CH-11 Disaster Recovery – Introduction to Emergency Management : Book Guide

11 Disaster RecoverY Managing the Process Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.1 Define community. A specific geographic area that is frequently considered to be a town, city, or county with a government. A community also has stronger psychological ties and social interaction among its members than with outsiders. Define conflict. The opposition that occurs when one party attempts to directly frustrate the goal achievement of another. Define competition. The effort of two parties striving toward a goal that only one can achieve. In fair competition, the parties use legitimate methods. Explain how the savings rate affects recovery. The normal routines in households affect disaster recovery. Different economists define savings in different ways, but all agree that the amount of money Americans save every year is very low. Most households save somewhere between 0 to 4% of their incomes. When their property is damaged or destroyed in disaster, many need financial assistance. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.2 Explain where recovery begins and ends. Recovery begins when the emergency has been stabilized so there is no longer a threat to life and property. Recovery ends when the community has recovered from the disaster. Explain why it is difficult to return to social routines and economic activities immediately after a disaster. One of the most difficult parts of recovery is restoring social routines and economic activities. The process of “getting back to normal” involves restoring people’s psychological stability. It also involves learning positive lessons from the experience. Interacting with friends is another part of returning to normal. People also need to return to full-time employment and receive pay equal to what they received before the disaster. Explain why communities must identify and respond to specific problems that arise during recovery. Communities must be able to identify and respond to specific problems. This ability helps them recover more rapidly. As a local emergency manager, you should work with local government agencies to respond to demands. Disaster recovery is easier if you can anticipate the biggest demands and plan how to deal with them before disaster strikes. Planning before a disaster does not eliminate the need to improvise after a disaster but it does make the recovery more manageable. Just as you must anticipate disaster demands and plan your emergency response, you should anticipate disaster demands and plan your disaster recovery. Explain the differences between short-term and long-term decisions in postdisaster recovery. There are short-term decisions such as where to locate evacuees. There are long-term decisions such as how to finance reconstruction, where to allow rebuilding, and where to rebuild public infrastructure. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.3 Explain why lower-income households tend to have higher hazard exposure. Lower income households tend to have higher hazard exposure. This is because they live in more hazard-prone locations. They have higher physical vulnerability. This is because they live in structures that were built according to older, less stringent building codes. The builders used lower quality construction materials and methods. The homes have not been well maintained. Name the other strategies that households who lack adequate insurance coverage must use to cope with their losses. Households lacking adequate insurance coverage must use other strategies for coping with their losses. These include: Obtaining small business administration (SBA) or commercial loans. Seeking Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) or NGO grants. Withdrawing personal savings. Not replacing damaged items. Name the three modes by which households recover from disasters. Households can be characterized in terms of three modes of disaster recovery, although few households fit exclusively into a single category: Autonomous recovery. Kinship recovery. Institutional recovery. Identify the similarities and differences across ethnic groups in household recovery from disasters. Problem perceived to be large Anglo-Americans African-Americans Hispanics Total sample Dealing with mortgage companies about insurance money 68 49 68 64* Dealing with building inspectors 52 38 76 63* Living in damaged home 59 63 59 60 Neighborhood conditions 55 60 39 47* Living in temporary quarters 45 61 38 46* Dealing with insurance companies 33 26 48 40* Dealing with contractors 38 18 45 37* Unemployment 11 29 30 25* Household finances 14 40 20 22* Neighborhood crime 34 23 16 22* Transportation 2 28 17 16* Job relocation 7 21 17 15 Dealing with agencies 11 20 13 15 Behavioral problems with children 19 18 10 14 Family violence 17 11 5 9* Gain of member(s) 14 0 4 5* Loss of member(s) 4 0 13 4 Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.4 Discuss the subtle ways in which a disaster can affect businesses. A disaster can affect businesses in subtle ways. One indirect effect is population dislocation. If many households move away, this decreases the revenues of the community’s businesses. Even if households remain in the community, a disaster affects their discretionary income. This loss of discretionary income can weaken the demand for many products and services. People will spend more money on building supplies and less on movies and restaurants. Disasters can also increase competitive pressure from large outside businesses that recognize a major new market for reconstruction materials. These factors cause many small local businesses to fail in the aftermath of a disaster, especially if they were only marginally profitable beforehand. Identify the differences among business sectors in their patterns of recovery. There are also differences among business sectors in their patterns of recovery. Wholesale and retail businesses report significant sales losses. However, manufacturing and construction companies often show gains following a disaster. Moreover, businesses that serve a large market tend to recover more rapidly than those that only serve local markets. Small businesses have been found to experience more obstacles than large firms. Compared to their large counterparts, small firms are more likely to depend on local customers. They also lack the financial resources needed for recovery. Finally, small businesses lack access to governmental recovery programs Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.5 Name the tasks that the human services branch of the ERT operations section is responsible for. The ERT operations section has a human services branch that is responsible for many tasks including the following: Needs assessment Establishment of disaster recovery centers Initiation, coordination, and delivery of recovery programs authorized by the Stafford Act Managing DHS and state grant programs Explain why many loan programs have been inaccessible to low-income households. Many loan programs have been inaccessible to low-income households. Low-income households tend to rent rather than own their housing. They fail to qualify for loans because of their low incomes and lack of collateral. The Individual and Family Grant program was intended to fill the need for those whose needs were not being met by the SBA loan program, private insurance, or NGO assistance. However, the amounts awarded tend to be small. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.6 Describe hazard insurance. Hazard insurance is a preimpact recovery preparedness action. Theoretically, it could completely replace current programs of disaster relief if everyone paid insurance premiums according to their homes’ hazard exposure and structural vulnerability. In addition, hazard insurance could decrease government workload and expense. It would do this by shifting part of the administrative burden for evaluating damage to insurance companies in the private sector. Finally, hazard insurance defines the terms of coverage in advance. This would reduce opportunities for politicians to increase benefits after disasters. Name some problems with flood insurance requirements. One of the basic problems is that those who are most likely to purchase flood insurance are, in fact, those who are most likely to file claims. This problem of adverse selection makes it impossible to sustain a market in private flood insurance. The federal government has tried to solve this problem. They have required flood insurance for structures located in the 100-year flood plain that are purchased with federally-backed mortgages. Unfortunately, homeowners frequently allow their policies to lapse after the first year. The program has no effect on those who purchase their homes without a mortgage or have paid off their mortgages. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.7 List several tasks that local government must perform during disaster recovery. Some of these tasks involve restoring services it performed before the disaster. In addition, local government must rebuild any critical facilities that were damaged or destroyed. Finally, local government must perform its regulatory functions regarding land use and building construction. During recovery, these two functions require rapid action under a heavy workload. Special provisions are required to expedite the procedures for reviewing and approving the redevelopment of private property. Explain the purpose of a recovery/mitigation committee. The committee should use the community hazard vulnerability analysis to identify the locations within the community that have the highest hazard exposure. The committee should work with the rest of the community to formulate a vision of the type of disaster recovery it intends to implement. Next, the committee should develop a ROP. Identify what the American Red Cross, Salvation Army, and local churches often provide after a disaster. All of these organizations provide housing, food, clothing, medicine, and financial help to disaster victims. The existing government social service agencies are supplemented by nongovernmental organizations. NGOs expand their membership to perform the tasks they are expected to perform during disaster recovery. By contrast, existing community-based organizations extend themselves beyond their normal tasks to perform novel activities. In addition, there are situations in which organizations cannot successfully meet the recovery needs of disaster victims. Explain the function of an unmet needs committee. Government agencies, NGOs, and CBOs form an unmet needs committee. This is an emergent organization that is designed to serve those whose needs are not being addressed. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 11.8 Explain the differences among rapid assessment, preliminary assessment, and site assessment. Rapid assessment identifies the areas affected by the disaster. It also assesses the severity of the physical impacts so you can determine the need for lifesaving activities. Rapid assessment should be completed within one to three hours after impact. Preliminary damage assessment is the second type of assessment. It produces counts of destroyed, severely damaged, moderately damaged, and slightly damaged structures. This level of assessment should be completed within 3 to 4 days. The data from the preliminary damage assessment is used to support requests for state and federal disaster declarations. A preliminary damage assessment is performed by having local government personnel perform a windshield survey. Site assessment is meant to produce detailed estimates of the cost to repair or replace each affected structure. This information is used to support requests for federal assistance to the owners of the damaged property. It includes estimates of losses to residential, commercial, industrial, and public property. Site assessments require technically trained personnel for multi-story structures such as apartment buildings. Define victims’ needs assessment. An evaluation of the psychological, demographic, and economic impacts of disasters on victims. Define nonconforming uses. Structures that do not meet the zoning requirements for their geographic areas. Describe the role of mass care facilities. Poorer households, usually 10–25% of the evacuees, tend to stay in mass care facilities. Mass care facilities must accommodate differences due to age, ethnicity, and physical limitations. Mass care facilities make it difficult to accommodate household differences. These differences include behaviors such as personal sanitation, privacy, child rearing, and hours and loudness of social interaction. Mass care facilities also place increased demands on time for other tasks. Answers to Summary Questions Which of the following is not considered a human asset? A. Intelligence B. Retirement account C. Physical abilities D. Personality characteristics E. All the above are human assets. Disaster recovery is both physical and social. True or False? What is the average percentage of people who stay in a mass care facility following a disaster? 5% 15% 25% 49% Businesses in the manufacturing, professional services, finance, and real estate sector are more likely to adopt hazard adjustments. True or False? What percentage of all disasters receive Presidential Disaster Declarations (PDD)? 1% 5% 10% 15% The federal government requires flood insurance for structures located in the 100-year flood plain that are purchased with federally backed mortgages. This has solved the problem of flood victims with no insurance. True or False? Existing CBOs extend themselves beyond their normal tasks to perform novel activities. True or False? There is little time to plan for recovery after the response has begun. True or False? During the recovery period, the pace of operations increases. True or False? Answers to Review Questions Explain the economic base model. The economic base model identifies the amount of goods and services from basic (export), internal investment, and consumption (Chapin & Kaiser, 1985). More money is available for internal investment and consumption when exports exceed imports. A multiplier effect is set in motion when money that is received from the sale of exports is spent inside the community. As a result, urban areas receive between $1.50 and $2.50 in induced local income for every dollar of revenue from exports (Blair & Bingham, 2000). In general, mining, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and high quality service facilities (e.g., nationally renowned medical clinics) are major contributors to an economic base. However, there can be exceptions to this rule. Why is it important to develop pre-impact plans for disaster recovery? It is important because there will not be much time for recovery planning after disaster strikes. Pre-impact recovery plans allow the community to incorporate mitigation measures into disaster recovery. Pre-impact recovery plans also help elected and appointed officials to resist pressure to return the community to “normal” after a disaster. By developing disaster resilience, communities can minimize disaster impacts. They can strengthen their ability to recover without assistance. They can help all population segments and economic sectors recover. Name and describe the four stages of housing recovery following a disaster. The first stage is emergency shelter. Emergency shelter is an unplanned location that is intended only to provide protection from ordinary weather conditions of temperature, wind, and rain. For example, some families sleep in their cars after earthquakes (Bolin & Stanford, 1991, 1998). The second stage is temporary shelter. This includes food preparation and sleeping facilities that are sought from friends and relatives or are found in hotels or motels. Mass care facilities in school gymnasiums or church auditoriums are a last resort. The third stage is temporary housing, which allows victims to reestablish household routines in non-preferred locations. The last stage is permanent housing. Permanent housing reestablishes household routines in preferred locations. Explain why small businesses are more vulnerable than large businesses. First, they are more likely to be located in non-engineered buildings that become damaged. Second, they are less likely to have hazard management programs to reduce this physical vulnerability. Thus, in this respect, small businesses are equivalent to the most physically vulnerable households—ones that are poor, female-headed, or members of ethnic minorities. Small businesses also face increased costs to repair structures and replace contents. At the same time, these businesses could lose customers if they relocate. Name the main types of federal government programs that provide recovery assistance. The Individual Assistance, Infrastructure Support, and Hazard Mitigation Grant programs. Individual Assistance is available to households through the Temporary Housing Assistance program, Individual and Family Grants, Disaster Unemployment assistance, legal services, special tax considerations, and crisis counseling programs. Individuals and businesses can receive aid through the SBA Disaster Loans program. What is the problem with giving aid to uninsured disaster victims? The problem is that generous aid for uninsured victims angers those who had the foresight to purchase insurance in advance. This causes people not to want to purchase hazard insurance. What is the role of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) after a disaster strikes? All of these organizations provide housing, food, clothing, medicine, and financial help to disaster victims. Explain the three major misconceptions about recovery that a community must overcome in pre-impact recovery planning. The first misconception is that the recovery can be improvised after the response is complete. In fact, a timely and effective disaster recovery requires a significant amount of data collection and planning. It will delay the recovery to postpone data collecting and planning until after the response is over. The second misconception is that there will be ample time to collect data and plan the recovery during emergency response. It is true that some recovery-relevant data must be collected during the response. However, an assessment of “lessons learned” from the disaster impact should be used to guide a recovery process that has already been designed before the disaster strikes. Finally, the third misconception is that the objective of recovery should be to restore the community to the conditions that existed before the disaster. This will simply reproduce the community’s existing disaster vulnerability. Name the four principal disaster recovery functions. Disaster assessment, short-term recovery, long-term