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Chapter 3 The Starting Point: Asking Questions 3.1 Asking and Refining Questions 1) The personal interests and observations of researchers A) can serve as important sources of research questions as well as sustaining the researchers' interest in a project. B) have no place in scientific research. C) can serve as a starting point for research, but cannot sustain interest in a project. D) have not been used by serious psychologists in their research. Answer: A Rationale: Option A is correct because personal interests and observations of researchers can indeed play a crucial role in shaping research questions and maintaining motivation throughout a project. Researchers often draw on their own experiences, passions, and curiosities to identify areas of study and stay engaged in their research endeavors. This choice reflects the reality that personal interests can fuel curiosity and drive scientific inquiry forward. 2) PsycINFO is an example of A) an index for psychiatric diseases. B) an abstract journal. C) a list of important scientific figures. D) an index of historical psychological scholars. Answer: B Rationale: PsycINFO is a comprehensive database of abstracts of psychological literature, including journal articles, books, chapters, and dissertations. It serves as a valuable resource for researchers, providing access to a wide range of psychological research findings and publications. Option B accurately describes PsycINFO as an abstract journal, distinguishing it from the other options, which do not accurately characterize its purpose or content. 3) If research has a heuristic influence, follow-up research is likely to be A) highly systematic and scientific. B) useful, but not necessarily systematic. C) less important to the furtherance of knowledge. D) discounted; such work is not valid. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct because heuristic influence refers to research that sparks interest and suggests new directions for further study, often leading to follow-up research that may not always be highly systematic but still contributes to the advancement of knowledge. This choice acknowledges the exploratory and generative nature of heuristic research, which may inspire diverse lines of inquiry and stimulate further investigation. 4) The influence of Darwin and Freud on research has been A) systematic. B) heuristic. C) ritualistic D) systemic Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct because both Darwin's theory of evolution and Freud's psychoanalytic theory have had heuristic influences on research, inspiring numerous studies and diverse lines of inquiry within psychology and related fields. Their ideas have stimulated curiosity, debate, and exploration, leading to significant advancements in understanding human behavior and cognition. 5) Controversial theories, such as Freud's and Darwin's, that have generated a vast amount of research are said to have A) systemic value. B) evolutionary value. C) heretical value. D) heuristic value. Answer: D Rationale: Option D is correct because controversial theories like those proposed by Freud and Darwin, which have sparked extensive research and inspired new avenues of inquiry, are considered to have heuristic value. They serve as catalysts for intellectual exploration and discovery, fostering innovation and generating new insights into human psychology and biology. 6) The systematic influences of research on subsequent research would indicate A) that the research includes explicit propositions. B) that Freudian techniques have been employed. C) that evolution played an important theoretical role. D) that the research does not include explicit propositions. Answer: A Rationale: Option A is correct because systematic influences in research indicate the presence of explicit propositions or hypotheses that guide the investigation. This choice reflects the structured and hypothesis-driven nature of scientific inquiry, wherein researchers formulate specific research questions or hypotheses to be tested through systematic experimentation or observation. 7) What is the term for the type of influence exerted when a theory generates a great deal of interest and thus generates several lines of research? A) applied research B) basic research C) heuristic research D) implicit research Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct because heuristic research refers to the type of influence exerted when a theory generates significant interest and inspires multiple lines of inquiry, leading to diverse research endeavors aimed at exploring various aspects of the theory or phenomenon. Heuristic research is characterized by its exploratory and generative nature, often leading to novel insights and discoveries. 8) What is the usual starting point for research? A) the observation phase B) asking a question C) communication phase D) procedures design Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct because asking a question is typically the initial step in the research process. Research often begins with the identification of a research question or problem statement, which serves as the guiding focus for subsequent investigation. This choice reflects the importance of curiosity and inquiry in driving scientific inquiry forward. 9) When a theory or research study generates a great deal of attention and interest, along with suggesting further areas of study, the theory is said to have ________ influence. A) systematic B) positive C) heuristic D) hermeneutic Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct because heuristic influence refers to the impact of a theory or research study that stimulates interest, generates excitement, and suggests new directions for further investigation. The theory or study serves as a catalyst for exploration and inspires additional research endeavors, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in the field. 10) Which type of influence is involved in the testing of explicit propositions in a step-bystep research program? A) propaedeutic influence B) systematic influence C) pedagogic influence D) heuristic influence Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct because systematic influence involves the testing of explicit propositions or hypotheses in a methodical and structured manner, typically through step-by-step research programs designed to address specific research questions or hypotheses. This choice reflects the deliberate and systematic approach to scientific inquiry, wherein hypotheses are tested rigorously to evaluate their validity. 11) Which of the following was NOT mentioned in the textbook as an important reference work helpful in locating relevant research? A) PsycINFO B) Medline C) Encyclopedia Britannica D) Social Sciences Citation Index Answer: C Rationale: The Encyclopedia Britannica is a general reference work, but it is not typically cited as a primary source for locating relevant psychological research. PsycINFO, Medline, and the Social Sciences Citation Index are all commonly used databases for accessing scholarly articles and research in psychology. 12) Freud's work has stimulated considerable research. Freud's theories dealt with A) learning B) motivation C) cognitive dissonance. D) unconscious influences on behavior. Answer: D Rationale: Sigmund Freud's theories primarily focused on unconscious influences on behavior, such as the role of the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual development. While motivation is a component of Freudian theory, his work is most notably associated with exploring the unconscious mind. 13) Lovaas conducted research in 1973 with A) mentally retarded adults. B) autistic adults. C) apes in Africa. D) autistic children. Answer: D Rationale: In 1973, Lovaas conducted influential research with autistic children, particularly in the field of applied behavior analysis and the development of behavioral interventions for autism spectrum disorders. 14) Neal Miller conducted research in which area? A) schizophrenia B) modeling C) motivation D) autistic children Answer: C Rationale: Neal Miller conducted research primarily in the area of motivation, focusing on topics such as biofeedback, learning theory, and the physiological mechanisms underlying behavior. 15) Who first developed the concept of evolution? A) the Romans B) Charles Darwin C) Alfred Russel Wallace D) the Greeks Answer: D Rationale: The concept of evolution dates back to ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander, Empedocles, and Heraclitus, who proposed ideas related to the transformation and development of species over time. 16) Who is credited with the idea of natural selection? A) Charles Russel and Keith Wallace B) Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace C) Charles Darwin and Arthur Keith D) Alfred Russel Wallace and Arthur Keith Answer: B Rationale: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace are credited with independently developing the theory of natural selection, which explains how species evolve over time through the process of differential survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits. 17) Who was the naturalist who anticipated Darwin's discovery? A) Wallace B) Ptolemy C) Goodall D) Thales Answer: A Rationale: Alfred Russel Wallace, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, independently formulated the theory of natural selection and published his ideas alongside Darwin's, prompting the famous joint presentation of their findings in 1858. 