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Chapter 4 Consumer Perception REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 4.1 How does sensory adaptation affect advertising effectiveness? How can marketers overcome sensory adaptation? Adaptation refers specifically to “getting used to” certain sensations, or becoming accustomed to a certain level of stimulation. Marketers try to increase sensory input in order to cut through the daily clutter consumers experience in the consumption of advertising by using media different from what is expected. Some marketers seek unusual media, shopping carts, movies, fragrance samples in magazines, etc. 4.2 Discuss the differences between the absolute threshold and the differential threshold. Which one is more important to marketers? Explain your answer. The lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation (e.g., the immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to stimuli) is called the absolute threshold. To illustrate, the distance at which a driver can note a specific billboard on a highway is that individual’s absolute threshold. Other people riding in the car (because of vision or position in the car) could have different absolute thresholds for this event. The minimal difference that can be detected between two similar stimuli is called the differential threshold, or the just noticeable difference (the JND). This matches to Weber’s Law. According to Weber’s Law, an additional level of stimulus equivalent to the JND must be added for the majority of people to perceive a difference between the resulting stimulus and the initial stimulus. The differential threshold seems to have more importance for marketers. For example, when it comes to product improvements, marketers very much want to meet or exceed the customer’s differential threshold. 4.3 For each of these products—chocolate bars and cereals—describe how marketers can apply their knowledge of differential threshold to packaging, pricing, and promotional claims during periods of (a) rising ingredient and materials costs and (b) increasing competition. To repeat the information found in Question 2, the differential threshold is the minimal difference that can be detected between two stimuli. It is also called JND (just noticeable difference). Weber’s law states that the stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. Also, an additional level of stimulus, equivalent to the JND, must be added for the majority of people to perceive a difference between the resulting stimulus and the initial stimulus. In the (a) case, manufacturers and marketers endeavor to determine the relevant JND for their products so that negative changes—reductions or increases in product size, or reduced quality— are not readily discernible to the public and so that product improvements are readily discernible to the consumer without being wastefully extravagant. In the (b) case, marketers use the JND to determine the amount of change or updating they should make in their products to avoid losing the readily recognized aspects of their products. For example, the subtle incremental changes in “Betty Crocker” and changes in Campbell Soup labeling could produce changes and better meet competition. Marketers want to meet the consumers’ differential threshold so that they readily perceive the improvements made in the original product. This could create a competitive differential advantage. 4.4 Does subliminal advertising work? Support your view. Students may argue both sides of the issue. They should note the following key information. The purpose of the concept is to stimulate people below their level of conscious awareness—they can perceive stimuli without being consciously aware of it. It can be briefly presented visual stimuli, accelerated speech in low-volume auditory messages, or embedded or hidden imagery or words. Embeds are disguised stimuli not readily recognized by readers. A series of highly imaginative laboratory experiments gave some support to the notion of subliminal awareness, but no evidence was found that consumers could be persuaded to act in response to such messages. Auditory subliminal stimuli seem to have even less effect than visual. Nevertheless a whole industry based on audio-perception has grown up, using subliminal sound to try to teach while you sleep and using music to influence you while shopping. There is no evidence that subliminal advertising works. Because no evidence exists as to its real effects, there are currently no federal or state laws addressing its use. The FCC has issued a statement against its use, however. 4.5 How do advertisers use contrast to make sure that their ads are noticed? Would the lack of contrast between the advertisement and the medium in which it appears help or hinder the effectiveness of the ad? Stimuli that contrast with their environment are more likely to be noticed. The simplest example is the contrast between a figure and the ground on which it is placed. The figure is usually perceived clearly. The ground is usually perceived as indefinite, hazy, and continuous. Perceptual organization is affected by consumer expectations. The lack of contrast can be effective because individuals have a need for closure. As a result, people organize a perception so they see a complete picture. If the pattern of stimuli to which they are exposed is incomplete, they tend to perceive it as complete (i.e., they fill in the missing pieces). Tension is created by incomplete messages resulting in better consumer retention. Incomplete advertising messages “beg” for completion by consumer. The very act of completion serves to involve the consumer more deeply in the message. 