reconstruction, and recovery management Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions What is the economic base of your community? My community is lucky to have a strong economic base. Although there are no large industrial companies, there are a few small, high tech firms that produce computer software. In addition, the area has become a magnet for highly specialized medical services, such as spine care, bariatric surgery, sports medicine, and women’s health services. Not only can these be employed as medical facilities in an emergency, they are lucrative businesses that are substantial additions to the tax base. You have been asked to develop preimpact plans for disaster recovery in your area. Describe the plans you would develop. My pre-impact plan for disaster recovery in my area will have four facets. They are: household recovery, business recovery, infrastructure repair, and disaster declaration. Some of these functions are performed simultaneously. Provisions for household recovery include providing emergency and temporary shelter for residents, and assisting them with temporary housing. Business recovery is business-specific and largely the responsibility of the business owner, but local businesses as well as homeowners will be educated about the necessity for adequate hazard insurance under my plan. Businesses that employ large numbers of residents or perform critical functions may receive additional assistance. In order for the community to begin recovery, its basic infrastructure needs to be back in place. This includes utilities (water, electricity, natural gas, and telephone service), public transportation, and the major thoroughfares that may need clearing and repair. If the damage to my area has been severe, one of the first priorities is to request that the area be declared a federal disaster area, followed by applications for federal aid. If a tornado struck your community, are there mass care facilities that are prepared for a disaster? Explain the solutions you would recommend to a town that doesn’t have mass care facilities. My community has two major hospitals and several small specialized surgery centers. Both hospitals are readily accessible by highway and would be used as mass care facilities in the event of a tornado or other disaster. If a community does not already have a mass care facility, temporary mass care facilities can be housed in churches, school gymnasiums, or other large, indoor, heated or air conditioned spaces. You live in a town made up of independent, small businesses. The town’s chamber of commerce has asked you to outline how small businesses can minimize their vulnerabilities to disasters. What do you include in a presentation on this issue? The small businesses in my area are more vulnerable to disasters because they cannot rely on their parent organization to support their needs or their customers’ needs temporarily while in recovery. They are also more likely to be located in non-engineered buildings and less likely to have hazard management programs. Pre-impact planning is the key to reducing the vulnerability of these small businesses. First, I will suggest that a study be conducted of the types of disasters and resultant damage prevalent in the area. A construction firm can be retained to give advice on reinforcing the buildings in which small businesses are located, to reduce the vulnerability of damage during the disaster. I will describe how business owners can cooperate to put together a basic hazard management program, since many of the elements can transfer to any local entity. Individual owners can add details to make the programs relevant to their businesses. I will also educate business owners about the federal programs and loans they might be eligible for. Above all, I will stress the importance of adequate hazard insurance. Interview your local Red Cross chapter director to find out if there proper plans in place should a disaster strike. If not, what steps need to be taken to ensure proper preparedness? My local Red Cross chapter has been in place since 1916 and appears to be quite well prepared for handling local disasters. The chapter also has volunteers that are part of the national Red Cross Disaster Services Human Resources System (DSHR), which sends help to national disaster sites. One of the main activities of any Red Cross chapter during non-disaster times is conducting awareness campaigns, in which they educate individuals, schools, and businesses about disaster preparedness. Guidelines for making a disaster plan and preparing a disaster kit are available on the web site. Your community has been the target of a terrorist attack. What extra steps do you take around the impact area because it was the site of a terrorist attack? In the case of a terrorist attack in my community, the office of Homeland Security should immediately be contacted. This can be done by simply calling 911 and informing the operator of the situation. The area of the attack should be treated as a crime scene. Only emergency rescue personnel should be allowed in the area. Those exiting the scene should be screened by law enforcement, and witnesses should also be interviewed. The area should be cordoned off and explosive-detecting equipment or trained dogs should be deployed. Video and still pictures should be taken to preserve as much evidence as possible. You are the emergency manager for New Orleans. After Hurricane Katrina, many homes were severely damaged and were not safe to enter. You want to demolish the structures and remove the remaining debris. Homeowners, however, wanted to return to get some of their personal effects before the structures are demolished. Would you allow the homeowners to return? Why or why not? There are a number of homes and structures that must be demolished as a result of Hurricane Katrina. The residents are heartbroken over their loss and desperately wish to re-enter their homes to retrieve irreplaceable personal items that they were not able to take with them when they evacuated. As the emergency manager, it is my responsibility to make sure they can do so with a minimum of risk. I would allow residents to re-enter certain types of buildings for a very limited time, such as 20 minutes, provided they wear a hardhat and sign a waiver absolving the city of any guilt if they become injured. Only one person will be allowed in a damaged building at a time. Unfortunately, multi-story apartment buildings would be another matter. Before entering a structure of more than 2 levels, a structural engineer should be called in to assess the integrity of the building and the immediate danger of having one person at a time in the building. Does your local government have a recovery operations plan? If not, pick a hazard and identify the area of your community that is most vulnerable to that hazard. Identify the disaster recovery functions that need to be implemented if a major disaster strikes. My local government does have a recovery operations plan. In addition, the government is very involved in community education about disaster planning and recovery. The local fire department conducts training for people wishing to be part of the Community Emergency Response Team. In addition, each October the city holds a Public Safety Day at one of the local hospitals. In addition to various exhibits, activities, and demonstrations covering all aspects of safety, disaster kits will be distributed. Who do you need to involve in forming your local recovery/mitigation committee? The members of our local recovery/mitigation committee will include directors from many government agencies. The lead agency will be the planning department, and the planning department director will be the chairperson of the recovery/mitigation committee. Other departments on the committee will be building construction and public works. People from the community will also be asked to serve on the committee, including representatives from the local utility company, other important businesses, churches, synagogues, charities, and neighborhood organizations. 12 EVALUATIONS Improving Performance Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 12.1 Define development and reward. Development is a function of an appraisal that focuses on improving an employee’s ability to do a job. In this context, performance appraisal can be used to guide decisions about training, reassignment, or termination. Reward is a function of an appraisal that focuses on improving a person’s motivation to do the job. Appraisals should have clear criteria that provide guidance to the employee about what is important to the organization. List other forms of compensation you can offer if you do not have enough money to give an employee a raise. Paid time off, comp time off for overtime worked and training requested by the employee are examples of a rewards that do not increase costs. Define legal protection and internal research. Legal protection is a function of an appraisal that is achieved when an organization conducts performance appraisals according to generally acceptable procedures. Internal research is a function of an appraisal that lets an emergency manager know what skills his or her employees have. Internal research also lets emergency managers know if they were looking for the right qualities when hiring for the position. Give three reasons why employee performance appraisals are important. Appraisals serve four important functions: development, reward, internal research, and legal protection. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 12.2 Define entity. A public or private sector organization that is responsible for emergency/disaster management or continuity of operations. List the elements of the emergency management program. Laws and Authorities Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, and Impact Analysis Hazard Mitigation Resource Management Mutual Aid Planning Direction, Control, and Coordination Communications and Warning Operations and Procedures Logistics and Facilities Training Exercises, Evaluations, and Corrective Actions Crisis Communications and Public Information Finance and Administration Define State Capability Assessment for Readiness (CAR) program. The State Capability Assessment for Readiness (CAR) program describes a self-assessment process for state emergency management agencies (SEMAs) to do the following: Evaluate their readiness to mitigate hazards. Prepare and respond to emergencies. Recover from disasters. The CAR program consists of standards that begin, at the highest level, with 13 emergency management functions (EMFs) adapted from NFPA 1600. The CAR program is more specific than NFPA 1600. The CAR program divides each EMF into attributes. Attributes are broad performance criteria. Each attribute is further divided into characteristics. Identify who can obtain the EMAP accreditation. EMAP accreditation can be obtained by LEMAs, as well as SEMAs. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 12.3 Define drills and tasks. Drills are a training exercise involving one or few people who must perform a specific task in response to a hypothetical scenario. A Task is a specific activity carried out for a distinct purpose. Describe what a controller and evaluator do. A drill is conducted by a controller, the person who provides the information from the scenario. Drills are relatively simple, so the same person can serve as the evaluator. This is the person who observes the player’s performance and notes any deviations from the EOP or its procedures. The evaluator must have skills that meet or exceed that of the person being evaluated. Define functional exercise. A training exercise that differs from a drill by involving more people. This makes functional exercises more comprehensive than drills. In addition, the scenario is usually more complex because it involves more tasks and equipment. Describe the difference between taskwork and teamwork. Taskwork is the ability to perform each separate step of the response. Teamwork is the ability to schedule tasks and allocate resources among team members to achieve a performance that is efficient, effective, and timely. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 12.4 Define reaction criteria and learning criteria. Reaction criteria is a standard for judging the success of a training program that consists of trainees’ opinions of the training program. This includes evaluations of the trainers, the facilities and equipment, the material, their enjoyment of the class, and their desire to take another class from the instructor. Learning criteria is a standard for judging the success of a training program that is defined by performance on written tests or performance tests of skills addressed in the training program. Explain how the procedures for evaluating training and risk communication programs are different from other types of evaluations. Training and risk communication programs are usually administered to many more people than you can afford to evaluate. Consequently, we often test a subset (called a sample) of individuals from the larger group that received the training or risk communication program (called the treatment group). You can compare the performance of this sample from the treatment group to the performance of a group of people who did not receive the training or risk communication program (called the control group). Define behavior criteria and results criteria. Behavior criteria is a standard for judging the success of a training program that refers to trainees’ ability to apply new knowledge and skills to their jobs. This includes performance during drills, exercises, and incidents that take place after training is completed. Results criteria is a standard for judging the success of a training program that refers to the consequences of trainees’ performance on the job. Results criteria evaluates whether the training made a difference in the overall performance of the organization. Explain the difference between a treatment group and a control group. When evaluating risk communication programs we often test a subset (called a sample) of individuals from the larger group that received the training or risk communication program (called the treatment group). You can compare the performance of this sample from the treatment group to the performance of a group of people who did not receive the training or risk communication program (called the control group). Answers to Summary Questions An appraisal should be conducted at least once a year. True or false? Setting goals is not important to evaluations or organizations. It’s the outcome of a goal that counts. True or false? Which of the following exercises uses open-ended questions designed to generate a discussion about a particular problem and is usually conducted at higher levels in the organization? A. Drills B. Functional exercises C. Full-scale exercises D. Table-top exercises Which of the following criteria are based on the performance on written tests or skills addressed in the training program? A. Reaction criteria B. Learning criteria C. Behavior criteria D. Results criteria Answers to Review Questions What four functions does an appraisal serve? Appraisals serve four functions: development, reward, internal research, and legal protection. What are four of the typical performance appraisal categories? Typical performance appraisal categories include: Time and project management: Understands own job description and the function of the unit; well organized; sets and adjusts priorities in response to job impediments; delegates as appropriate; follows through on objectives; consistently produces work of a quality and quantity that is consistent with organizational needs. Resource and knowledge management: Understands budget processes relevant to the position; uses allocated resources wisely; understands and follows organizational procedures relevant to daily job operations; knows and uses sources of additional information and assistance as needed. Decision making and problem solving: Identifies problems, collects information, and weighs viable options; makes decisions and follows through. Innovation: Generates new ideas. Personal management: Initiates activity without awaiting direction from superiors; seeks additional responsibility; recognizes mistakes and adapts to them; perseveres until projects are completed. Change management: Accepts and supports new methods of job performance and organizational procedures. Interpersonal skills: Works well with supervisors, peers, subordinates, and customers; manages conflict effectively. Communication: Able to speak and write clearly but is diplomatic in dealing with others. Quality of work life: Demonstrates respect for individual differences, contributions, and family related responsibilities of others; supports and promotes organizational diversity initiatives. Describe how to evaluate a LEMA versus a LEMC. To evaluate the LEMA: Assess the hazard/vulnerability analysis. Assess the hazard mitigation program. Assess the emergency preparedness program. Assess the recovery preparedness program. Assess the community hazard education program. Review the capability shortfall identified in previous years. Review the multi-year development plan that was designed to reduce the capability shortfall. Revise goals, if needed, based on the LEMA’s current capability. Set specific milestones (objective indicators of task performance) for each quarter of the year to determine if the LEMA is making progress at a satisfactory rate throughout the year. Assign tasks to the personnel who are most qualified to perform them. Evaluating performance of the LEMC is somewhat more complex, but follows basically the same procedures as are used for the LEMA. Each LEMC subcommittee should identify the specific tasks that must be accomplished to make progress in its functional area: Hazard/vulnerability analysis Planning, training and exercising Recovery and mitigation Public education and outreach LEMC management Describe the difference between a drill, a functional exercise, a table-top exercise, and a full-scale exercise. A drill is conducted by a controller, the person who provides the information from the scenario. Drills are relatively simple, so the same person can serve as the evaluator. A functional exercise differs from a drill by involving more people. This makes functional exercises more comprehensive than drills. In addition, the scenario is usually more complex because it involves more tasks, equipment, and people. As a result, functional exercises test people’s ability to perform both taskwork and teamwork. Taskwork is the ability to perform each separate step of the response. Teamwork is the ability to allocate resources and schedule tasks to achieve a performance that is efficient, effective, and