphasizing hazard adjustments that are easiest to implement. Maintaining a four day supply of food and water is a good starting point. Ensure your messages are understood. Follow-up with people face-to-face to see if they are taking the appropriate actions. One of the most important incident management actions is risk communication. What are the tasks of risk communication? Task 1: Activate the crisis communication team promptly. Task 2: Determine the appropriate time to release sensitive information. Task 3: Select the communication channels that are appropriate to the situation. Task 4: Maintain source credibility with the news media and the public. Task 5: Provide timely and accurate information about the hazard to the news media and the public. Task 6: Evaluate performance through post-incident critiques. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions Local residents have ignored your community’s tornado hazard because they think they are protected by a large hill west of town. What information sources can you use to tell community residents the hill won’t protect them and that they need to take action to protect themselves? As the emergency manager, you can communicate the tornado risk by yourself or with a crisis communication team. In addition, you can communicate risks through other local officials, the news media, and influential opinion leaders. Finally, you can rely on peers to communicate risks informally through everyday conversations. Your county health department has found some traces of a toxic chemical in wells located near a pesticide factory. The chemical plant manager, who has been very cooperative with local government in the past, doesn’t think the chemical is coming from his plant. Should you release information about possible chemical contamination now? If not now, when (if ever)? There are no hard and fast rules about when information should be released. Early information usually turns out to be incorrect as the facts are still coming in. However, an early release can enhance your credibility and give you more control. Being the first to break bad news allows you to put the information into an appropriate context. Delaying the release of information can be misinterpreted as a cover-up. You have been asked by your city manager to evaluate the community’s risk communication program. The city council doesn’t think it’s necessary to spend money evaluating the program. How would you convince them of the importance of evaluating the communication program? A risk communication program should be evaluated so it can be improved and save more lives when a disaster strikes. You should propose an evaluation that examines people’s risk perceptions, their sense of personal responsibility for taking action, their awareness of different hazard adjustments, their perceptions of those hazard adjustments, their actual adoption of the hazard adjustments, and their awareness of sources for additional information. 5 PRINCIPAL HAZARDS IN THE UNITED STATES Causes and Effects Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 5.1 Define natural hazards. Extreme events that originate in the natural environment. The natural hazards are commonly categorized as meteorological, hydrological, and geophysical. What elements are required for a fire? All fires require the three elements of the fire triangle: fuel, which is any substance that will burn; oxygen that will combine with the fuel; and enough heat to ignite fuel. Under what conditions do tornadoes form? Tornadoes form when cold air from the north collides with a warmer air mass. The cold air descends because of its greater weight and is replaced by rising warm air. This process initiates rotational flow inside the air mass. As the tornado forms, pressure drops inside the vortex and the wind speed increases. How are hurricanes categorized? By wind speed Define severe storms. A storm whose wind speed exceeds 58 mph, that produces a tornado, or that releases hail with a diameter of 3/4 inch or greater. Define technological hazards. Hazards that originate in human-controlled processes but are released into the air and water. The most important technological hazards are explosives, flammable materials, toxic chemicals, radiological materials, and biological hazards. Define apparent temperature. The combination of temperature and humidity into a heat index. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 5.2 Define flood. An event in which abnormally large amount of water accumulates in an area in which it is usually not found. Define discharge and stage. Discharge is the volume of water passing a specific point per unit of time. Stage is the height of water above a defined level that is used by emergency managers to predict the level of flood casualties and damage. What factors affect flooding? Flooding is affected by a number of factors. The first of these, precipitation, must be considered at a given point and also across the entire watershed (basin). As the hydrological cycle makes clear, flooding is also affected by surface runoff. Runoff is determined by terrain and soil cover. Soil cover also affects flooding because dense low plant growth slows runoff and promotes infiltration. In areas with limited vegetation, surface permeability is a major determinant of flooding. Evapotranspiration takes place two ways. First, there is direct evaporation to the atmosphere from surface storage in rivers and lakes. Second, there is uptake from soil and subsequent transpiration by plants. Stream channel flow is affected by channel wetting, which infiltrates the stream banks (horizontally) until they are saturated as the water rises. Flooding increases when upstream areas experience deforestation and overgrazing, which increase surface runoff to a moderate degree on shallow slopes and to a major degree on steep slopes as the soil erodes. The sediment is washed downstream where it can silt the channel and raise the elevation of the river bottom. Finally, urban development takes place in flood plains because of the aesthetic attraction of water. People enjoy seeing lakes and rivers, and pay a premium for waterfront real estate. Define storm surge. An increased height of a body of water that exceeds the normal tide. How often do tsunamis occur? Tsunamis are rare events. 