4.6. What are the implications of figure-and-ground relationships for print ads and for online ads? How can the figure-and-ground construct help or interfere with the communication of advertising messages? Stimuli that contrast with their environment are more likely to be noticed. The simplest visual illustration consists of a figure on a ground (i.e., background). In print and in online ads, the figure should appear well defined, solid, in the forefront and in contrast to its ground so that consumers can perceive it clearly. Therefore, advertisers must plan their advertisements carefully to make sure the stimulus they want noted is seen as figure and not as ground. The musical background must not overwhelm the jingle; the background of an advertisement must not detract from the product. Some print advertisers often silhouette their products against a white background to make sure that the features they want noted are clearly perceived. Others use reverse lettering (white letters on a black background) to achieve contrast. Marketers must make sure that their ads clearly indicate which is figure and which is ground in order to prevent consumer confusion and avoid the problem of figure-and-ground reversal. 4.7. Why do marketers sometimes reposition their products or services? Illustrate your answers with examples. The image that a product or service has in the mind of the consumer—that is, how it is positioned—is probably more important to its ultimate success than are its actual characteristics. Marketers try to position their brands so that they are perceived by the consumer to fit a distinctive niche in the marketplace—a niche occupied by no other product. They try to differentiate their products by stressing attributes they claim will fulfill the consumer’s needs better than competing brands. They strive to create a product image consistent with the relevant self-image and needs of the targeted consumer segment. The result of a successful positioning strategy is a distinctive brand image of which consumers rely in making product choices. In today’s highly competitive environment, a distinctive product image is most important. As products become more complex and the marketplace more crowded, consumers rely more on the product’s image than on its actual attributes in making purchase decisions. The technique of perceptual mapping helps marketers to determine just how their products and services appear to consumers in relation to competitive brands on one or more relevant characteristics. It enables them to see gaps in the positioning of all brands in the product or service class, and to identify areas in which consumers’ needs are not adequately met. Thus, marketers may either create new brands to satisfy unmet needs, or, reposition existing brands through promotional messages by stressing those product attributes that are likely to satisfy unfilled consumer needs. (You can refer students to Chapter 2.) 4.8. Why is it more difficult for consumers to evaluate the effective quality of services than the quality of products? Because of certain distinctive characteristics of services—their intangibility, their variability, the fact that services are simultaneously produced and consumed, and their perishability—services are difficult to evaluate with respect to quality. To overcome the fact that consumers are unable to compare services side-by-side as they do with products, consumers rely on surrogate cues (i.e., extrinsic cues) to evaluate service quality. 4.9. Discuss the roles of extrinsic cues and intrinsic cues in the perceived quality of: (a) wines, (b) restaurants, (c) cell phones, and (d) graduate education. (a) Both the extrinsic and intrinsic cues affect the perception of product quality for wines. Intrinsic cues, such as taste, color, smell, and vintage year are important indicators of quality to knowledgeable consumers. Many consumers, however, cannot evaluate subtle variations of taste, and may not know how to judge color, smell, and vintage; these consumers often rely on such extrinsic cues as price, where the wine was made (i.e., high-priced, French wine would imply good quality), the appearance of the bottle, or the image of the store which carries the wine (i.e., brands carried exclusively by wine specialty stores are perceived as being of higher quality than wines sold at regular liquor stores) to evaluate the product. Parts (b), (c), and (d) will have similar responses. Allow students to be creative. Note for them, however, that the decisions made at this point will have impact with respect to advertising, promotion, and marketing decisions. A good way to conclude this question is have students bring in ads from the different areas and have the class discuss which form of cues are being used. HANDS-ON EXERCISES 4.10. Find three print examples of the kind of promotional methods that constitute ambush or experiential marketing. Evaluate each example in terms of the effectiveness of the sensory input provided. Ambush marketing is a promotional strategy where a company tries to associate itself with an event (often a sporting event) without being an official sponsor. Experiential marketing involves creating immersive and engaging experiences for consumers to interact with a brand. Here are three print examples of these strategies along with evaluations of their sensory input effectiveness: 1. Example: Nike's Ambush Marketing at the 2012 London Olympics • Description: Nike launched a campaign featuring ads with athletes in London locations and the tagline "Find Your Greatness," capitalizing on the Olympic spirit without being an official sponsor. • Evaluation: The sensory input is effective as it uses visually striking images of athletes in iconic London settings, evoking a sense of inspiration and motivation. The ads also include minimal but impactful text, focusing on the emotional aspect of sports and achievement. 