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Chapter 14 Centers of Civilization in the Americas Multiple-Choice Questions 1) The unpopularity of Aztec rule rested on A) the ability to keep out the Spaniards. B) taking tribute monies and human sacrifice. C) failure to honor the gods. D) insistence on male dominance in the family. Answer: B Rationale: The unpopularity of Aztec rule primarily rested on the practice of taking tribute monies and conducting human sacrifice. The Aztecs imposed heavy tribute demands on subject peoples, which often led to resentment and resistance. Additionally, the Aztec practice of human sacrifice, performed as part of religious rituals, was deeply unsettling to many subjected populations and contributed to their dislike of Aztec rule. 2) Indian civilizations in the Americas were concentrated in the present-day nations or regions of A) Brazil and Mexico. B) Central America and the Andes. C) Brazil and the Andes. D) the East Indies and Central America. Answer: B Rationale: Indian civilizations in the Americas were concentrated in Central America and the Andes region. These areas were home to advanced civilizations such as the Maya, Aztec, Inca, and various other cultures known for their architectural, artistic, and agricultural achievements. 3) Knowledge of Mayan civilization is limited by A) Mayan failure to develop writing. B) Spanish destruction of most written work. C) Aztec destruction of any monuments the Mayans may have built. D) Mayan concentration on agriculture in preference to building any cities. Answer: B Rationale: Knowledge of Mayan civilization is limited by Spanish destruction of most written work. When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in Mesoamerica, they systematically destroyed many written records, codices, and monuments of indigenous cultures, including the Maya. This deliberate destruction significantly diminished the available sources of information about Mayan civilization. 4) Mayan and Aztec religion A) lacked a formal priesthood. B) stressed the sanctity of human life. C) believed in a single god. D) encouraged construction of many temples and shrines. Answer: D Rationale: Mayan and Aztec religion encouraged the construction of many temples and shrines. Both civilizations were deeply religious, with elaborate systems of gods, rituals, and ceremonies. They built numerous temples and shrines to honor their gods and perform religious ceremonies, reflecting the centrality of religion in their societies. 5) Central American civilizations have been compared to ancient Mesopotamia because they A) offered considerable scientific sophistication combined with frequent invasions and disruptions. B) developed monotheism and extensive written sagas. C) developed at roughly the same time as did ancient Mesopotamian civilization. D) relied extensively on irrigation for agriculture. Answer: A Rationale: Central American civilizations have been compared to ancient Mesopotamia because they offered considerable scientific sophistication combined with frequent invasions and disruptions. Both regions witnessed the development of advanced civilizations characterized by significant achievements in agriculture, architecture, astronomy, mathematics, and urban planning, alongside periods of political instability and external invasions. 6) Key food staples in American civilizations included A) beef, turkey, and dog. B) corn, squash, and potatoes. C) corn, wheat, and barley. D) tacos, enchiladas, and squash. Answer: B Rationale: Key food staples in American civilizations included corn, squash, and potatoes. These crops, along with beans, formed the basis of indigenous American agriculture and diet, providing essential nutrients and sustaining large populations across the Americas. 7) The ________ were one of the first agricultural societies in Central America. A) Incas B) Olmecs C) Navaho D) Mayans Answer: B Rationale: The Olmecs were one of the first agricultural societies in Central America. The Olmec civilization, which flourished from around 1400 BCE to 400 BCE, was known for its advanced agricultural practices, monumental architecture, and distinctive art style, laying the foundation for later Mesoamerican civilizations. 8) The Mayans established their initial civilization about A) 50 C.E. B) 100 C.E. C) 150 C.E. D) 200 C.E. Answer: B Rationale: The Mayans established their initial civilization around 100 C.E. The Maya civilization emerged in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period (2000 BCE - 250 CE), with the development of complex societies characterized by agriculture, monumental architecture, and distinctive cultural practices. 9) The Mayans intermingled with the ________ when they moved into the Yucatán Peninsula. A) Incas B) Olmecs C) Toltecs D) Aztecs Answer: C Rationale: The Mayans intermingled with the Toltecs when they moved into the Yucatán Peninsula. The Toltecs were a later Mesoamerican civilization that influenced the Maya during the Classic period (250 CE - 900 CE), particularly in terms of architecture, art, and religious beliefs. 