15,000 earthquakes over the course of a century generated only 124 tsunamis, a rate of less than 1% of all earthquakes and only .7 tsunamis per year. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 5.3 Define volcanoes. Geological structures that transport a column of molten rock from the earth’s mantle to the surface. What is the difference between magnitude and intensity? The physical magnitude of an earthquake is different from its intensity. Magnitude is measured on the Richter scale where a one-unit increase represents a 10-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude and a 30-fold increase in energy release from the source. Intensity measures the impact at a given location and can be assessed either by behavioral effects or physical measurements. The behavioral effects of earthquakes are classified by the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale. Define pyroclastic flow. Pyroclastic flows are hot gas and ash mixtures (up to 1600F) discharged from the crater vent. Define epicenter. A point on the earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter. What physical cues signal approaching earthquakes? As yet, there is no definitive evidence of physical cues that provide reliable warning of an earthquake. Define landslide. The term landslide refers to the downward displacement of rock or soil because of gravitational forces. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 5.4 Define vapor. The molecules that are in a gaseous state of a substance that is a liquid at normal temperature and pressure. Define carcinogen. Chemicals that cause cancer. Define radionuclides. Radioactive substances that vary in atomic weight. Define Hazmat. Hazardous materials that are “capable of posing unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property.” Answers to Summary Questions The impact of winter storms is greatest in the northern states because winter storms are not disruptive in the south. True or false? What apparent temperature range warrants extreme caution? A. 80-90 degrees B. 90-105 degrees C. 105-130 degrees D. 70-80 degrees The three elements of the fire triangle are heat, oxygen, and air. True or false? Runoff increases as slope increases. True or false? Which of the following is not impermeable? A. Clay B. Stone C. Concrete D. Gravel Volcanic eruptions can cause tsunamis and wildfires as secondary hazards. True or false? All liquids generate increasing amounts of vapor as the temperature decreases and the pressure increases. True or false? 8. Molecules in a gaseous state that are generated by a substance that is in a liquid state at normal temperature and pressure are referred to by which of the following names: A. Vapor B. Gas C. Air D. Steam What is not a factor in determining the protective actions for radiological emergencies? A. Time B. Distance C. Frequency D. Shielding Answers to Review Questions What are the threats of a severe storm? Threats of storms are: Lightning strikes: Lightning can cause casualties. However, causalities are rare and are easily handled by local emergency medical services units. The bigger threat is that lightning strikes can initiate wildfires that threaten entire communities. This is especially true during droughts. Downbursts and Microbursts: Downbursts (up to 125 mph) and microbursts (up to 150 mph) are threats to aircraft as they takeoff or land. This creates a potential for mass casualty incidents. Hail: Even large hail generally causes few casualties. Hail damage rarely causes significant disruption. Flash Floods: Flooding can cause casualties and property damage. What are three heat-related illnesses? The heat-related illnesses are: Heat Cramp: This is the least serious condition, characterized by mild fluid and electrolyte imbalances. Heat Syncope: A condition in which there is a sudden loss of consciousness that disappears when the victim lies down. Heat Exhaustion: A condition of weakness or dizziness. Heat Stroke: A condition in which the victim might be delirious or comatose. Unless treated effectively by rapid cooling, heat stroke can produce neurological damage and fatalities in about 15% of those affected. What are three physical cues of a tornado? A tornado’s distinct physical cues include: Dark, heavy cumulonimbus clouds Intense lightning, Hail and downpour of rain immediately to the left of the tornado path Noise like a train or jet engine What are three threats of hurricanes? Hurricanes produce the following threats. High wind Tornadoes Inland flooding Storm surge Name 5 of the 7 flooding types. The seven different types of flooding are: Riverine (main stem) flooding occurs when surface runoff gradually rises to flood stage (overflows natural banks) and later falls. Flash flooding occurs when runoff reaches its peak in less than six hours, which usually occurs in hilly areas with steep slopes and sparse vegetation. It also can occur in urbanized areas with rapid runoff from impermeable surfaces such as streets, parking lots, and building roofs. Alluvial fan flooding occurs in deposits of soil and rock found at the foot of steep valley walls in arid Western