2. Example: Red Bull's Experiential Marketing at Extreme Sports Events • Description: Red Bull often sponsors extreme sports events and creates interactive experiences for attendees, such as setting up mini skate parks or offering free samples. • Evaluation: The sensory input is highly effective as it engages multiple senses. Attendees can see the brand in action, hear the sounds of the event, and even taste the product. These experiences create lasting memories and positive associations with the brand. 3. Example: Coca-Cola's Ambush Marketing at the 2014 FIFA World Cup • Description: Coca-Cola launched a campaign featuring soccer-related imagery and the tagline "The World's Cup," playing on the official sponsor's slogan "The World Cup." • Evaluation: The sensory input is moderate in effectiveness. While the imagery is engaging and relevant to the event, the message may not be as impactful as it could be. The campaign lacks the emotional resonance of Nike's "Find Your Greatness" campaign and may be seen as more of a play on words than a truly immersive experience. In conclusion, ambush and experiential marketing can be highly effective strategies when executed well. They can engage consumers on a deeper level and create lasting impressions. However, the effectiveness of these strategies depends on how well they resonate with the target audience and the sensory input they provide. Instructor’s Discussion Factors which students are likely to bring up include size of ads, the position of the ad, the color and shelf position of the package, and the contrast between the stimulus and its physical environment. The professor should ask students to identify the utilization of the principles of perceptual organization, that is, figure and ground grouping and closure, in the ads or packages selected. 4.11. Define selective perception and relate one or two elements of this concept to your own attention patterns in viewing print advertisements and online commercials Selective perception is a psychological process where individuals filter out and pay attention only to information that aligns with their beliefs, values, or interests, while ignoring or distorting contrary information. This can lead to biased perceptions and interpretations of stimuli. In terms of my own attention patterns in viewing print advertisements and online commercials, I can relate to selective perception in a few ways: 1. Attention to Relevant Information: Like many people, I tend to pay more attention to advertisements that are relevant to my interests or needs. For example, if I am interested in fitness, I may be more likely to notice ads for workout gear or gym memberships. 2. Filtering Out Irrelevant Information: On the other hand, I often filter out ads that are not relevant to me. For instance, if I have no interest in cars, I may not pay much attention to car advertisements, even if they are prominently displayed. Overall, selective perception plays a role in how I interact with advertisements, influencing which ones I notice, engage with, and remember. This concept highlights the importance for advertisers to understand their target audience's interests and preferences in order to create more effective and engaging campaigns. Instructor’s Discussion Consumers select stimuli from the environment based on the interaction of expectations and motives with the stimulus itself. This selection process gives rise to four important concepts concerning perception: • Selective exposure—consumers actively seek out messages that they find pleasant or with which they are sympathetic, and they actively avoid painful or threatening ones. • Selective attention—consumers exercise a great deal of selectivity in terms of the attention they give to commercial stimuli. • Perceptual defense—consumers subconsciously screen out stimuli that they find psychologically threatening, even though exposure has already taken place. • Perceptual blocking—consumers protect themselves from being bombarded with stimuli by simply “tuning out”—blocking such stimuli from conscious awareness. 4.12. Select a company that produces several versions of the same product under the same brand name (do not use one of the examples discussed in this chapter). Visit the firm’s Web site and prepare a list of the product items and the benefits that each item offers to consumers. Are all of these benefits believable and will they persuade consumers to buy the different versions of the product? Explain your answers. I'll choose Apple as the company for this exercise. Apple produces several versions of the iPhone under the same brand name. Here's a list of some of the iPhone models (as of my last update) along with the benefits they offer to consumers: 1. iPhone 13 Pro Max: • Benefits: Large display, advanced camera system, powerful performance, long battery life, 5G connectivity, MagSafe technology. 