10) The period after 1200 marks the ________ period of Mayan civilization. A) formative B) high C) declining D) medieval Answer: C Rationale: The period after 1200 marks the declining period of Mayan civilization. While the Classic period (250 CE - 900 CE) was characterized by the height of Mayan achievements in art, architecture, and culture, the Postclassic period (900 CE - 1500 CE) saw the decline of many Mayan city-states due to factors such as environmental degradation, warfare, and political instability. 11) The destruction of Mayan society occurred because of A) the Spanish conquest. B) the swine flu. C) battles with the Toltecs. D) political instability. Answer: A Rationale: The destruction of Mayan society occurred primarily due to the Spanish conquest. In the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, invaded Mesoamerica and systematically conquered the indigenous civilizations, including the Mayans. The Spanish conquest brought warfare, disease, forced labor, and cultural disruption, leading to the collapse of many Mayan city-states and the decline of Mayan civilization. 12) Mayan cities were constructed to promote A) trade. B) religion. C) merchants. D) the upper classes. Answer: B Rationale: Mayan cities were constructed primarily to promote religion. Mayan urban centers were characterized by monumental architecture, including temples, pyramids, and palaces, which served as focal points for religious rituals, ceremonies, and observances. The layout and design of Mayan cities were often aligned with astronomical phenomena and religious symbolism, emphasizing the importance of religion in Mayan society. 13) In Mayan culture, games were held in order to A) promote politics. B) honor the gods. C) allow people to gamble. D) capture slaves. Answer: B Rationale: In Mayan culture, games were held primarily to honor the gods. Mayan ball games, such as the Mesoamerican ballgame, were ritualistic events with religious significance. They were believed to symbolize cosmic battles between the forces of light and darkness, life and death, and were often accompanied by religious ceremonies and offerings to appease the gods. 14) Hieroglyphic writing was used by the A) Greeks. B) Romans. C) Chinese. D) Mayans. Answer: D Rationale: Hieroglyphic writing was used by the Mayans. The Maya developed a sophisticated writing system composed of hieroglyphs, which were used for recording historical events, religious rituals, astronomical observations, and other aspects of Mayan culture and society. Mayan hieroglyphic texts were inscribed on stone monuments, stelae, codices, and pottery, providing valuable insights into Mayan history and civilization. 15) The last Mayan stronghold surrendered to the Spanish in A) 1460. B) 1500. C) 1613. D) 1699. Answer: D Rationale: The last Mayan stronghold surrendered to the Spanish in 1699. After centuries of resistance, the Spanish finally subdued the last independent Mayan city-states in the Yucatán Peninsula, marking the end of Mayan resistance to Spanish colonization. 16) The decline of Mayan civilization was ultimately caused by A) difficulty maintaining the land. B) limited technology. C) soil exhaustion. D) The precise explanation is unknown. Answer: D Rationale: The decline of Mayan civilization is attributed to various factors, including environmental degradation, political instability, warfare, social upheaval, and the impact of external forces such as the Spanish conquest. While factors such as soil exhaustion and environmental degradation may have contributed to the decline of specific city-states, the precise explanation for the collapse of Mayan civilization as a whole remains a subject of scholarly debate. 17) The Aztec empire was a A) peaceful civilization. B) smaller civilization than the Mayan’s. C) hunting-gathering society. D) a warrior society. Answer: D Rationale: The Aztec empire was a warrior society. The Aztecs, also known as the Mexica, established a powerful and expansive empire in central Mexico through conquest, military prowess, and tribute extraction. Warfare played a central role in Aztec society and politics, with military conquests serving as a means of territorial expansion, resource acquisition, and social prestige. 18) The power of the political regime of the Aztecs was based upon A) an elaborate bureaucracy. B) a divine king. C) rule by a council of lords. D) force and military power. Answer: D Rationale: The power of the political regime of the Aztecs was based upon force and military power. The Aztec empire was characterized by a centralized imperial state ruled by a supreme monarch, the tlatoani, who wielded absolute authority and commanded the loyalty of a vast military apparatus. Aztec governance relied on a combination of military conquest, tribute extraction, and coercion to maintain control over subject peoples and territories. 19) At the dedication of one of the great pyramids, the Aztecs killed approximately ________ people to glorify the gods. A) 15,000 B) 20,000 C) 30,000 D) 35,000 Answer: B Rationale: At the dedication of one of the great pyramids, the Aztecs killed approximately 20,000 people to glorify the gods. Human sacrifice was a central aspect of Aztec religion and ritual practice, with large-scale sacrifices conducted during important religious ceremonies and festivals to appease the gods and ensure the continued prosperity of the empire. 