18) The naturalist who is credited, along with Charles Darwin, with discovering the principles of natural selection is A) Alfred Russel Wallace. B) Linus Pauling. C) Linnaeus. D) Alfred North Whitehead. Answer: A Rationale: Alfred Russel Wallace is credited alongside Charles Darwin with discovering the principles of natural selection. Both Wallace and Darwin independently formulated the theory, although Darwin's work is more widely known. 19) Charles Darwin's famous treatise on natural selection is entitled A) The Ascent to Man. B) De rerum naturae (On the Nature of Things). C) On the Origin of Species. D) Voyage of Galapagos. Answer: C Rationale: Charles Darwin's famous treatise on natural selection is titled "On the Origin of Species," in which he presents his theory of evolution through natural selection based on his observations and research, particularly during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. 20) The Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution A) has been discredited by modern psychology. B) came out of the early nineteenth-century psychological research comparing animals and humans. C) has had little impact on the development of modern psychology. D) is a major theoretical underpinning of modern psychological science. Answer: D Rationale: The Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution, which proposes that species evolve through natural selection, is a major theoretical underpinning of modern psychological science. Evolutionary psychology, for example, applies principles of evolutionary theory to understand human behavior and cognition. 21) Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace A) were nineteenth century geologists. B) testified at the Scopes monkey trial. C) originated the concept of biological evolution. D) made virtually the same discoveries. Answer: D Rationale: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection around the same time. While they had some differences in their specific contributions, their discoveries were largely similar in nature, making option D the correct answer. 22) Research on the language development of children that is conducted for the purpose of improving language training programs can be described as A) heuristic research. B) systematic research. C) applied research. D) basic research. Answer: C Rationale: Applied research refers to scientific investigation conducted with the intention of addressing specific practical problems or issues, such as improving language training programs, as described in option C. 23) Applied research involves A) developing new information by applying standard statistical procedures. B) using tested animal research paradigms on people. C) finding answers to questions about practical problems. D) expanding research in educational institutions. Answer: C Rationale: Applied research focuses on solving practical problems or answering questions relevant to real-world issues, as described in option C. 24) Which of the following is NOT an example of an applied psychological research question? A) How can we investigate which part of the brain is dedicated to memory? B) How can we train people to be better parents? C) How can we refine air traffic control procedures to minimize the chance of controller error? D) What is an effective approach for designing a relaxation program for retarded children to improve their attentional skills? Answer: A Rationale: Option A is not an example of applied research because it pertains to fundamental understanding rather than addressing a practical problem or issue. 25) Research that is concerned with providing solutions to practical problems is called A) basic research. B) applied research. C) fundamental research. D) heuristic research. Answer: B Rationale: Applied research is focused on providing solutions to practical problems or addressing realworld issues, as described in option B. 26) The question, "How can we train people to be better drivers?" A) is too vague a question to lead to research. B) cannot be subjected to research. C) is an applied research question. D) is a basic research question. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct because the question pertains to improving a practical skill, making it an example of an applied research question. 27) Studying the factors that affect the auditory memory of monkeys is an example of A) applied research. B) nomothetic research. C) basic research. D) generalization research. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct as studying the factors affecting auditory memory in monkeys represents basic research focused on understanding fundamental principles rather than solving practical problems. 28) Basic research has A) no specific practical goals. B) specific and practical goals. C) little value in terms of adding to knowledge. D) more value in the "real world." Answer: A Rationale: Basic research is typically conducted without specific practical goals and is aimed at advancing knowledge and understanding in a particular field, as described in option A. 29) Which type of research is carried out to add to our understanding and store of knowledge, without any particular practical goals? A) applied research B) systematic research C) heuristic research D) basic research Answer: D Rationale: Option D is correct as basic research is focused on expanding our understanding and knowledge base without necessarily aiming to address specific practical problems. 30) Basic and applied research are related because A) one cannot be done without the other. B) they are always part of a continuum. C) basic research findings are often used in applied research. D) they are the meeting point of the natural and psychological sciences. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct because basic research often forms the foundation upon which applied research builds, with findings from basic research frequently informing practical applications in applied research. 31) The line between basic and applied research is A) often difficult to delineate. B) clear and precise. C) used to differentiate between important and less important scientific figures. D) measured by statistical significance. Answer: A Rationale: The distinction between basic and applied research can often be challenging as research projects may blur the boundaries between the two. Basic research aims to enhance scientific knowledge, while applied research aims to solve practical problems. However, many research projects incorporate elements of both, making the line between them difficult to determine. 32) Research A) always divides neatly into basic and applied. B) can be categorized as basic, applied, or translational. C) that is translational must be translated from a foreign language. D) cannot be translational if it has an applied component. Answer: B Rationale: Research can be categorized as basic, applied, or translational. Basic research seeks to expand scientific knowledge, applied research aims to solve specific practical problems, and translational research focuses on bridging the gap between basic research findings and their application in real-world settings. 33) Translational research A) has been the reigning research model for nearly 69 decades. B) has been supplanted by basic research in recent years. C) is a fairly new model for researchers. D) prevents application of research findings to real-world problems. Answer: C Rationale: Translational research is a relatively new model for researchers. It involves translating scientific discoveries into practical applications to improve human health and well-being. This approach aims to accelerate the process of applying research findings to address realworld problems. 34) Translational research centers A) now exist in the U.S. B) do not yet exist, but are being planned for 2022. C) are devoted primarily to the translation of scientific research from foreign languages into English. D) are focused almost entirely on basic research designs. Answer: A Rationale: Translational research centers currently exist in the U.S. These centers are dedicated to facilitating the translation of scientific discoveries into practical applications to benefit society, particularly in fields such as healthcare and medicine. 35) A potential problem with the emphasis on translational research is A) its enormous financial cost. B) it may undermine basic research. C) it may undermine applied research. D) its lack of governmental support. Answer: B Rationale: One potential problem with the emphasis on translational research is that it may divert resources and attention away from basic research, which is essential for expanding fundamental scientific knowledge. Overemphasis on translational research could neglect long-term scientific exploration and discovery. 36) Translational research A) spans basic and applied research. B) has been rejected by nearly all scientists. C) has no place in a democracy. D) has virtually displaced all other research models in the U.S. Answer: A Rationale: Translational research spans both basic and applied research domains. It aims to bridge the gap between scientific discoveries made in basic research and their application in practical settings to address real-world problems. 37) A variable is A) any observed event. B) any set of events that may have different values. C) any inferred event. D) kept under direct experimenter control. Answer: B Rationale: A variable is any set of events that may have different values or levels. In research, variables are factors or phenomena that can vary or be manipulated and measured. 