2. iPhone 13 Pro: • Benefits: Pro camera system, Super Retina XDR display, A15 Bionic chip, longer battery life, 5G connectivity, Ceramic Shield front cover. 3. iPhone 13: • Benefits: A15 Bionic chip, advanced dual-camera system, longer battery life, Ceramic Shield front cover, 5G connectivity, Super Retina XDR display. 4. iPhone SE (2nd generation): • Benefits: A13 Bionic chip, advanced camera system, wireless charging, water and dust resistance, Retina HD display, Touch ID. 5. iPhone 11: • Benefits: A13 Bionic chip, dual-camera system, all-day battery life, liquid retina display, Face ID, water and dust resistance. 6. iPhone XR: • Benefits: A12 Bionic chip, advanced camera system, liquid retina display, Face ID, wireless charging, water and dust resistance. Not all of these benefits may be equally believable or persuasive to all consumers. Some consumers may prioritize camera quality and performance, making the Pro models more appealing. Others may be more interested in a budget-friendly option with decent performance, making the iPhone SE or older models attractive choices. The believability and persuasiveness of these benefits depend on the individual consumer's needs, preferences, and budget. Apple's marketing and advertising strategies play a crucial role in highlighting these benefits and persuading consumers to choose the version of the iPhone that best fits their needs. Instructor’s Discussion A good place for students to begin this exercise might be the computer, automobile, cereal, or gasoline industries. The Web sites for these industries are usually very clear as to product mix and positions, as well as benefits. 4.13 Relate two of the applicable concepts from this chapter explaining consumers’ evaluations of service quality to your evaluation of this course up to this point in the semester. Two applicable concepts from this chapter on consumers' evaluations of service quality are "expectations" and "perceived service quality." 1. Expectations: Expectations play a crucial role in how consumers evaluate service quality. If a consumer's expectations are met or exceeded, they are more likely to perceive the service as high quality. Conversely, if their expectations are not met, they may perceive the service as low quality, even if objectively it is not. Application to Course Evaluation: At the beginning of the semester, I had certain expectations for this course based on the course description, syllabus, and past experiences with similar courses. These expectations included the quality of course materials, the depth of the content covered, the engagement of the instructor, and the overall learning experience. As the semester progressed, my evaluation of the course has been influenced by how well these expectations have been met. 2. Perceived Service Quality: Perceived service quality refers to the consumer's subjective assessment of the overall excellence or superiority of a service. It is influenced by various factors, including expectations, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and tangibles. Application to Course Evaluation: My evaluation of this course's quality is based on my perceptions of how well the course has performed in these areas. For example, if I perceive the course materials to be well-organized and comprehensive (tangibles), the instructor to be knowledgeable and responsive to questions (assurance and responsiveness), and the overall learning experience to be engaging and valuable (empathy), I am likely to perceive the course as high quality. Overall, my evaluation of this course up to this point in the semester has been influenced by how well it has met my expectations and by my perceptions of the various aspects of service quality as applied to an educational setting. Instructor’s Discussion Students need to consider that services are intangible, variable, perishable and simultaneously produced and consumed. Adding to this complexity, the actual quality of services can vary from day to day, from student to instructor, and from student to student. Students need to consider each of these factors and evaluate both their inputs as well as the instructors. In addition, they might consider their expectation of instruction and their assessment. S.TA.R. PROJECTS Ethical Issues in Consumer Behavior S.T.A.R. Project #1 The conclusion on the part of most scholars and researchers is that subliminal perception (advertising) does not work. The field continues to intrigue and interest communicators, however. The history of the subject stretches back some fifty years. Your task is to evaluate the ethics of subliminal persuasion. During your evaluation consider the positive and negative effects of the phenomenon. For example, on the one hand, persuading below the conscious thinking level might induce purchases that normally would not be made—poor ethics. On the other hand, teaching a smoker or alcoholic to give up his or her bad habit with subliminal auditory tapes might give the person a new lease on life—good ethics. Write a short paper that takes a position on the subject from an ethical standpoint. Be sure to support your conclusions. Remember, every position has two points of view. Subliminal perception, particularly in advertising, is a controversial