20) According to Aztec religious beliefs, the sun A) was the center of the universe. B) used human blood for food. C) would eventually destroy the earth. D) was the god Iman. Answer: B Rationale: According to Aztec religious beliefs, the sun used human blood for food. The Aztecs believed in a complex pantheon of gods, including Huitzilopochtli, the sun god, who was believed to require human blood sacrifices to sustain his strength and vitality. Human sacrifices were offered to the sun god as part of religious ceremonies and rituals to ensure the sun's continued movement across the sky and the cycles of life and death. 21) Chavin de Huantar was A) a revered god. B) their founding king. C) a monumental center. D) a famous warrior. Answer: C Rationale: Chavín de Huantar was a monumental center. It was an important religious and ceremonial site located in the Andes of Peru. Chavín de Huantar served as the religious and possibly administrative center of the Chavín culture, characterized by its distinctive art, architecture, and religious iconography. 22) As the Incas expanded their territory, they A) killed all the males in the conquered regions. B) adopted political and artistic forms from the societies they encountered. C) burned the cities to the ground. D) sacrificed the children. Answer: B Rationale: As the Incas expanded their territory, they adopted political and artistic forms from the societies they encountered. The Inca Empire, known as Tawantinsuyu, employed a policy of political integration and cultural assimilation, allowing conquered peoples to retain their local customs, languages, and traditions while imposing Inca administrative control. 23) Which of the following groups established the largest governmental unit in the Americas by the 15th century? A) the Mayans B) the Toltecs C) the Aztecs D) the Incas Answer: D Rationale: The Incas established the largest governmental unit in the Americas by the 15th century. The Inca Empire, centered in the Andes Mountains of South America, encompassed a vast territory stretching from present-day Colombia to Chile and Argentina, making it the largest pre-Columbian state in the Americas. 24) Because the Incas never developed writing, they A) were greatly limited in what they could accomplish. B) had to rely on memorized oral communications. C) were unable to keep records. D) used hieroglyphics. Answer: B Rationale: Because the Incas never developed writing, they had to rely on memorized oral communications. The Inca civilization lacked a formal writing system, such as hieroglyphs or alphabetic scripts, for recording information and keeping records. Instead, they relied on oral tradition, mnemonic devices, and the quipu, a system of knotted cords, for communication and record-keeping. 25) Among the Incas, trade tended to be A) a large affair. B) controlled by the priests. C) discouraged. D) local in nature. Answer: D Rationale: Among the Incas, trade tended to be local in nature. The Inca Empire was characterized by a system of economic exchange known as the vertical archipelago, which relied on localized production and distribution networks rather than long-distance trade. Trade within the Inca Empire primarily involved goods and resources exchanged between different ecological zones and regions within the empire. 26) In which of the following areas was American Indian civilization less advanced than that of sub-Saharan Africa? A) metallurgical use and transport technology B) the ability to organize strong states C) the ability to develop writing D) the ability to construct urban and religious monuments Answer: A Rationale: In which of the following areas was American Indian civilization less advanced than that of sub-Saharan Africa? American Indian civilization was less advanced than that of sub-Saharan Africa in metallurgical use and transport technology. While both regions developed sophisticated cultures and civilizations, sub-Saharan Africa had a longer history of metallurgy and technological innovation, including iron smelting, metalworking, and the development of complex transportation networks such as the trans-Saharan trade routes. 27) The Inca state included all or parts of which of the following contemporary Latin American nations? A) Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Uruguay B) Panama, Guatemala, Mexico, Costa Rica C) Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile D) Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru Answer: C Rationale: The Inca state included all or parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile. The Inca Empire, also known as Tawantinsuyu, encompassed a vast territory in the Andean region of South America, spanning modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and parts of Chile, Argentina, and Colombia. 