timely (McIntyre & Salas, 1995). Unlike drills, functional exercises cannot combine the roles of controller and evaluator. These exercises sometimes require many controllers. These controllers will provide information to different teams of players, especially if the teams are in different locations. Several evaluators will also be needed to evaluate the different teams. A table-top exercise differs from a drill or functional exercise. A table-top exercise involves a group of senior personnel. They are usually branch or departmental administrators and they serve as the directors of their functions. The scenarios for these exercises vary in their complexity. Some are as simple as open-ended questions designed to generate a discussion about a particular problem. A full-scale exercise simulates a community-wide disaster by testing multiple functions at the same time. It also tests the coordination among these functions. The complexity of full-scale exercises requires thorough planning of the scenario. It also requires coordination among the many controllers and evaluators. There also is a need for training the controllers. Name the steps FEMA organizes its emergency exercises into. FEMA organizes the development of an emergency exercise into eight steps: Needs assessment. This includes addressing the community's primary and secondary hazards. In particular, the needs assessment focuses on testing the solutions that were implemented to correct past problems in the EOP, procedures, staffing, and training. It might also look at the effectiveness of new facilities, personnel, equipment Scope definition. This includes the type of emergency, its location, the functions to be exercised, the members of the emergency response organization who will participate, and the type of exercise Purpose statement. This explains why the exercise is being conducted. Objectives. The objectives should make clear who should take what action in response to which conditions and to what standard of performance. Narrative. This is a specific description of relevant conditions, including a chronology of events. These include the initiating event, and contextual conditions in the physical and social environments. Major and detailed events. A description of all major events requiring actions to meet the exercise objectives and of detailed events if they should initiate expected actions. Expected actions. These are actions that achieve the exercise’s stated objectives. These include assessment actions that obtain or verify information about the existence of environmental conditions or the performance of organizational actions. Other expected actions include preventive or corrective actions that reduce the magnitude of an event. Finally, expected actions include protective actions that reduce the effects on people and incident management actions that consider alternative actions, make decisions, allocate resources, or coordinate the actions of responders and the public. What are the four criteria for judging the success of training programs? Reaction Learning Behavior Results Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions One of your employees is a poor performer and always seems to have a negative attitude. Should you wait until the end of the year to discuss his performance during the annual performance appraisal your jurisdiction requires? If not, how do you conduct the review? As the supervisor of a person with poor performance and a bad attitude, I would not wait until the annual appraisal process to discuss this problem. Otherwise, the person is justified in thinking that her work habits are acceptable. I will address the situation in an informal feedback session. Beforehand, I will get feedback about this person from other people at my level in our organization. I will begin the session by asking the employee how she feels about her position and performance, whether there is anything bothering her, etc. It is entirely possible that she is experiencing personal trauma that is affecting her work. In that case, I will offer relevant resources. If not, I will discuss my own and others’ observations of her attitude and job performance. I will present a clear definition of the organization’s expectations of her, and ask that she put together an action plan to improve her performance. I will also arrange any training that I feel is needed to develop her skills. Another feedback session in two months will be scheduled. You have been asked to describe the criteria for the NFPA 1600 standard. The current version of NFPA 1600 defines criteria for what two types of programs? The current version of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 1600 defines criteria for disaster and emergency management programs and business continuity programs. NFPA 1600 provides guidelines for organizations in both the public and private sectors. As an emergency manager, you have been asked to write a report on the steps FEMA uses to organize full-scale exercises. Describe the steps you need to include in the report. I am writing a report on the steps FEMA uses to organize full-scale exercises. During full-scale exercises, several activities are going on at the same time. The seven steps include: assessing the hazard response needs of the community, defining the scope of the emergency to be studied, explaining the purpose of the exercise, setting objectives for the exercises, narrating the initial disaster with existing conditions, describing all major events during the exercise, and detailing expected actions of the participants. The expected actions are defined such that, if they are performed properly, the objectives of the exercise will be met. You have to evaluate the LEMC. What LEMC tasks do you evaluate and over what time period? Why? What type of objectives do you set in your evaluation? I am about to conduct an evaluation of the local emergency management committee (LEMC). The tasks that will be assessed during this annual review are hazard vulnerability analysis, planning/training/exercising, recovery/mitigation, public education/outreach, and committee leadership. These are the core responsibilities of the LEMC. Together, we will compare the performance of the LEMC in these areas with the objectives that were established at the last evaluation. This time, we will refine the objectives based on our goals for the coming year. For example, we may set a goal for having 75% of emergency respondents trained in a particular area, or for encouraging the formation of neighborhood volunteer committees that engage in planning and training for disasters. You have two excellent employees who excel in all areas. Not only do they do their job well, but they consistently go above and beyond the call of duty for the organization. Unfortunately, there has been a salary freeze and you cannot increase their salary. Do you still perform a performance appraisal? Why or why not? Because you cannot raise their salary, what other things can you do to compensate the employees for their hard work? Even though we are experiencing a salary freeze, I will conduct an annual appraisal for all my employees, especially the two best performers. People are motivated by receiving good feedback about their performance. Some people are motivated by promotions within the organization, and the annual appraisal can facilitate that process. At the review, I will explain why the salary freeze has been instituted and give honest information about how long it is expected to last. There can be other rewards for excellent job performance. I might ask the employees themselves if they have any suggestions. For some people, the opportunity to work flexible hours may be more valuable than a raise in salary. I can also nominate them for Employee of the Month, which is an honor they can include on their resume, and it may offer temporary benefits such as preferential parking, etc. I will recognize these individuals with a certificate or plaque at the next employee function. If possible, I will reward them with an extra vacation day as well. The EMAP commission is going to perform an on-site evaluation of your organization. What information do you need to prepare for this assessment? The Emergency Management Accreditation Program (EMAP) is going to evaluate my organization. Prior to this visit, I conducted a self-assessment of our group, including documentation to prove that we are complying with each of EMAP’s 54 standards. During the assessment, I will give the assessor team a tour of our buildings and allow them to inspect the facilities, equipment, and supplies. The team will scrutinize the documentation I provided with the self-assessment and may check with some of my sources to make sure my claims are accurate. They will share their preliminary findings with me upon leaving the site. 13 INTERNATIONAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT How Other Countries Manage Their Hazards Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 13.1 Explain why emergency management is low on the priority list in poorer countries. Whole societies live on the brink of economic collapse, so more immediate problems take precedence. In the meantime, poverty and rapid urbanization generate large concentrations of vulnerable populations in high-risk urban areas. Explain why the degree of political centralization in a country an important issue. The control of policies, programs, and