topic that raises ethical concerns. While some argue that it can be used unethically to manipulate consumers, others believe it has potential benefits, such as aiding in behavior change. Here is a short paper taking a position on the subject from an ethical standpoint: The Ethics of Subliminal Persuasion Subliminal perception, the notion that stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness can influence behavior, has sparked debate in the field of communication. From an ethical perspective, the use of subliminal persuasion raises concerns regarding manipulation and autonomy. While there are potential benefits, such as aiding in behavior change, these must be weighed against the risks of exploitation. One of the primary ethical concerns with subliminal persuasion in advertising is the potential for manipulation. By targeting consumers' subconscious minds, advertisers can influence purchasing decisions without individuals being consciously aware of it. This raises questions about informed consent and the autonomy of consumers. If individuals are unaware that they are being influenced, they are unable to make fully informed choices. Furthermore, the effectiveness of subliminal persuasion in advertising is widely debated. While some studies suggest that subliminal messages can influence behavior, the overall consensus among scholars and researchers is that the effects are minimal at best. This raises questions about the ethics of using a technique that may have little to no impact on consumers, yet still raises concerns about manipulation. On the other hand, there are potential benefits to subliminal persuasion, particularly in the realm of behavior change. For example, subliminal auditory tapes have been used to help individuals quit smoking or reduce alcohol consumption. In these cases, subliminal persuasion is used as a tool to aid individuals in making positive changes to their lives. While the ethical implications of using subliminal techniques in this context are still debated, the potential benefits to individuals' health and well-being are significant. In conclusion, the ethics of subliminal persuasion are complex and multifaceted. While there are potential benefits to using subliminal techniques in certain contexts, such as aiding in behavior change, the risks of manipulation and exploitation must be carefully considered. Ultimately, any use of subliminal persuasion should be subject to ethical scrutiny and used with caution to ensure that individuals' autonomy and well-being are protected. Instructor’s Discussion Students should be encouraged to read the material in the chapter before beginning this assignment. Students should also be encouraged to do an Internet search on the subject. Obviously, two points of view can be supported. Making judgments in this area is extremely difficult. Once students have completed the assignment, put the papers into two groups (pro and con) and have a mini-debate. The results are often informative and thought provoking. S.T.A.R. Project #2 As indicated in the chapter, “the consumer’s selection of stimuli from the environment is based on the interaction of expectations and motives with the stimulus itself.” Assume that you are the marketing manager for a large suburban toy and game store. In an effort to stimulate sales, your marketing team has employed an outside consultant. After a careful study of the store’s marketing and merchandising practices, the consultant has observed that although children still demand toys, their parents are becoming increasingly resistant to marketing efforts and are increasing their perceptual defenses against such efforts. The consult has recommended that your store move the marketing efforts toward the child segment (e.g., skipping the parent) by placing merchandise lower to the floor, using larger price signs, associating more products with animated characters from television and the movies, and introducing “kiddie” shopping carts so children can have their own carts with which to shop. Although the ideas seem new and fresh, you wonder about the ethics of bypassing the parent and going directly toward the child with your marketing effort. Consider your feelings and write a one-page position paper that supports or rejects the consultant’s advice. Position Paper: Ethical Considerations in Marketing to Children As the marketing manager for a large suburban toy and game store, I am faced with the ethical dilemma of whether to bypass parents and target children directly in our marketing efforts, as suggested by an outside consultant. While the consultant's recommendations may seem innovative and potentially effective in stimulating sales, it is crucial to consider the ethical implications of such a strategy. Marketing directly to children raises concerns about exploitation and manipulation. Children are particularly vulnerable to advertising due to their limited understanding of persuasive intent and their susceptibility to peer influence. By targeting children directly, we risk exploiting their naivety and encouraging materialistic values at a young age. Moreover, bypassing parents undermines their role as gatekeepers and decision-makers, potentially leading to conflicts within families and eroding trust in our brand. Furthermore, targeting children directly may contribute to the phenomenon of "pester power," where children pressure their parents into buying products they