regions. Ice/debris dam failures result when an accumulation of material temporarily blocks the flow of water and raises its surface above the stream bank before giving way. Surface ponding occurs when water accumulates in areas so flat that runoff cannot carry away the precipitation fast enough. Fluctuating lake levels can occur over short-term, seasonal, or multi-year periods, especially in lakes that have limited outlets or are entirely landlocked. Control structure (dam or levee) failure, has many characteristics in common with flash flooding. What are the three distinct geological components of the earth? The three geological components of the earth are: The core consists of molten rock at the center of the earth. The crust is solid rock and other materials at the Earth’s surface that vary in depth from 4 miles under the oceans to 40 miles in the Himalayas. The mantle is an 1800 mile thick layer between the core and the crust. The earth’s crust is defined by large plates that float on the mantle and move gradually in different directions over time. What is the difference between shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes? Shield volcanoes produce relatively gentle effusive eruptions of low-viscosity lava, resulting in shallow slopes and broad bases (e.g., Kilauea in Hawaii) whereas stratovolcanoes produce explosive eruptions of highly acidic lava, gas, and ash, resulting in steep slopes and narrow bases (e.g., Mt. St. Helens in Washington). What are the three different types of waves in earthquake energy? Earthquake energy is carried by the following types of waves: P-waves, primary or pressure waves, travel rapidly S-waves, secondary or shear waves, travel more slowly but cause more damage Surface waves have low frequency and are damaging to tall buildings. What is the distinction between gases and liquids? A gas expands to fill the available volume in a space. A liquid spreads to cover the available area on a surface. Any liquid contains some molecules that are in a gaseous state; this is called vapor. Name the three important temperatures of a liquid substance. The three important temperatures of a liquid substance are: Boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. Vapor production is negligible when a fuel is below its boiling point but increases significantly once it exceeds this temperature. Liquids with lower boiling points are more dangerous than those with higher boiling points. Flash point is the temperature at which the liquid gives off enough vapor to flash momentarily when ignited by a spark or flame. A liquid is defined as combustible if it has a flash point above 100° F. It is flammable if it has a flash point below 100° F. Liquids with lower flash points are more dangerous than those with higher flash points. Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which a substance becomes so hot that its vapor will ignite even in the absence of an external spark. Liquids with lower ignition temperatures are more dangerous than those with higher ignition temperatures. If there is a biological hazard outbreak, what two actions must take place? If there is an outbreak of a biological hazard, the two actions to take place are isolation and quarantine. What are the health effects of exposure to radiation? The health effects of exposure to radiation are defined as early fatalities, prodromal effects, and delayed effects. What is the severity of any toxic effect determined by? The severity of any toxic effect is determined by the chemical’s rate and extent of absorption into the bloodstream, rate and extent of transformation into breakdown products, and rate and extent of excretion of the chemical from the body. How does terrorism differ from a natural or technological hazard? Terrorism involves a deliberate attack to achieve political objectives. Other hazards are unintentional. Why is gasoline a more dangerous flammable substance than peanut oil? Gasoline has a lower flash point, a lower LFL, and a wider flammable range than peanut oil. What could your jurisdiction do to reduce damage and casualties from earthquakes? Build farther away from earthquake faults (the likely locations of earthquake epicenters) and avoid building on soft soils. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions Before Hurricane Katrina struck, local officials issued evacuation orders for parts of Louisiana and Mississippi. Millions left, but thousands of people chose to stay. Some did not believe the hurricane would be as powerful as it was because they had heard prior dire predictions before that did not come true. Others simply did not have the money to evacuate. Thousands went to the shelters in New Orleans that quickly became overcrowded. Two shelters, the Superdome and the Convention Center, were sufficient for the first few days after the storm but conditions quickly became intolerable. After having witnessed Hurricane Katrina, how would you evacuate your own city for a severe hurricane? How would you set up the shelters? I would issue evacuation orders as early as possible. I would also have transportation ready for those who are dependent on mass transit. This may mean, for example, having busses ready to evacuate people. I would set up multiple shelters and have them well stocked with supplies. I would also have volunteers, police, and military available to control the crowds and assist. You are the emergency manager for a coastal town that has seen hurricane activity in the past. You have been asked to prepare a presentation on flooding. What would you include in your plan? What types of flooding are important to discuss? Describe the presentation you would put together. I would discuss all seven types of flooding