38) Each set of varying events of interest to a researcher is called A) a variable. B) a correlational set. C) an analysis of variance. D) a stimulus-response set. Answer: A Rationale: Each set of varying events of interest to a researcher is referred to as a variable. Variables are studied and analyzed to understand their relationships and effects within the research context. 39) The starting point for a research project A) is the same thing as the specific research hypothesis. B) may be a vague or general idea. C) usually needs no refinement if it is a good idea. D) needs refinement only for new and inexperienced researchers. Answer: B Rationale: The starting point for a research project may be a vague or general idea that needs further refinement and development into a specific research hypothesis. Research typically begins with an exploration of broad concepts or questions before narrowing down to specific hypotheses or research objectives. 40) The nature of the research question that is asked has ramifications on all of the following EXCEPT A) the level of constraint of a research project. B) the type of data and measurement. C) the kinds of statistical analyses used. D) the care and diligence of the research team. Answer: D Rationale: The nature of the research question influences various aspects of the research process, including the level of constraint of the project, the type of data and measurement methods employed, and the kinds of statistical analyses used. However, the care and diligence of the research team are not directly determined by the research question but rather by the professionalism and commitment of the researchers involved. 41) Any set of events having different values is called A) an event network. B) the variance. C) variational correlation. D) a variable. Answer: D Rationale: A variable is any set of events or characteristics that can take on different values or levels. It represents a factor that can vary or change within a study or experiment. 42) The process of refining vague and general ideas or questions ultimately provides the researcher with A) a specific research hypothesis. B) an initial question. C) a grant proposal. D) a null hypothesis. Answer: A Rationale: Refining vague and general ideas or questions leads to the development of a specific research hypothesis, which provides a clear and testable statement about the relationship between variables in a study. 43) The more a researcher knows about an area of interest, A) the less refined the research question will be. B) the more likely it is that high-constraint research methods will be employed. C) the more likely it is that low-constraint research methods will be employed. D) the more he or she can afford to ask less refined questions. Answer: B Rationale: The more a researcher knows about an area of interest, the more likely it is that highconstraint research methods will be employed. This is because greater knowledge allows researchers to design studies with more precise measurements and controls, enhancing the validity and reliability of the research findings. 3.2 Types of Variables in Research 1) An overt response of an organism is classified as A) an organismic variable. B) a behavioral variable. C) a replicated variable. D) a correlational variable. Answer: B Rationale: An overt response of an organism refers to observable behaviors, making it a type of behavioral variable in research. 2) Those events that have an actual effect on the behavior of the participant are called A) organismic variables. B) response variables. C) dependent variables. D) stimulus variables. Answer: D Rationale: Stimulus variables are events or factors that have an actual effect on the behavior of participants in a study, influencing their responses or reactions. 3) Behavioral variables can be defined as A) any kind of response or feeling. B) any overt response of an organism. C) any noted chemical or behavioral change. D) anything that happens as a result of a stimulus. Answer: B Rationale: Behavioral variables encompass any overt responses of organisms that are observable and measurable in a research context. 4) Which of the following is NOT a behavioral variable? A) the heart rate of a participant in a psychophysiological study B) a person's socioeconomic status C) a person playing the harpsichord D) the verbal behavior of children Answer: B Rationale: Socioeconomic status is not a behavioral variable; it is a participant characteristic or demographic factor that can influence behavior but is not itself an observable behavior. 5) An example of a stimulus variable is A) the sex of a participant. B) a participant's psychiatric diagnosis. C) the film participants watch as part of the study. D) a participant's racial attitudes. Answer: C Rationale: The film participants watch as part of a study represents a stimulus variable because it is an external event or condition that elicits a response from participants. 6) Of the following, which is the type of variable most often observed in psychological research? A) organismic variable B) stimulus variable C) behavioral variable D) response-inferred organismic variables Answer: C Rationale: Behavioral variables, which encompass observable behaviors, are the type of variable most often observed and measured in psychological research due to their direct relevance to understanding human behavior and cognition. 7) The speed with which a rat runs a maze is an example of A) a stimulus variable. B) a behavioral variable. C) an organismic variable. D) a participant variable. Answer: B Rationale: The speed with which a rat runs a maze represents an observable behavior and thus qualifies as a behavioral variable in research. 8) A stimulus variable is A) an event or situation that affects or can affect an organism and its response. B) the environment. C) something that has no effect on the participant. D) the same as a behavioral variable. Answer: A Rationale: A stimulus variable is indeed an event or situation that affects or can affect an organism and its response. It is a factor manipulated or observed by researchers to study its impact on behavior or responses. 9) Which of the following is NOT an important way of classifying variables in psychological research? A) behavioral variables B) stimulus variables C) organismic variables D) research variables Answer: D Rationale: Research variables encompass all types of variables and are not a specific classification within psychological research. Behavioral, stimulus, and organismic variables are crucial classifications used in psychological research to categorize different aspects of variables studied. 10) Variables are classified based on their A) nature and use. B) validity. C) constraint levels. D) use and validity. Answer: A Rationale: Variables are classified based on their nature (what they represent) and their use (how they are utilized in research settings). This classification helps researchers categorize and understand the variables they are studying. 11) Which type of variable is defined by its use in research? A) behavior variables B) invisible variables C) extraneous variables D) organismic variables Answer: C Rationale: Extraneous variables are defined by their use in research. They are variables other than the independent and dependent variables that can influence the outcome of an experiment, thus needing to be controlled or accounted for. 12) Which of the following is NOT an example of an observed organismic variable? A) a participant's sex B) a participant's height C) a participant's weight D) a participant's anxiety Answer: D Rationale: Anxiety is an example of an organismic variable, but it is not directly observed. It is inferred from the participant's behavior or self-report rather than directly observed like sex, height, or weight. 13) Which of the following is an example of an organismic variable? A) the difficulty level of a test of math B) the IQs of participants C) the amount of distraction each participant is exposed to D) None of the above Answer: B Rationale: IQs of participants are examples of organismic variables as they represent inherent characteristics of the participants themselves. 14) Which of the following is NOT an example of an internal stimulus? A) blood pressure B) cholesterol level C) sympathetic nervous system activity D) the temperature of the immediate environment Answer: D Rationale: The temperature of the immediate environment is an external stimulus, not an internal one like blood pressure, cholesterol level, or sympathetic nervous system activity, which are physiological responses within the body. 15) Which of the following participant characteristics can be directly observed in scientific research? A) intelligence B) racial attitudes C) neuroticism D) gender of the participant Answer: D Rationale: The gender of the participant can be directly observed in scientific research settings. Intelligence, racial attitudes, and neuroticism are characteristics that may require indirect measures or self-report. 16) Participant characteristics refer to A) the religious and ethnic background of the participant. B) organismic variables. C) environmental factors. D) stimulus variables. Answer: B Rationale: Participant characteristics refer to inherent qualities or attributes of the participant, which fall under the category of organismic variables. 