28) Inca and Central American societies differed in all the following EXCEPT A) use of writing. B) levels of science. C) lack of a major world religion. D) available beasts of burden. Answer: C Rationale: Inca and Central American societies differed in all the following EXCEPT the lack of a major world religion. Both Inca and Central American societies had complex religious beliefs and practices, centered around polytheistic pantheons, rituals, ceremonies, and sacred sites. The Inca religion, known for its worship of nature deities and ancestor veneration, was an integral part of Inca society and culture. 29) Which of the following was probably a factor in the decline of early agricultural societies in Central America? A) a declining economy B) disease C) invasion by peoples from the north D) a prolonged drought Answer: C Rationale: Invasion by peoples from the north was probably a factor in the decline of early agricultural societies in Central America. The decline of some Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, has been attributed in part to the arrival of foreign invaders or migrations of peoples from the north, who disrupted local political systems, contributed to warfare, and caused social upheaval. 30) Initial Mayan civilization relied upon which of the following? A) hunting and gathering B) farming C) importing food D) trade Answer: A Rationale: Initial Mayan civilization relied upon hunting and gathering. The earliest stages of Mayan civilization, known as the Preclassic period (2000 BCE - 250 CE), were characterized by subsistence strategies based on hunting, gathering, fishing, and small-scale agriculture. Over time, the Maya transitioned to more intensive agricultural practices, including the cultivation of maize (corn), beans, squash, and other crops. 31) The early phase of Mayan history centers in which geographical area? A) present-day Guatemala B) present-day Brazil C) present-day Texas D) present-day Arizona Answer: A Rationale: The early phase of Mayan history centers in present-day Guatemala. The Maya civilization emerged and flourished primarily in the region encompassing present-day Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and parts of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. This region is known as Mesoamerica, where the Maya established their early settlements and developed their distinctive culture and civilization. 32) Mayan religious practices included which of the following? A) weekly pilgrimages B) worship of a divine king C) human sacrifice D) the absence of religious buildings Answer: C Rationale: Mayan religious practices included human sacrifice. Human sacrifice was a central aspect of Mayan religion and ritual, believed to appease the gods, ensure agricultural fertility, and maintain cosmic balance. Mayan priests conducted elaborate ceremonies and rituals, often involving the sacrifice of captives or volunteers, as offerings to the gods. 33) The Mayans were one of only three civilizations to do which of the following? A) develop wheel B) create a calendar C) create an irrigation system D) devise the concept of zero Answer: D Rationale: The Mayans were one of only three civilizations to devise the concept of zero. Along with the ancient Indian and Mesopotamian civilizations, the Maya independently developed a positional numerical system that included the concept of zero, which had significant mathematical and astronomical implications for their calendar systems, calculations, and architectural achievements. 34) Which of the following animals were emphasized in Mayan statues? A) jaguar B) monkey C) anaconda D) jackal Answer: A Rationale: The jaguar was emphasized in Mayan statues. Jaguars held symbolic significance in Mayan culture, representing power, strength, and divine attributes. Depictions of jaguars are common in Mayan art, sculpture, and architecture, often associated with royalty, warfare, and supernatural beings. 35) How did upper-class Mayan families distinguish themselves in public? A) They wore elaborate purple robes. B) They had elongated skulls. C) They shaved their heads. D) They rode camels. Answer: B Rationale: Upper-class Mayan families distinguished themselves in public by having elongated skulls. Artificial cranial deformation, achieved through the binding of infants' skulls during infancy, was a common practice among elite Mayan families as a mark of social status, beauty, and cultural identity. 36) Which of the following limits our knowledge of classical Mayan civilization? A) lack of written records B) lack of archaeological remains C) inability to translate the main language D) lack of scholarly interest Answer: A Rationale: Lack of written records limits our knowledge of classical Mayan civilization. While the Maya had a sophisticated system of hieroglyphic writing, much of their written records were destroyed during the Spanish conquest and colonization of Mesoamerica. As a result, deciphering and interpreting Mayan inscriptions remains a challenge for scholars, contributing to gaps in our understanding of Mayan history, culture, and society. 