which include: Riverine (main stem) flooding occurs when surface runoff gradually rises to flood stage (overflows natural banks) and later falls. Flash flooding occurs when runoff reaches its peak in less than six hours, which usually occurs in hilly areas with steep slopes and sparse vegetation. It also can occur in urbanized areas with rapid runoff from impermeable surfaces such as streets, parking lots, and building roofs. Alluvial fan flooding occurs in deposits of soil and rock found at the foot of steep valley walls in arid Western regions. Ice/debris dam failures result when an accumulation of material temporarily blocks the flow of water and raises its surface above the stream bank before giving way. Surface ponding occurs when water accumulates in areas so flat that runoff cannot carry away the precipitation fast enough. Fluctuating lake levels can occur over short-term, seasonal, or multi-year periods, especially in lakes that have limited outlets or are entirely landlocked. Control structure (dam or levee) failure, has many characteristics in common with flash flooding. In particular, I would discuss riverine flooding, dam failures, surface ponding, and control structure flooding. I would also demonstrate storm surge an inland flooding with graphics. You are the emergency manager for a small Midwestern town. One of your jobs is to create a public safety campaign that lets residents know about biological hazards and how to deal with biological threats. What steps would you take to inform residents about these types of hazards? I would work with health agencies and ensure that they know and understand the signs of someone who is showing symptoms of coming into contact with biological agents. I would also hold public hearings and ask the media to run stories on biological hazards and threats. I would also make sure that people understand the following: It can be difficult to detect if someone has been infected with a biological agent because symptoms of biological agents resemble symptoms of the common cold and flu. Moreover, symptoms usually do not appear until long after exposure occurs. This makes it possible for victims to travel a significant distance from the site of the attack before they show symptoms. If the victims were infected with a contagious agent, they might cause widespread secondary outbreaks before authorities were aware that an attack had occurred. A biological agent is most likely to be identified by noting a significant increase in people appearing with such symptoms. Healthcare providers in emergency rooms and clinics are likely to be the first people to notice such an increase. We do have sensors that can identify some biological agents in the early stages before people develop symptoms. However, these sensors are very expensive so they are currently deployed only at the most critical facilities. This makes it important for emergency managers to establish a close relationship with their local health departments. This way, they can coordinate effectively with others to identify the agent, treat the victims, and decontaminate the incident site. If there is an outbreak, there are two actions to take: isolation and quarantine. Isolation prevents the ill patients from infecting others. It is associated with special treatment to remedy the disease. Quarantine involves those who might have been exposed to a biological agent but do not currently exhibit symptoms. They might not become ill and, indeed, might not even have the disease. However, it is critical to prevent them from infecting others if they do have the disease. Quarantine is somewhat similar to sheltering in-place from toxic chemical hazards. The difference is that people being quarantined are asked (or legally required) to remain indoors to protect others from themselves (because they are the hazard) rather than to protect themselves from an external hazard. Vaccines can also protect people against some biological agents. However, vaccines are not available for all biohazards and the available quantities are limited. You are the emergency manager for a small Midwestern town that is prone to tornadoes. One of your jobs is to create a public safety campaign that lets residents know about the physical signs of an approaching tornado and what to do when they witness the physical signs? Which residents and structures are most at risk? Why? I would explain the following: An increased number of tornadoes have been reported during recent years. This is due partly to improved radar and spotter networks. However, tornadoes have been observed in locations where they have not previously been seen. This suggests some long-term changes in climate are also involved. Detection is usually achieved by trained meteorologists observing characteristic clues on Doppler radar. Over the years, warning speed has been improved by NOAA Weather Radio, which provides timely and specific warnings. Those who do not receive a warning can assess their danger from a tornado’s distinct physical cues: Dark, heavy cumulonimbus clouds Intense lightning, Hail and downpour of rain immediately to the left of the tornado path Noise like a train or jet engine The most appropriate protective action is to go to a specially constructed safe room (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1998). If a safe room is not available, building occupants should go to an interior room on the lowest floor. Mobile home residents should go to a community shelter. Those who are outside should seek refuge in a low spot (e.g., a small ditch or depression) if shelter is unavailable. Solution Manual for Introduction to Emergency Management Michael K. Lindell, Carla Prater, Ronald W. Perry 9780471772606