17) Response-inferred organismic variables are also A) dependent variables. B) directly observable. C) constructs. D) sex characteristics. Answer: C Rationale: Response-inferred organismic variables are constructs because they are inferred from participants' responses rather than directly observable like dependent variables. 18) The dependent variable A) is often manipulated by the experimenter. B) is sometimes manipulated by the experimenter. C) is always manipulated by the experimenter. D) is not manipulated by the experimenter. Answer: D Rationale: The dependent variable is the outcome or response that is measured in an experiment. It is not manipulated by the experimenter but is observed and measured to assess the effects of the independent variable. Manipulating the dependent variable would undermine the integrity of the experiment's design. 19) Response-inferred organismic variables A) are constructs. B) are directly observed. C) cannot be measured. D) occur only at the experimental level. Answer: A Rationale: Response-inferred organismic variables are constructs that are inferred from an organism's observable responses or behaviors. They are not directly observed but are theorized based on observed behavior and responses. 20) An example of a response-inferred organismic variable is A) a participant's weight. B) a participant's race. C) the amount of weight a participant loses in an 8-week weight loss study. D) a participant's attitude toward obesity. Answer: D Rationale: Participant's attitude toward obesity is an example of a response-inferred organismic variable because it is inferred from the participant's responses or behaviors. It is a construct that cannot be directly observed but is inferred based on observable behaviors or responses. 21) An example of a response-inferred organismic variable is A) a participant's weight. B) a participant's performance on an arithmetic test. C) a participant's speed in completing a task. D) a participant's anxiety during math exams. Answer: D Rationale: Participant's anxiety during math exams is an example of a response-inferred organismic variable because it is inferred from the participant's responses or behaviors. It is a construct that cannot be directly observed but is inferred based on observable behaviors or responses. 22) Which variable can be directly manipulated by the experimenter? A) the response-inferred variable B) the organismic variable C) the independent variable D) the dependent variable Answer: C Rationale: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Unlike the dependent variable, which is observed and measured, the independent variable is under the control of the experimenter. 23) Characteristics of participants, such as age and sex, are called A) organismic variables. B) stimulus variables. C) response variables. D) dependent variables. Answer: A Rationale: Characteristics of participants, such as age and sex, are referred to as organismic variables. These variables describe attributes of the organisms (participants) involved in the study but are not manipulated by the experimenter. 24) A response variable in one study A) must be a response variable in any other study. B) may be a stimulus variable in another study. C) may be an independent variable in another study. D) Both B and C Answer: D Rationale: A response variable in one study may serve as a stimulus variable or an independent variable in another study, depending on the research question and experimental design. Therefore, options B and C are correct. 25) In naturalistic research, the dependent variable A) is, strictly speaking, not a dependent variable. B) must be shown to have a causal relationship with the independent variable. C) is always an organismic variable. D) must be manipulated extremely carefully for valid results. Answer: A Rationale: In naturalistic research, the term "dependent variable" is used loosely, as the researcher does not have control over the variables being studied. Therefore, the dependent variable in naturalistic research is not strictly a dependent variable in the traditional sense of experimental research. 26) In a study of weight control, in which the proportion of fat and carbohydrate intake is varied across conditions and subsequent weight loss is measured, A) fat is an independent variable. B) weight loss is an independent variable. C) fat and carbohydrates are correlated variables. D) fat and carbohydrates are dependent variables. Answer: A Rationale: In this study, the proportion of fat and carbohydrate intake is manipulated by the experimenter, making fat the independent variable. Weight loss is the dependent variable, as it is measured to observe the effects of manipulating fat intake on participants' weight. 27) The dependent variable in psychological research is usually A) a stimulus variable. B) an organismic variable. C) an extraneous variable. D) a behavioral variable. Answer: D Rationale: In psychological research, the dependent variable typically refers to a behavioral variable, which is measured or observed to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable. It represents the outcome or response of interest in the study. 28) The dependent variable in psychological studies is usually a A) behavioral variable. B) stimulus variable. C) external variable. D) organismic variable. Answer: A Rationale: In psychological studies, the dependent variable typically represents the behavior or response being measured or observed. This could include variables such as reaction time, mood, performance on a task, etc., supporting option A. 29) The independent variables in psychological studies are usually A) behavioral or stimulus variables. B) stimulus or organismic variables. C) construct or behavioral variables. D) organismic or behavioral variables. Answer: B Rationale: In psychological studies, independent variables are typically factors that are manipulated or controlled by the researcher. These can include stimuli presented to participants or characteristics of the participants themselves (organismic variables), supporting option B. 30) Which of the following is true in psychological research? A) The independent variable is usually a response variable. B) Assigned independent variables are usually stimulus variables. C) Manipulated independent variables are usually organismic variables. D) The dependent variable is usually a behavioral variable. Answer: D Rationale: In psychological research, the dependent variable is typically the variable that is measured or observed as the outcome or response to the manipulation of the independent variable. Since behavior is often the focus of psychological studies, the dependent variable is usually a behavioral variable, supporting option D. 31) A researcher hypothesizes that criticism and aggression increase among coworkers when frustration increases. Workers are assigned to one of three groups (no frustration, moderate frustration, high frustration). For each group, verbal criticism and aggression are measured. In this example the independent variable is A) frustration level. B) verbal criticism and aggression. C) number of people in a group. D) amount of work completed. Answer: A Rationale: In this experiment, frustration level is manipulated by the researcher and is expected to influence the levels of verbal criticism and aggression observed, making it the independent variable, supporting option A. 32) A researcher hypothesizes that verbal criticism and aggression among coworkers increase as frustration increases. Workers are assigned to one of three groups (no frustration, moderate frustration, high frustration). For each group verbal aggression and criticism are measured. In this example the dependent variable is A) frustration level. B) verbal aggression and criticism. C) the number of people in a group. D) amount of work completed. Answer: B Rationale: In this experiment, verbal criticism and aggression are measured and expected to vary depending on the level of frustration manipulated by the researcher, making them the dependent variable, supporting option B. 33) In experimental research, the variable designated as the dependent variable A) always refers to an organismic variable. B) is not directly manipulated by the experimenter. C) is merely another term for the organismic variable. D) is directly manipulated by the experimenter. Answer: B Rationale: The dependent variable in experimental research is the variable that is measured or observed as the outcome or response to the manipulation of the independent variable. It is not directly manipulated by the experimenter, supporting option B. 34) The ________ variable is under the control of the researcher. A) organismic B) manipulated independent C) nonmanipulated independent D) dependent Answer: B Rationale: The manipulated independent variable is under the control of the researcher because it is the variable that the researcher deliberately manipulates or controls in an experiment, supporting option B. 35) Research with nonmanipulated independent variables A) cannot be conducted. B) usually has organismic variables for independent variables. C) is best done within an experimental design. D) can answer questions about causal relationships between variables. Answer: B Rationale: Research with nonmanipulated independent variables involves variables that are not directly controlled or manipulated by the researcher, such as participants' characteristics or existing conditions. This type of research