37) After encountering the Toltecs, which of the following changes took place in Mayan society? A) The Mayans became farmers. B) Secular rulers gained increasing prominence. C) The Mayans stopped human sacrifice. D) Religious leaders declined in prominence. Answer: B Rationale: After encountering the Toltecs, secular rulers gained increasing prominence in Mayan society. The Toltec influence, characterized by militarism and urbanization, contributed to the centralization of political power and the rise of secular rulers, who exerted greater authority and control over Mayan city-states. This shift marked a transition from primarily religiousbased leadership to more centralized and secular governance. 38) Which of the following caused the Mayans to depend on human labor? A) the use of the wheel B) the development of arches to support buildings C) large tracts of farmland D) the absence of extensive ironworking Answer: D Rationale: The absence of extensive ironworking caused the Mayans to depend on human labor. Unlike civilizations with advanced metallurgical technologies, such as ironworking, the Maya lacked access to widespread metal tools and implements. As a result, they relied heavily on human labor for various tasks, including agriculture, construction, and craft production, leading to the development of labor-intensive methods and techniques. 39) Prior to 1350, the Aztecs entered which part of Mexico? A) the central valley B) the southern plains C) the eastern grasslands D) the western coast Answer: A Rationale: Prior to 1350, the Aztecs entered the central valley of Mexico. The Aztecs, also known as the Mexica, migrated from their homeland of Aztlan and eventually settled in the central basin of Mexico, where they founded the city of Tenochtitlan on the site of present-day Mexico City. This marked the beginning of the Aztec civilization in the region. 40) People conquered by the Aztecs had to do which of the following? A) select one person for an annual human sacrifice B) pay high tribute in the form of gold and slaves C) swear fealty to the Aztec emperor D) work for the Aztecs for no pay Answer: B Rationale: People conquered by the Aztecs had to pay high tribute in the form of gold and slaves. Tribute collection was a central aspect of Aztec governance and imperial control, with conquered peoples required to provide goods, resources, and labor as offerings to the Aztec state. Tribute payments, including precious metals, agricultural products, and human captives, served to maintain Aztec hegemony and support the empire's economy and religious institutions. 41) Which of the following best describes the Aztec relationship to Mayan culture? A) They found it to be subversive. B) They tried to eradicate it. C) They adopted large portions of it. D) They were not aware of. Answer: C Rationale: The Aztecs adopted large portions of Mayan culture. While the Aztecs and Maya were distinct civilizations with their own unique traditions and customs, the Aztecs were influenced by the cultural achievements of the Maya, including art, architecture, religion, and agricultural practices. The Aztecs incorporated elements of Mayan culture into their own society, demonstrating a significant cultural interchange and appreciation for Mayan accomplishments. 42) Which of the following explains why many American Indian groups initially welcomed the arrival of the Spanish explorers? A) The Aztecs were harsh and tyrannical rulers. B) They thought the Spanish were gods. C) They were friendly people. D) They had traded with them before. Answer: A Rationale: Many American Indian groups initially welcomed the arrival of the Spanish explorers because the Aztecs were harsh and tyrannical rulers. The conquest of the Aztec Empire by the Spanish under Hernán Cortés in 1521 led to the overthrow of a brutal regime that had subjugated and oppressed numerous indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica. Consequently, some indigenous groups saw the Spanish as potential liberators from Aztec domination and welcomed their presence initially. 43) Which of the following explains why there was limited interchange among diverse American societies? A) North-south contacts are hard to develop. B) They had no desire to interact with each other. C) Europeans kept them apart. D) They had no means to travel long distance. Answer: A Rationale: Limited interchange among diverse American societies can be explained by the difficulty of developing north-south contacts. The geographical features of the Americas, including rugged terrain, dense forests, and vast distances, posed significant obstacles to long-distance communication and travel between different regions. As a result, interactions between distant American societies were limited, contributing to the development of distinct cultural and linguistic groups. 44) The Incan Empire developed in which geographical area? A) central Mexico B) the Yucatán Peninsula C) the Andes Mountains D) present-day Texas Answer: C Rationale: The Incan Empire developed in the Andes Mountains. The Inca civilization emerged and thrived primarily in the Andean region of South America, encompassing present-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and parts of Chile and Argentina. The rugged terrain and high altitude of the Andes provided a natural fortress for the Inca civilization, enabling the construction of extensive networks of roads, agricultural terraces, and fortified settlements. 