resources by the national level limits the ability of local governments to mount a rapid emergency response. It also makes it difficult for them to develop mitigation programs. Like police and fire protection, emergency management is a service that is delivered over a dispersed area. Consequently, it benefits from a significant degree of decentralization. This allows local governments to manage the service delivery. Define civil society. Civil society includes all groups that are independent of the government. It includes religious groups, civic clubs, political parties, and other groups with specific interests. Describe the role of the military in society and emergency management? Armed forces usually have resources needed for disaster response. These resources include communications, transportation, fuel, power, water, shelter, health care, and food. Equally important is the large number of strong, young people who are organized into groups and used to taking orders. There is another reason for the strong influence of the military in emergency management. This has to do with the nearly universal roots of emergency management in civil defense. This includes the training and equipping of nonmilitary personnel to repel invaders. In many countries, the military retains a strong influence on emergency management organizations. This usually leads to a strong emphasis on command and control models of disaster response that have little or no role for civilian input. Moreover, little attention is given to other needs such as disaster recovery and hazard mitigation. In other countries, the military is part of the emergency management system. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 13.2 Explain why famine not been as serious a problem in India in recent years. In spite of its drought hazard, famine has not been as serious a problem. This appears to be due, in part, to the famine relief systems begun under British colonial rule. It is also due to the existence of a free press that can publicize government failures, and a transportation system that allows for rapid large migrations. India has a federal political system that delegates the main responsibility for disaster relief and reconstruction to state governments. Outline the stages used in the Patanka project. Stage I established the principles for the project, with the project team taking the lead responsibility for this activity. Stage II involved implementing the Community Action and Implementation plans developed during the consultations in Stage I. Stage II had three steps: needs assessment, capacity building, and implementation. The project team worked closely with local leaders to win community trust and develop strong local leadership. It also promoted sustainable development activities that would continue after the project itself ended. In order to build local hazard mitigation capacity, local masons were trained in building techniques that would allow them to continue using traditional, affordable materials while building more earthquake resistant homes. This training allowed them to continue their traditional livelihoods. In turn, the continuity of employment contributed to the Stage III goals of ensuring the sustainability of local social systems. It also enabled the community to take care of its own development needs and create a resilient community. Identify the three goals of The National Plan of Colombia. The National Plan has three goals: disaster reduction and prevention, effective disaster response, and rapid recuperation of affected areas. Identify the goals of Seveso II. The primary goal of Seveso II, which became effective in February 1999, is to prevent hazmat accidents. The secondary goal is to limit the health, safety, and environmental consequences of any accidents that do occur. These goals are achieved through restrictions on hazmat storage and processing. Answers to Summary Questions True civil societies have grass roots organizations that emerge independently of government. True or False? The Natural Hazards Project is a division of the UN. True or False? In New Zealand, which act integrates emergency management into land-use planning and development? A. The Local Government Act of 1974 B. The Resource Management Act of 1991 C. The Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act of 1996 D. The Building Act of 1991 E. The Biosecurity Act of 1993 Answers to Review Questions What are the “specialized assets” mentioned that affect emergency management? Heavy equipment Trained Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams Hazmat capabilities Technical expertise such as GIS Training facilities Explain how the United Nations is devoted to promoting improved emergency management practices. The United Nations has an organization called the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). It carries out the goals of the UN International Decade for Disaster Reduction. Landslides are the most common cause of deaths from natural disasters in Brazil. List a few factors that contribute to this situation. Factors include environmental factors such as varied topography, high levels of rainfall, and soil types that are prone to slipping. Social factors, which are even more important, include high poverty levels, rapid urbanization, and lack of adequate housing in safe areas. Another problem is a lack of education about the causes of natural disasters (Macedo, Ogura & Santoro, 2002). What does the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tz’ Chi Foundation do to help victims after disasters? This group, which was founded by a Taiwanese Buddhist nun, has a long history of responding to disasters worldwide. Tz’ Chi members were in the process of assisting in the relief and reconstruction effort after Turkey’s Kocaeli earthquake when their own country was hit. Tz’ Chi members immediately set up vegetarian soup kitchens to supplement the non-vegetarian meals served by other groups. They also began collecting equipment, clothes, and money for the victims. The organization provided tents and more substantial temporary housing. However, their most extensive recovery effort was the reconstruction of 53 schools. Their effort was unique because it delivered culturally appropriate and environmentally sensitive architectural designs for each school. Instead of using a single design for all schools, architects met with the community members to assess local needs. After they had this information, they developed designs that incorporated local cultural motifs and environmental features. All designs were earthquake-resistant and incorporated natural ventilation and lighting to keep students comfortable while using a minimum amount of energy. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions In recent years, a large number of natural disasters have struck the continent of Asia. What would you do to better prepare that continent for disasters? In many poor countries in Asia, emergency management has been reactive instead of proactive. Also, Asian countries need more training and education programs for emergency managers. New construction should be built to withstand earthquakes and strong winds. The society is also vulnerable due to poverty and overcrowding, grassroots organizations and government intervention is needed to provide shelter for those who do not live in adequate shelters. What can Americans learn from the disasters world-wide that should be implemented into our emergency response preparedness? We can be more proactive in mitigating hazards by making better land-use planning and by building structures that can withstand hazards. We should incorporate hazard mitigation into the land-use planning and place homes the appropriate distance from hazmat facilities. What characteristics of the United States hinder emergency management and emergency response efforts? What characteristics of the United States are beneficial to you as an emergency manager? Decentralization can make emergency management efforts complicated as there are many levels of bureaucracy that must be navigated before emergency management efforts can be completed. In addition, many Americans want to build in hazardous areas such as along the coast. The United States, however, has many characteristics that help emergency managers. These characteristics include specialized assets, a widespread hazard insurance program, many economic resources, and many grassroots organizations (such as charities) that will support hazard victims. 