may not need or can't afford. This can create financial strain for families and contribute to the growing issue of childhood obesity by promoting unhealthy food and sedentary lifestyles through marketing tactics. On the other hand, it is important to acknowledge that children are a significant consumer group with their own preferences and interests. It is possible to market to children in an ethical manner by ensuring that advertising is truthful, age-appropriate, and does not exploit children's vulnerabilities. For example, using animated characters from television and movies can be engaging for children without being deceptive or manipulative. In conclusion, while the consultant's recommendations may seem appealing from a sales perspective, the ethical considerations of marketing directly to children outweigh the potential benefits. As a responsible marketer, it is important to prioritize ethical practices and consider the long-term impact of our marketing strategies on children's well-being and development. Instead of bypassing parents, we should strive to engage them as partners in making informed decisions about their children's purchases. Instructor’s Discussion In this case, the marketing manager is confronted with an interesting situation. When does making a sale out-shadow ethical behavior? Does the consultant’s report over step good ethics? Students should be able to generate good responses. It will be interesting to see the differences between the two points of view. A mini-debate can be held if time permits. Small Group Project S.T.A.R. Project #3 Every child has had the experience of taking a lunch to school. For older generations, this meant peanut butter and jelly or bologna sandwiches. For today’s youth, it is more likely to be Lunchables or some similar product. Kraft Foods has aggressively promoted Lunchables as a healthy alternative to the “old time” sandwiches. Many mothers do not agree, however, and continue to prepare lunches in the older fashion. Your group’s assignment is to examine Lunchables (see www.lunchables.com) with respect to possible perceptual barriers that might be erected by non-users. For example, a mother might not use a Lunchable because she wants to give her child a lunch made with her own loving hands, or nutrition may be a concern. Consider the influences (see chapter) that might enhance perceptual distortion and devise a plan for Kraft to overcome such a mother’s objections. How might your plan be implemented through communication channels? Perceptual Barriers and Overcoming Objections to Lunchables One perceptual barrier that non-users, particularly mothers, may have regarding Lunchables is the perception that they are not as healthy or nutritious as a homemade lunch. This perception can be influenced by several factors, including the desire to provide a homemade meal made with care and concern for the child's well-being, as well as concerns about the nutritional content of processed foods. To overcome these objections, Kraft Foods could implement the following plan: 1. Highlight Nutritional Value: Kraft should emphasize the nutritional benefits of Lunchables, such as being a good source of protein, calcium, and other essential nutrients. This can be done through clear labeling on packaging and marketing materials, as well as providing detailed nutritional information on the website. 2. Address Quality Concerns: Kraft should assure mothers that Lunchables are made with highquality ingredients and undergo strict quality control measures. This can be communicated through transparency about sourcing and production processes. 3. Emphasize Convenience and Variety: Kraft should highlight the convenience and variety that Lunchables offer, making them a convenient option for busy parents. This can be done through advertising campaigns that showcase the ease of preparation and the range of options available. 4. Engage with Mothers: Kraft should engage with mothers directly to understand their concerns and preferences. This can be done through surveys, focus groups, and social media interactions. By listening to mothers' feedback, Kraft can tailor its marketing and product offerings to better meet their needs. 5. Provide Recipes and Ideas: Kraft could provide recipes and ideas for incorporating Lunchables into homemade meals, showing mothers how Lunchables can be a convenient and nutritious addition to their child's lunch. Implementation of this plan would involve using multiple communication channels to reach mothers and address their concerns. This could include television and radio advertisements, social media campaigns, influencer partnerships, and in-store promotions. Kraft could also collaborate with schools and community organizations to educate parents about Lunchables' nutritional value and convenience. Instructor’s Discussion The group will find ample information on the Lunchables Web site on which to build their plan. Product variety, nutrition facts, and information can be used to overcome acceptance barriers. The main intent of the exercise, however, is to have students carefully examine the perceptual distortion influences (physical appearances, stereotypes, first impressions, jumping to conclusions, and the halo effect). Be sure eventual conclusions address these influences. Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour Leon G. Schiffman, Leslie Lozor Konuk, S. Ramesh Kumar 9789332555099, 9780134734828