45) In order to control the allegiance of conquered local elite families, the Incan government did which of the following? A) regulated their education B) kidnapped their children C) murdered some members of their family D) took them prisoner Answer: A Rationale: In order to control the allegiance of conquered local elite families, the Incan government regulated their education. The Inca state implemented a system known as "vertical archipelago," which involved the relocation of conquered elites to the Inca capital of Cusco and the education of their children in Inca institutions. By integrating local elites into the imperial bureaucracy and fostering loyalty through education and indoctrination, the Inca government maintained political control over conquered territories. 46) Which of the following contributed to the decline of Incas? A) overreliance on bureaucracy B) revolts by conquered peoples C) a declining economy D) the rise of the Mayan Empire Answer: C Rationale: A declining economy contributed to the decline of the Incas. Several factors, including environmental degradation, overpopulation, resource depletion, and the disruption of traditional economic systems, led to economic decline within the Inca Empire. The collapse of key economic sectors, such as agriculture and trade, weakened the Inca state and contributed to social unrest, political instability, and ultimately, the downfall of the empire. 47) Which of the following groups developed contact with Hawaii? A) the Incas B) the Mayans C) the Polynesians D) the Aztecs Answer: C Rationale: The Polynesians developed contact with Hawaii. The Polynesians were skilled navigators and seafarers who spread across the Pacific Ocean, establishing contact with various islands and archipelagos, including Hawaii. Through long-distance voyages using outrigger canoes and celestial navigation techniques, Polynesian explorers reached and settled the Hawaiian Islands around 1000 CE, bringing with them their culture, language, and agricultural practices. 48) Compared to the Aztecs, the Incan system was A) more brutal. B) less brutal. C) less politically centralized. D) more focused on religion. Answer: B Rationale: Compared to the Aztecs, the Incan system was less brutal. While both the Aztec and Inca civilizations were characterized by imperial expansion, tribute collection, and the use of coercion to maintain control, the Inca state relied less on widespread human sacrifice and ritual violence as mechanisms of social control. Instead, the Inca government emphasized administrative efficiency, public works projects, and religious ceremonies to govern their vast empire. 49) In what way did developments in Central America differ from those in the Andes? A) Central America never developed a strong political system. B) Central America utilized an elaborate trading network. C) Science and mathematical calculation developed along different lines. D) People in the Andes were monotheistic. Answer: C Rationale: Developments in Central America differed from those in the Andes in terms of science and mathematical calculation. While both regions made significant cultural and technological advancements, including monumental architecture, agriculture, and artistic achievements, their approaches to science and mathematics evolved along different lines. The Maya, based in Central America, developed a sophisticated system of mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics, including the concept of zero and precise calendar systems. In contrast, Andean civilizations, such as the Inca, focused less on abstract mathematical concepts and more on practical applications, such as engineering and agricultural terracing. 50) Which of the following was common to both the Central Americas and the Andes? A) the use of corn B) developments in science C) the practice of monotheism D) mathematical calculations Answer: A Rationale: The use of corn was common to both the Central Americas and the Andes. Maize (corn) was a staple crop cultivated by various indigenous cultures in both regions, including the Maya in Central America and the Inca in the Andes. Maize played a central role in the diet, economy, and culture of these civilizations, serving as a primary source of sustenance and a symbol of agricultural fertility and abundance. Short Answer Questions 51) Briefly describe the main differences in political organization among the Mayans and Aztecs. Answer: The main differences in political organization between the Mayans and Aztecs lie in their governance structures and methods of rule. The Mayans had a decentralized political system characterized by city-states ruled by hereditary kings who often claimed divine ancestry. Each city-state operated independently, with its own ruler and administrative apparatus. In contrast, the Aztecs had a more centralized political system centered around their capital city of Tenochtitlan. They were ruled by a supreme emperor, who held both religious and secular authority, supported by a bureaucratic hierarchy and a complex tribute system imposed on conquered territories. 