can still be conducted, but it typically involves observational or correlational studies rather than experimental designs, supporting option B. 36) The largest category of nonmanipulated independent variables in psychology consists of A) extraneous variables. B) causal variables. C) organismic variables. D) stimulus variables. Answer: C Rationale: In psychology, organismic variables, such as age, gender, personality traits, etc., are often nonmanipulated independent variables because they are inherent characteristics of the participants that are not manipulated by the researcher, supporting option C. 37) If a researcher assigns participants to groups based on, for example, their identified political affiliation, the researcher would be employing A) a nonmanipulated independent variable. B) a manipulated independent variable. C) a nonmanipulated dependent variable. D) a manipulated dependent variable. Answer: A Rationale: When participants are assigned to groups based on existing characteristics or conditions that are not manipulated by the researcher, such as political affiliation, the researcher is employing a nonmanipulated independent variable, supporting option A. 38) Which of these variables is least likely to be controlled by the experimenter? A) external variables B) internal variables C) organismic variables D) manipulated independent variables Answer: C Rationale: Organismic variables, such as participants' personality traits or physiological characteristics, are typically not directly controlled or manipulated by the experimenter. Unlike external variables, which can sometimes be controlled through experimental design, organismic variables are inherent traits of the participants and are not subject to manipulation by the experimenter. 39) If a researcher measured neuroticism in a group of participants and then divided the participants into high, moderate, and low neuroticism, this would be an example of A) classification with an organismic variable. B) very poor research design. C) naturalistic research. D) a causal inference. Answer: A Rationale: This scenario involves classifying participants based on a pre-existing organismic variable (neuroticism), which is an inherent trait of the participants. The researcher is not manipulating neuroticism but rather categorizing participants based on their levels of this trait, making it an example of classification with an organismic variable. 40) An independent variable is A) directly manipulated by the researcher. B) not directly manipulated by the participant. C) indirectly manipulated by the researcher. D) indirectly manipulated by the participant. Answer: A Rationale: An independent variable is the variable that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is directly under the control of the experimenter and serves as the causal factor in experimental research. 41) The classification of a variable (e.g., independent vs. dependent) depends on A) the characteristics of the variable alone. B) the nature of the study alone. C) the characteristics of the variable and the nature of the study. D) the biases of the researcher. Answer: C Rationale: The classification of a variable as independent or dependent depends on both the inherent characteristics of the variable itself and the specific nature and design of the study being conducted. It is determined by how the variable is used within the context of the research. 42) In experimental research, the variable designated as the independent variable A) refers to the variable that is directly manipulated by the research team. B) refers to the variable that is directly manipulated by the participant. C) refers to a variable that is independent of any measurement strategy. D) refers to the variable that is not directly manipulated. Answer: A Rationale: The independent variable in experimental research is the variable that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the research team to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is under the direct control of the experimenter. 43) Organismic variables are most likely to be A) manipulated independent variables. B) nonmanipulated independent variables. C) stimulus variables. D) none of the above Answer: B Rationale: Organismic variables, such as personality traits or physiological characteristics, are typically nonmanipulated independent variables in experimental research. They are inherent traits of the participants and are not directly manipulated by the experimenter. 44) In a study with organismic independent variables, A) causal conclusions are very strong. B) no conclusions can be drawn. C) any causal conclusions must be tentative. D) active manipulation of the independent variable must be included. Answer: C Rationale: In studies with organismic independent variables, causal conclusions must be tentative because the independent variable (e.g., participants' traits) is not actively manipulated by the experimenter. While associations may be observed, causality cannot be definitively established without direct manipulation of the variable. 45) The two types of independent variables are A) spurious and representative. B) iconic and eidetic. C) parametric and nonparametric. D) manipulated and nonmanipulated. Answer: D Rationale: The two types of independent variables are manipulated (directly controlled by the researcher) and nonmanipulated (inherent traits or characteristics of the participants). 46) The largest category of nonmanipulated independent variables are A) organismic variables. B) dependent variables. C) stimulus variables. D) behavioral variables. Answer: A Rationale: Organismic variables, such as personality traits or physiological characteristics, constitute the largest category of nonmanipulated independent variables in psychology. These variables are inherent traits of the participants and are not directly manipulated by the experimenter. 47) In psychology, what is the largest category of nonmanipulated independent variables? A) physiological variables B) response variables C) stimulus variables D) organismic variables Answer: D Rationale: Organismic variables, such as personality traits or physiological characteristics, represent the largest category of nonmanipulated independent variables in psychology. These variables are inherent traits of the participants and are not subject to manipulation by the experimenter. 48) If an experimenter is interested in investigating the causal relationship between two variables, what would be the best strategy? A) Operationally define both measures and carefully measure each. B) Define which of the variables is to be the organismic variable. C) Use a nonmanipulated independent variable in a differential research design. D) Operationally define one of the variables as a manipulated independent variable in an experimental design. Answer: D Rationale: The best strategy for investigating the causal relationship between two variables is to operationally define one of the variables as a manipulated independent variable in an experimental design. This allows the researcher to manipulate one variable while controlling for potential confounding variables, thereby establishing a causal relationship between the manipulated independent variable and the dependent variable. 49) An example of a manipulated independent variable might be A) the amount of sensory deprivation given a participant. B) a participant's religious affiliation. C) a student participant's hallucinations in response to severe sensory deprivation. D) a retarded child's behavior after a session of relaxation training. Answer: A Rationale: An example of a manipulated independent variable might be the amount of sensory deprivation given to a participant. In an experimental study, researchers manipulate this variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable, such as cognitive performance or perception. 50) In psychological research, gender, hair color, and IQ could be examples of A) nonmanipulated independent variables. B) assigned dependent variables. C) manipulated independent variables. D) manipulated dependent variables. Answer: A Rationale: In psychological research, gender, hair color, and IQ could be examples of nonmanipulated independent variables. These variables are typically not manipulated by the researcher but are naturally occurring characteristics or attributes of participants that may influence the outcome of the study. 51) A constant is A) the direct opposite of a variable. B) not a variable. C) a specific number, as in mathematics. D) a variable that does not vary. Answer: D Rationale: A constant is a variable that does not vary. In research, constants are factors or conditions that remain consistent throughout the study and are not manipulated or measured as variables. 52) If age and gender caused variability in response to a particular pharmaceutical drug in elderly people, and we only test 70-year-old females, age and gender would be A) manipulated independent variables. B) constants. C) manipulated dependent variables. D) nonmanipulated independent variables. Answer: B Rationale: If age and gender caused variability in response to a particular pharmaceutical drug in elderly people, and only 70-year-old females are tested, age and gender would be constants. Constants are factors that remain consistent and unchanged throughout the study, and in this scenario, age and gender are controlled variables. 