52) What are some plausible reasons for the importance of human sacrifice in Mayan and Aztec religion? Aztecs believed that the sun needed blood for food. Answer: Some plausible reasons for the importance of human sacrifice in Mayan and Aztec religion include religious beliefs, social control, and political power. Both civilizations believed in appeasing their gods through offerings, including human sacrifices, to ensure the continuation of the cosmic order, fertility, and prosperity. Sacrifices were also used as a means of social control, reinforcing hierarchical structures and deterring dissent by instilling fear of divine punishment. Additionally, human sacrifice served as a demonstration of the ruler's power and authority, reinforcing their legitimacy and control over the population. While the Aztecs did believe that the sun needed blood for sustenance, human sacrifice served broader religious and societal purposes beyond this belief. 53) What were the major scientific developments of the Mayans? What were they used for? Answer: The major scientific developments of the Mayans included advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and calendrics. They developed a sophisticated understanding of celestial movements, including the tracking of planets, stars, and eclipses, which they used to create precise astronomical calendars. Mayan mathematicians developed a positional numeral system, including the concept of zero, which facilitated complex mathematical calculations and accurate record-keeping. Calendrical systems were crucial for agricultural planning, religious ceremonies, and societal organization, allowing the Mayans to predict seasonal changes, plan ceremonial events, and coordinate agricultural activities for maximum efficiency. These scientific developments were instrumental in the Mayan civilization's cultural achievements and societal organization, demonstrating their advanced knowledge and intellectual sophistication. 54) Describe the communal agricultural system used by American Indian civilizations. Answer: The communal agricultural system utilized by American Indian civilizations was characterized by collective ownership of land and cooperative labor practices. In this system, arable land was typically held in common by the community rather than being owned by individuals. Labor for farming activities such as planting, harvesting, and irrigation was shared among community members, often organized through kinship or community ties. This collective approach to agriculture allowed for the efficient use of resources, equitable distribution of labor, and resilience in the face of environmental challenges. Additionally, communal farming practices often had social and religious significance, reinforcing community cohesion and cultural identity. 55) In Polynesia, how did a rigid social structure compensate for the lack of technological developments? Answer: In Polynesia, a rigid social structure compensated for the lack of technological developments by providing stability, social order, and efficient resource allocation within communities. Polynesian societies were often organized into hierarchical structures with clear social stratification based on hereditary rank, kinship ties, and occupational specialization. This rigid social hierarchy helped to regulate access to resources, labor, and prestige within communities. Leaders and chiefs held authority and decision-making power, ensuring the efficient allocation of labor and resources for communal activities such as agriculture, fishing, and construction of infrastructure. Additionally, the social structure facilitated social cohesion, cooperation, and collective action, enabling Polynesian societies to effectively adapt to environmental challenges and navigate the complexities of island life without relying heavily on technological advancements. Essay Questions 56) What were the most durable features of the American Indian civilizations? Answer: The most durable features of American Indian civilizations included their agricultural practices, cultural traditions, and social organization. American Indian societies developed sophisticated agricultural techniques suited to their environments, such as terrace farming, irrigation systems, and crop rotation, which sustained their populations for centuries. Additionally, cultural traditions, including religious beliefs, artistic expressions, and oral histories, were passed down through generations, contributing to the continuity and resilience of indigenous cultures. Social organization, characterized by kinship ties, communal labor practices, and hierarchical structures, provided stability and cohesion within communities, enduring despite external pressures and historical changes. 