53) Disruptive behavior is an example of a possible A) independent variable. B) dependent variable. C) stimulus variable. D) All of the above Answer: D Rationale: Disruptive behavior can be considered an example of a possible independent variable, dependent variable, or stimulus variable, depending on its role within a specific research context. It could be manipulated by the researcher, measured as an outcome, or used as a stimulus to evoke responses in participants. Therefore, all options are correct. 3.3 Validity and Control of Extraneous Variables 1) Validity A) is something that cannot be achieved. B) refers to how well a measure or study performs. C) is a separate statistical measure used by natural scientists. D) is a way of including extraneous variables to give the study more meaning. Answer: B Rationale: Validity refers to how well a measure or study performs in accurately assessing what it intends to measure. It is an essential aspect of research quality, ensuring that findings are meaningful and applicable to the research question or hypothesis. 2) Changes in one variable resulting in predictable changes in another A) show that a causal relationship cannot be inferred. B) can be observed only in naturalistic or case-study research. C) occur only in correlational studies. D) suggest that a causal relationship exists. Answer: D Rationale: Changes in one variable resulting in predictable changes in another suggest that a causal relationship exists between the variables. This pattern of results supports the idea that variations in one variable cause changes in another, indicating a potential cause-and-effect relationship. 3) General control procedures can be implemented in research A) only in low-constraint research designs. B) only in high-constraint research designs. C) only in experimental research designs. D) at many different levels of constraint. Answer: D Rationale: General control procedures can be implemented in research at many different levels of constraint. These procedures involve techniques and strategies for minimizing the influence of extraneous variables and ensuring the internal and external validity of the study across various research designs and methodologies. 4) We seek to control extraneous variables in research because they A) are threats to reliability. B) distract the participants. C) reduce validity. D) reflect the experimenter's planned biases. Answer: C Rationale: We seek to control extraneous variables in research because they reduce validity. Extraneous variables are factors or conditions that may influence the outcome of the study but are not of primary interest to the researcher. By controlling for these variables, researchers can enhance the validity of their findings by ensuring that observed effects are due to the variables being studied rather than extraneous influences. 5) Being concerned with whether a study answers the questions it posed is a concern for the study's A) reliability. B) replicability. C) validity. D) representativeness. Answer: C Rationale: Validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures what it intends to measure. Ensuring that a study answers the questions it posed demonstrates its validity. 6) The influence of extraneous variables can reduce a study's methodological soundness or A) replicability. B) reliability. C) validity. D) authenticity. Answer: C Rationale: Extraneous variables can introduce errors into a study, affecting its validity by confounding the relationship between the variables being studied. 7) Extraneous variables represent threats to validity because they can influence the behavior of A) both participants and researchers. B) participants only. C) researchers only. D) animals only. Answer: A Rationale: Extraneous variables can affect both participants' behavior (e.g., through environmental factors) and researchers' behavior (e.g., through bias or unintentional influence), thus posing threats to the validity of the study. 8) An example of an extraneous variable in a study designed to explore a child's unique problem-solving strategies is A) the child's response time for each problem set. B) the number of correct answers a child achieves without assistance. C) unrequested assistance from other children in solving the problems. D) the problem sets themselves. Answer: C Rationale: Unrequested assistance from other children introduces an extraneous variable that may affect the child's problem-solving behavior, potentially confounding the study's results. 9) The two ways of controlling extraneous variables are A) the use of high-constraint research designs and the use of general control procedures. B) the use of low-constraint research designs and the use of general control procedures. C) the use of high-constraint research designs and the use of correlational designs. D) the use of high-constraint research designs and employing a smaller sample size. Answer: A Rationale: High-constraint research designs involve strict control over variables, while general control procedures help minimize the influence of extraneous variables, thus effectively controlling for them. 10) A way to control for extraneous variables is to use A) higher-constraint research designs. B) lower-constraint research designs. C) naturalistic observation techniques. D) complicated extraneous variance correcting statistical procedures. Answer: A Rationale: Higher-constraint research designs, characterized by tight control over variables, help minimize the influence of extraneous variables, enhancing the study's validity by reducing potential confounds. 11) The purpose of control and controlled research is to ensure the achievement of A) validity B) accuracy C) reliability D) uniformity Answer: A Rationale: Control in research aims to ensure validity by minimizing the influence of extraneous variables, allowing for accurate measurement and interpretation of the relationship between variables of interest. 12) Validity is best achieved by A) not interfering with variables. B) simply reporting all observations. C) choosing a well-studied area of research. D) controlling for extraneous variables. Answer: D Rationale: Validity is best achieved by controlling for extraneous variables that could confound the relationship between the variables of interest, ensuring that the study accurately measures what it intends to measure. 13) Extraneous variables are threats to the ________ of a study. A) predictability B) validity C) authenticity D) replicability Answer: B Rationale: Extraneous variables can undermine the validity of a study by introducing errors or confounding factors, thereby threatening the accuracy of the study's conclusions. 14) Extraneous variables ________ methodological soundness. A) can attenuate B) can enhance C) can have either an attenuating or enhancing effect on D) have no effect on Answer: A Rationale: Extraneous variables can attenuate methodological soundness by introducing bias or error into the study, thereby reducing the accuracy and validity of the research findings. 3.4 Ethical Principles 1) Psychological research ________ biomedical research. A) is as potentially risky as B) is more risky than C) has similar ethical concerns as D) is free from the same constraints as Answer: C Rationale: Psychological research shares similar ethical concerns with biomedical research due to potential risks to participants' well-being, issues of informed consent, confidentiality, and the need for ethical oversight, despite differences in methodologies and subject matter. 2) Deception in psychology is A) standard in some areas of study. B) unnecessary and should be eliminated. C) ethical under all circumstances. D) a threat to validity. Answer: A Rationale: Deception is considered standard practice in some areas of psychological research, especially where it is necessary to prevent participants from altering their behavior due to awareness of the true purpose of the study, although it should be used judiciously and with appropriate ethical safeguards. 3) Psychological studies with human participants are A) always problematic and have to meet a higher test of ethical standards than natural sciences. B) physically intrusive. C) subject to government approval. D) rarely physically intrusive. Answer: D Rationale: Psychological studies with human participants are often not physically intrusive and typically do not pose direct physical risks, although they still require adherence to ethical standards regarding informed consent, confidentiality, and potential psychological risks. 4) Injecting live disease organisms into a participant, not related to the treatment needs of a participant, without the participant's permission is A) ethical in some circumstances. B) ethical with prison populations. C) at least questionable and probably unethical. D) ethical in euthanasia. Answer: C Rationale: Injecting live disease organisms into a participant without their permission and without medical necessity is ethically questionable and likely unethical, as it poses significant risks to the participant's health and violates principles of informed consent and beneficence. 5) ________ is frequently employed in psychological research, and therefore raises ethical questions that must be addressed by the researcher. A) Electroshock B) Psychophysiological measurement C) Deception D) Fraud Answer: C Rationale: Deception is often used in psychological research to prevent participants from altering their behavior, but it raises ethical questions regarding the balance between obtaining valid data and protecting participants' rights and well-being. 6) Which of the following is NOT an important ethical concern of a good researcher? A) to develop well-designed projects that are executed with care B) to safeguard participants' rights C) to guarantee that the study will be published D) to consider whether a participant will be a "participant at risk" or "participant at minimal risk" Answer: C Rationale: Guaranteeing that the study will be published is not an ethical concern of a researcher; rather, ethical concerns revolve around designing studies with care, safeguarding participants' rights, and considering participant risk levels. 7) Deception, risk, and prying in research are A) acceptable in certain instances. B) not acceptable. C) acceptable if the participant disagrees. D) acceptable if real benefits can be shown. Answer: A Rationale: Deception, risk, and invasion of privacy (prying) may be acceptable in certain instances in research, particularly when balanced against potential benefits, provided that appropriate ethical safeguards are in place and participants are fully informed and consent to participate. 8) Generally, research ethics refer to A) how participants should behave when doing a study. B) the treatment and safety of participants. C) the treatment of all animals in captivity. D) plagiarizing of other scientists' work. Answer: B Rationale: Research ethics generally refer to principles and guidelines governing the treatment, safety, and rights of research participants, including issues such as informed consent, confidentiality, minimizing harm, and ensuring benefits outweigh risks. 9) A researcher who studies attachment behavior in people with anorexia without obtaining prior informed consent from participants would be considered A) ethical but slipshod in his/her methods. B) to be doing invalid research. C) to be doing creative research. D) to be unethical. Answer: D Rationale: Conducting research without obtaining prior informed consent from participants, particularly in sensitive areas such as attachment behavior in individuals with anorexia, is considered unethical as it violates participants' autonomy and right to make informed decisions about participation. 10) The most important safeguard that can be employed to minimize risks to human research participants is A) debriefing of participants. B) use of coded data. C) anonymity of participants. D) informed consent. Answer: D Rationale: Informed consent is the most important safeguard to minimize risks to human research participants as it ensures that participants are fully informed about the nature of the study, potential risks and benefits, and their rights, allowing them to make voluntary and informed decisions about participation. 11) The American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Guidelines for Research with Human Participants A) guarantees a research participant payment for participation. B) guarantees a research participant the freedom to withdraw at any time from participation. C) guarantees that there will be no deception or concealment. D) expressly forbids research on children or persons with impairments. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct. The APA's Ethical Guidelines ensure that research participants have the freedom to withdraw from participation at any time without facing any consequences. This safeguard protects the autonomy and rights of the participants. 12) The most important safeguard built into the American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Guidelines is that A) participation in research is decided by the participant. B) each signature must be notarized. C) each participant is guaranteed a payment for services. D) the researcher cannot be sued. Answer: A Rationale: Option A is correct. The most crucial safeguard in the APA's Ethical Guidelines is that participation in research is decided by the participant, emphasizing the importance of voluntary and informed consent. 13) Using participants who are unable to give informed consent because of age or mental deficit is A) strictly forbidden by the American Psychological Association. B) not allowed under current ethical guidelines. C) allowed, providing a bona-fide representative can give consent. D) illegal. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct. While the use of participants unable to give informed consent is not strictly forbidden, it is allowed under ethical guidelines if a bona-fide representative, such as a legal guardian or caretaker, can provide consent on their behalf. 14) The use of number identification codes for participants in psychological research is primarily designed A) to facilitate data entry and analysis. B) to safeguard participants' confidentiality. C) to prevent other researchers from stealing the data. D) as a convenience for the researcher, but have no real function. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct. Number identification codes are primarily used to safeguard participants' confidentiality by anonymizing their data, making it more difficult to link specific individuals to their responses or behavior. 15) Doing research in a medical setting by performing harmless, unnecessary procedures without permission of participants is an example of A) valid biomedical procedures. B) unethical behavior. C) the tenacity of the physician. D) ethical, but questionable practice. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct. Performing unnecessary procedures without participants' permission violates ethical principles of autonomy, informed consent, and beneficence, constituting unethical behavior. 16) Researchers commonly safeguard confidentiality by A) changing the names of participants. B) using participants that live far away from the research center. C) using numerical codes for participant identification. D) using initials only. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct. Using numerical codes for participant identification helps safeguard confidentiality by anonymizing participants' identities while still allowing researchers to link data to specific individuals for analysis. 17) The principle concerns for which ethical guidelines in psychology have been drawn up are A) deception, severe physical harm, and invasion of privacy. B) invasion of privacy, participants' rights, and deception. C) payment for services, deception, and participants' rights. D) participants' rights, severe physical harm, and payment for services. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct. Ethical guidelines in psychology are primarily concerned with protecting participants' rights, preventing invasion of privacy, and ensuring transparency regarding any deception used in research. 18) IRBs evaluate the research proposals against ethical standards. IRB stands for A) International Review Board. B) Institutional Review Board. C) Instructional Review Bureau. D) Instructional Research Bureau. Answer: B Rationale: Option B is correct. IRB stands for Institutional Review Board, which evaluates research proposals to ensure they comply with ethical standards and protect the rights and well-being of research participants. 19) IRBs evaluate research proposals against ethical standards. IRBs consist of A) researchers, peers, and lay people. B) researchers only. C) only the top researchers at universities. D) federally appointed officials and researchers. Answer: A Rationale: Option A is correct. IRBs typically consist of a diverse membership, including researchers, peers from various disciplines, and laypeople from the community, to provide comprehensive oversight and ensure diverse perspectives on ethical issues. 20) The ultimate responsibility for ethical research lies with the A) government. B) Institutional Review Board. C) researcher. D) educational institution. Answer: C Rationale: Option C is correct. The ultimate responsibility for ethical research lies with the researcher, who is accountable for ensuring that their research complies with ethical principles and guidelines, even if overseen by an IRB or affiliated with an educational institution. 21) Regarding research procedures and conduct, IRB stands for A) Interviewing Resources Bank. B) Institutional Review Board. C) Investigational Research Bureau. D) Informational Research Bureau. Answer: B Rationale: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is responsible for reviewing research proposals involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met, making option B the correct choice. 22) The Institutional Review Board (IRB) A) reduces the researcher's ethical responsibility to design acceptable research. B) is designed to assist researchers and help protect human participants. C) is comprised of the president of the university and other top administrators. D) is designed to help protect animals. Answer: B Rationale: The IRB is established to assist researchers in designing ethical research protocols and to ensure the protection of human participants, making option B the accurate choice. 23) The risks to participants in psychological research should be A) weighed against the possible benefits. B) eliminated, even if benefits outweigh risk. C) accepted; life is risky. D) discounted; injury or psychological harm to participants is rare. Answer: A Rationale: Ethical guidelines mandate that risks to participants in psychological research should be carefully weighed against potential benefits to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks, making option A the most appropriate choice. 