57) What were the main consequences of American isolation from the rest of the world network? How did differences between American and African civilizations reveal the latter’s participation in the world network? Answer: The main consequences of American isolation from the rest of the world network included limited technological exchange, cultural diffusion, and economic integration with other regions. American civilizations developed in relative isolation from Afro-Eurasian societies, resulting in the independent development of technologies, cultural practices, and social structures adapted to local environments. This isolation contributed to the differences between American and African civilizations, particularly in terms of technological advancements, trade networks, and cultural exchanges. African civilizations, participating in the Afro-Eurasian world network, benefited from transcontinental trade routes, technological diffusion, and cultural exchanges, resulting in greater diversity, innovation, and interconnectedness compared to American civilizations. 58) What were the main similarities between Andes and Central American societies in the postclassical period? What were the main differences? Answer: The main similarities between Andes and Central American societies in the postclassical period included their reliance on agriculture, complex social hierarchies, and religious practices. Both regions developed agricultural economies based on staple crops such as maize, beans, and potatoes, utilizing terraced farming and irrigation systems to support dense populations. Additionally, social structures were characterized by hierarchical arrangements with ruling elites, priests, and laboring classes, maintaining social order and political control. Religious practices, including worship of nature spirits and deities, rituals, and ceremonies, played a central role in both societies, often involving human sacrifices and elaborate temple complexes. However, the main differences between Andes and Central American societies included their geographical landscapes, political organizations, and cultural achievements. Andean civilizations, such as the Inca Empire, were characterized by mountainous terrain, centralized states, and extensive road networks facilitating communication and trade. In contrast, Central American civilizations, such as the Maya and Aztecs, developed in tropical lowlands with decentralized political structures and complex city-states. Additionally, Andean societies achieved notable engineering feats, such as extensive irrigation systems and monumental architecture, while Central American civilizations excelled in mathematics, astronomy, and hieroglyphic writing. 59) What aspects of Incan civilization allowed it to become the largest empire in the Americas by the late 1400s? Answer: Several aspects of Incan civilization contributed to its rise as the largest empire in the Americas by the late 1400s. Firstly, the Incan state's highly centralized political organization, with a powerful emperor at its helm, facilitated efficient governance and decision-making across vast territories. The extensive road network, known as the Inca Road, enabled rapid communication and logistical support for military campaigns and administrative control. Additionally, the Inca's system of tribute and labor taxation, known as the mit'a system, allowed for the mobilization of resources and manpower from conquered regions to sustain the empire's infrastructure, economy, and military expansion. Moreover, the Inca's religious and ideological framework, centered around the cult of the emperor as a divine ruler, fostered loyalty, obedience, and unity among diverse ethnic groups within the empire. 60) How did the use of force benefit and hurt the Aztec Empire? Answer: The use of force benefited the Aztec Empire by enabling territorial expansion, resource acquisition, and political control over neighboring regions. Through military conquests and tributary alliances, the Aztecs were able to expand their empire, increasing their wealth, power, and influence over surrounding city-states and territories. Additionally, the Aztec's formidable military prowess, including their use of weapons such as obsidianedged swords, spears, and bows, instilled fear and deterred resistance among rival groups, facilitating their dominance in Mesoamerica. However, the use of force also had detrimental effects on the Aztec Empire. Continuous warfare and military campaigns placed a significant strain on the empire's resources, manpower, and social cohesion, leading to internal unrest, discontent, and resistance among subjugated peoples. Additionally, the Aztec's reliance on tribute and forced labor from conquered regions fueled resentment and rebellion, undermining long-term stability and legitimacy. Furthermore, the Aztec's practice of human sacrifice as a religious and political tool, while instilling fear and control over subject populations, also generated opposition and condemnation from neighboring states and civilizations, contributing to the empire's eventual downfall. Test Bank for World History in Brief: Major Patterns of Change and Continuity Peter N. Stearns 9780205896301, 9780134085623