24) Which of the following is an ethical check that should be employed in a study with human participants? A) The design is sufficient to provide valuable information. B) Only fit and coherent participants are used. C) Additional knowledge is gained despite ethical difficulties. D) The research follows the tradition of early philosophers and scientists. Answer: A Rationale: Ensuring that the research design is sufficient to provide valuable information is an important ethical consideration in conducting studies involving human participants, making option A the correct choice. 25) Ethical concerns should be examined A) at the post-observational stage of a study. B) during the initial idea-generating phase. C) after all data have been gathered. D) before any observations. Answer: D Rationale: Ethical concerns should be addressed and examined before any observations or data collection occurs to ensure that the research is conducted ethically from the outset, making option D the most appropriate choice. 26) Discomfort and risk assessment as part of the ethical evaluation of a research project is primarily the task of A) the researcher. B) the American Psychological Association. C) the participant. D) the government. Answer: A Rationale: It is the responsibility of the researcher to assess and address discomfort and risks associated with a research project as part of the ethical evaluation process, making option A the correct choice. 27) "Diversity" in research A) is considered to be a behavioral variable. B) refers to how well ethnic, gender, and age groups are represented in the research. C) is a measure of how varied the procedures are. D) refers to the number of ways a study can be repeated. Answer: B Rationale: In research, "diversity" refers to how well ethnic, gender, and age groups are represented in the study sample, ensuring that findings are applicable across different demographic groups, making option B the accurate choice. 28) Which of the following groups were traditionally overrepresented in psychological and biomedical research? A) females B) children C) Caucasian males D) minority group members Answer: C Rationale: Traditionally, Caucasian males were overrepresented in psychological and biomedical research, leading to a lack of generalizability of findings to other demographic groups, making option C the correct choice. 29) Why is it important to represent the diversity of the culture in psychological and medical research? A) Because the risk associated with research should be shared equally. B) Because findings in one group may not apply to other groups. C) Because Title IX dictates equal availability of research opportunities. D) Because every group is required to fund the research, every group should be allowed to conduct the research. Answer: B Rationale: It is important to represent diversity in research to ensure that findings are applicable across different demographic groups and to avoid biases or assumptions based on limited samples, making option B the most appropriate choice. 30) When might it be permissible to exclude a gender, ethnic, or age group? A) studying anxiety disorder B) studying response to stress C) studying Alzheimer's disease D) It is never permissible to exclude these groups. Answer: C Rationale: It might be permissible to exclude certain gender, ethnic, or age groups in studies focused on specific conditions or diseases that predominantly affect one group, such as Alzheimer's disease, to ensure homogeneity in the sample and better understand the condition, making option C the correct choice. 31) The National Institutes of Health (NIH) A) has taken no explicit stand on diversity issues in psychological and medical research. B) requires that all research, regardless of funding, must include diverse populations. C) requires that population diversity be represented in all NIH-funded studies unless there is a practical problem in adequately representing key groups. D) requires that population diversity be represented in all NIH-funded studies unless there is a scientifically justified reason for not including specific groups. Answer: D Rationale: The NIH requires that population diversity be represented in all NIH-funded studies unless there is a scientifically justified reason for not including specific groups. This policy ensures that research studies funded by the NIH are inclusive and representative, while also acknowledging the importance of scientific justification for any exceptions to this requirement. 32) Which of the following ethical concerns have been raised about using animals in experiments? A) Animal behavior is unpredictable. B) Research procedures are often more invasive in animal research. C) Animals do not provide good data. D) Fewer drugs are tested on animals. Answer: B Rationale: One of the primary ethical concerns raised about using animals in experiments is that research procedures are often more invasive in animal research compared to human research. This includes concerns about the potential pain, suffering, and distress experienced by animals subjected to invasive procedures. 33) The American Psychological Association has addressed ethical issues in animal research since A) 1986. B) 1946. C) 1961. D) 1925. Answer: D Rationale: The American Psychological Association (APA) has addressed ethical issues in animal research since 1925. The APA has developed guidelines and standards to ensure the ethical treatment of animals used in research, including considerations for minimizing harm and maximizing welfare. 34) With respect to ethical treatment of animals, the American Psychological Association (APA) A) has shown consistent and early concern for standards in animal research. B) has failed to develop guidelines. C) has declared animal research "off limits." D) has chosen not to enter this controversial area, since animal research is not necessary for the study of behavior. Answer: A Rationale: With respect to the ethical treatment of animals, the APA has shown consistent and early concern for standards in animal research. The APA has developed guidelines and standards to ensure the ethical treatment of animals used in research, reflecting its commitment to the responsible and humane use of animals in psychological research. 35) Developing alternatives to the use of live animals in research A) is more difficult in behavioral research than it is in medical research. B) is easier in behavioral research than it is in medical research. C) would lead to the desirable state of eliminating animal research altogether. D) would give psychologists as much information as studying the animals themselves. Answer: A Rationale: Developing alternatives to the use of live animals in research is often more difficult in behavioral research than in medical research. Behavioral research often requires the study of complex behaviors and cognitive processes that are challenging to replicate or model without the use of live animals. 36) According to Neal Miller (1985), behavioral research involving animals has led to successful treatment for A) other animals but not humans. B) human medical disorders but not psychological disorders. C) almost no one. D) psychological disorders such as anorexia and enuresis. Answer: D Rationale: According to Neal Miller (1985), behavioral research involving animals has led to successful treatment for psychological disorders such as anorexia and enuresis. Miller's work emphasized the importance of animal research in advancing our understanding of behavior and developing effective treatments for psychological disorders. 37) According to Neal Miller, animal research has A) destroyed the natural environment. B) led to questions about the validity of using animals in experimentation. C) often led to more humane treatment of animals. D) contributed little knowledge in the area of human psychology. Answer: C Rationale: According to Neal Miller, animal research has often led to more humane treatment of animals. Miller argued that ethical concerns about the use of animals in research should be balanced with the potential benefits of animal research in advancing our understanding of behavior and improving animal welfare. 38) In a 1991 discussion on animal research, Ulrich argued that A) animals should be used more in order to avoid discomfort of human participants. B) scientists must be given more freedom; the ethical argument is preventing important research. C) the misuse of animals is unfortunate, but a necessary evil. D) misuse of animals occurs in research. Answer: D Rationale: In a 1991 discussion on animal research, Ulrich argued that misuse of animals occurs in research. This reflects concerns about the ethical treatment of animals in research and the need for careful consideration of the welfare of animals used in scientific studies. 39) In reference to animal research, who argued that scientists are "guilty of our culture's propensity to consume anything"? A) Neal Miller B) Paul Meehl C) Albert Bandura D) Roger Ulrich Answer: D Rationale: In reference to animal research, Roger Ulrich argued that scientists are "guilty of our culture's propensity to consume anything." This statement reflects concerns about the ethical implications of using animals in research and the need for careful consideration of the ethical issues involved in scientific inquiry. Test Bank for Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry Anthony M. Graziano, Michael L. Raulin 9780205900923, 9780205907694, 9780135705056