14 PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY Being a Professional Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.1 Define emergency managers. A person who manages a comprehensive program for hazards and disasters. An emergency manager is responsible for aspects of the program involving mitigation, preparation, response, and recovery. Define emergency responders. People who directly respond to a disaster. They attack the threat to reduce the potential or actual losses of a disaster. Describe the differences between public and private sector emergency managers. Public sector emergency managers work for any level of government—federal, state, or local. Private-sector emergency manager might work for chemical facilities, nuclear power plants, or railroads. Private sector emergency managers have many of the same duties as public sector emergency managers, but there are important differences as well. First, private-sector emergency managers generally work for a single business, site, or industry—although some work as consultants for public or private sector organizations. Second, private-sector emergency managers are responsible for the facility’s employees, but not the public. Private sector organizations might be held liable in courts for personal and property damages caused by their actions. However, they have limited responsibility to engage in emergency management. Describe the differences among local, state, and federal emergency managers. For a city or town, emergency management rarely exists as a separate department. It is often located within a fire or police department. Sometimes it is overseen by a county organization. Local emergency management functions vary in their presence as well as in their degree of success (U.S. General Accountability Office, 2003). Local managers are closest to the disaster impact and the people affected. At the same time, local managers are subject to federal and state mandates, but have the fewest resources. Municipal emergency managers must often rely on other agencies, outside experts, the media, and private sector organizations to accomplish their objectives. At the county level, emergency management constraints are similar. State and federal emergency managers have positions that are quite different from those of local managers. Each state has an emergency management agency that must work with other departments that perform emergency management tasks. State emergency management agencies conduct state-wide hazard vulnerability analyses and provide technical guidance to LEMAs. They also provide financial support to LEMAs and evaluate LEMA performance. However, most state emergency management agencies face financial constraints that are similar to those of local emergency management agencies. They have much to do and not enough people and money to do it. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.2 Define profession and certification. A profession is an occupation that requires an advanced education and training. A certification is an assurance that an individual has mastered the knowledge and the methods used to solve specific problems. Name three qualities of a profession. These are the three qualities of professions: membership certification, organized body of knowledge, and ethical standards. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.3 Name the three ways that the Higher Education Project is defining the emergency management body of knowledge until an accrediting body is established. The Higher Education Project is defining the body of knowledge in three ways: Studying emergency management practice and developing lists of essential competencies. Disseminating course outlines for existing courses and developing new ones. These materials are made widely available through the FEMA Higher Education website. The content of these courses has been developed by highly regarded emergency managers and researchers and reviewed by experts. The resulting courses have become a basis for an expanding curriculum. Compiling and updating a directory of college level programs, including those that offer undergraduate and graduate degrees, certificates, academic minors, and diplomas. These materials direct prospective students to the schools that are most suitable for them. Describe how practicing emergency managers should be involved with research. The practicing emergency manager should do the following: Endorse the need for well-designed research. Participate in research. Identify areas for needing research. Examine the research findings. Use the resulting knowledge. Name two groups that emergency managers can belong to in an effort to further their professional development. The International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM) is one group. IAEM offers continuing education and a professional certification program. Similarly, the National Emergency Management Association is for state emergency management directors. The Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association is an international organization with members from both public and private sectors. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.4 Explain how to assess the worth of certification programs. You can be more confident about programs that: Have been established for a long period of time. Have an independent board of examiners. Use established training and education programs. Have the endorsement of relevant professional associations. You can also seek guidance from the National Fire Protection Association Standard 1000 Fire Service Professional Qualifications, Accreditation and Certification Systems. This standard identifies requirements for accrediting bodies and certifying entities. Describe the CEM certification. The CEM program was established with the goal of increasing and maintaining standards of knowledge, skills, and abilities. In 2002, 560 individuals had received the CEM. It is renewed on a five-year cycle based on continuing education and service (Ditch, 2003). More than 60 percent of current CEMs have held certification for more than five years. The CEM program is overseen by a Certification Commission composed of emergency managers from a variety of areas (government, allied fields, military services, and private industry), FEMA, and several professional associations. The process of becoming a Certified Emergency Manager involves four phases (Ditch, 2003): Completing an application. Fulfilling credential requirements. Passing the examination. Obtaining recertification after five years. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.5 Discuss why it’s important to develop degree programs for emergency management. First, professional degree programs help you acquire principles and procedures from different theoretically-organized disciplines. You can then use this knowledge by applying it to solve problems. Emergency management degree programs use material from the physical and social sciences. They also use material from other professions such as engineering, planning, and public health. In turn, the programs must organize this information into a coherent body of knowledge that addresses the problems that confront emergency management. There must be a depth to education that is difficult to acquire in training or jobs. Education emphasizes principles, models, and theories. Training focuses on specific tasks and the appropriate methods for performing those tasks. It is this knowledge of broad principles that helps define a professional—the ability to improvise solutions to new problems that were not explicitly addressed in planning and training (Drabek, 2003). It is impossible to identify in advance every problem that will confront you. It is impossible to devise specific procedures to address every potential problem. Knowledge of basic principles will help you. For example, knowing how people will react to warnings helps you to design warning procedures for a variety of different hazards and community situations. The second positive aspect of developing degree programs is that they bring together practitioners and researchers. Practitioners often use the body of knowledge. However, they have little time to conduct, refine, or extend it. It is usually academics who conduct research. There have long been a few university-based centers that focus on emergency management. There is the Disaster Research Center that was founded in 1963 at Ohio State University and is now based at the University of Delaware. Tierney, Lindell, and Perry (2001, p. 239) identified 28 such university-based centers. However, the academic connection with emergency management needs to be more extensive. This is especially true when supporting an entire profession, and a diverse one at that. Degree programs allow faculty to disseminate, refine, and extend knowledge. This allows faculty to interact with students and practitioners in the teaching process. Faculty can then integrate that experience into research designs. Describe how the FEMA Higher Education Project and the IAEM have taken active roles in shaping the vision of emergency management knowledge, skills, and abilities. Both the FEMA Higher Education Project and the IAEM have taken active roles in shaping the vision of emergency management knowledge, skills, and abilities. The Higher Education Project has created a forum for exchange as well as partnerships with government agencies, associations, and private institutions. The FEMA staff have also created a learning resource center and posted sample syllabi available for a wide range of classes. They have developed full college courses with instructor guides, readings, exercises, field trips, and student notes. Perhaps most critically, the Higher Education Project has developed and given suggestions for program curricula. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 14.6 Explain the two areas of legal concern that commonly arise and what they have to do with damaging people or property. The first concern is a claim that government officials in responding to an emergency caused damage to persons or property. The second concern is a claim that a failure of the government to plan for or respond to a disaster resulted in damage to persons or property. Legal decisions pertaining to each of these situations are often based on the same statutes and obligations. Explain when negligence can exist. Negligence can exist when someone takes an action that unintentionally harms persons or property. Negligence can also exist when someone fails to take “reasonable and prudent” actions when they have a duty to do so. Answers to Summary Questions Emergency responders respond directly to disasters that occur frequently, affect few people in a geographical area, cause limited economic loss, and require small teams, whereas emergency managers must develop expertise on a wide range of threats. True or false? What are the three features of emergency manager professions? A. membership certification B. organized body of knowledge C. ethical standards D. All of the above What of the following are requirements of the CEM? (Select all that apply.) A. Bachelor’s degree B. 3 years emergency management experience C. 3 professional references D. 200 hours of emergency management training The IAEM offers the CEM certification. True or false? It is possible to identify in advance every problem that will confront you. True or false? Legal liability applies more to organizations and government agencies than to individuals. True or false? Answers to Review Questions What type of events do emergency responders respond to? Emergency responders usually respond to events that: Occur frequently Affect only a few people in a small geographical area Cause limited economic loss Require small teams of responders within a few government agencies Describe the distinction between education and training. Education consists of broad principles that can be applied in a wide variety of situations. Training has a narrower aim. It helps to develop skill in performing specific tasks for specific situations. In less mature professions, where degree programs and specific accrediting bodies have not evolved, training becomes the “marker” by which practitioners can be identified. In this context, training is seen as multidimensional. You may require specific training in a variety of skills to adequately claim professional status. Also, training is based on current practices. Training materials change as the problems to be solved change. In addition, training programs usually demand refresher training to ensure that critical skills are maintained. Describe the skills emergency managers need. Emergency managers need many skills, including: Comprehensive knowledge about the full range of natural and technological threats Knowledge about integrated systems for managing community vulnerability Knowledge about hazard/vulnerability analysis, hazard mitigation, recovery and response Communication skills Organizational skills Strategic planning and management Political management Human resources management Describe some of the professional associations related to emergency management. Emergency management is related to many professional associations. Emergency managers should participate in one or more of these groups. Some groups have a narrow focus. Other groups cover to a wider subject matter. The International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM) is one group. IAEM offers continuing education and a professional certification program. Similarly, the National Emergency Management Association is for state emergency management directors. The Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association is an international organization with members from both public and private sectors. It offers training and a variety of school-based educational programs. Participation in any of these groups provides opportunities for learning and networking with other members of the profession. Participation also allows gaining a "sense of self” as an emergency manager. What are the four phases of becoming a Certified Emergency Manager? The four phases involve the following actions: Completing an application Fulfilling credential requirements Passing the examination Obtaining recertification after five years Explain what is involved in developing academic support for a profession. The path to developing academic support for a profession is long and multi-faceted. There must first be sufficient demand for training and for education to capture the attention of educational institutions. The job market must be such that a large number of people are seeking available positions. They need a means of demonstrating their expertise. The process of obtaining credentials for professions with small staffing levels rests with training and certifications. This is because these types of programs can be sustained on relatively small volume. In the past decade, the number of emergency management jobs has begun to increase. The levels are now high enough to provide a market for academic programs. Typically, a few institutions recognize the needs of an unserved niche in the labor market. Then they begin the process of serving that niche. In the case of emergency management, the University of North Texas was the first to initiate an emergency management degree program. In the two decades since then, over a hundred other programs have responded to the need for educating future emergency managers. Many laws define liability and immunity. Describe the Stafford Act and the Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act. The Stafford Act provides aid to states and under which the President may declare an Emergency or Major Disaster. The Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act assigns rights, duties, and resources relative to WMD. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions You are writing a job description for the director of FEMA. What experience and credentials do you want the director of FEMA to have and why? The Director of FEMA is a critical position. The successful applicant should have at least 20 years of emergency management experience, during which he demonstrated his effectiveness in mitigation, planning, response, and recovery. Experience not only adds to the person’s knowledge base, but also helps to garner the respect of subordinates. A degree in emergency management is ideal, but since such programs were few that many years ago, applicants should have a masters’ degree or above in public health, urban planning, or a similar field. An education in these areas demonstrates that the individual feels a long-standing commitment to the profession. Candidates should all be Certified Emergency Managers (CEMs), a certification that must be renewed every 5 years. In addition, they should have excellent leadership, organizational, strategic planning, communication, and political management skills. You are writing a job description for the emergency manager of Chattanooga, TN. It is a mid-size city and is close to the Sequoyah nuclear plant. What experience and credentials do you want the Chattanooga emergency manager to have and why? I am writing a job description for the emergency manager of Chattanooga, TN. The Sequoyah nuclear plant is nearby, and because Chattanooga is also on the banks of the Tennessee River, the most important credential for our future emergency manager is that she have knowledge of the relevant disasters: flooding and nuclear accident. Experience with handling the emergency response to a flood would be an asset. Experience with nuclear accidents is, thankfully, rare, and would not be a prerequisite for job candidates. The successful candidate must also demonstrate the ability to manage the city’s vulnerability, and be willing to work with others, including interdisciplinary teams and her private-sector counterpart at Sequoyah. Other qualifications include being a Certified Emergency Manager (CEM). This requires membership in the International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM) and at least three years of experience in emergency management or a relevant degree. You are presenting information on academic programs to a group of emergency managers. You are asked by one of the audience members why it took so many years for universities and colleges to offer academic programs for emergency managers. What do you tell the audience? Emergency management was not taken seriously as a degree program until relatively recently. Although training and certification programs have existed relatively easily with few administrators and few applicants, academic programs take more money and resources to sustain. There has to be sufficient demand for a particular field in order for colleges and universities to offer a degree in that discipline. That demand has recently begun to increase, resulting in more relevant programs at educational institutions. The FEMA Higher Education Project has had a great influence on this trend. You have been asked to speak to prospective emergency managers. What skills do you describe as important to emergency managers? Emergency managers must possess a wide range of important skills. First and foremost, they must have knowledge about the relevant natural and manmade hazards that could occur in their region, and how to mitigate, respond to, and recover from them. They must also have excellent communication, organizational, planning, financial, leadership, and human resources management skills. Emergency managers must coordinate planning for disasters amongst several different types of respondents, and they must depend on an entire multidisciplinary core of workers to perform tasks as needed. They must also be emotionally stable enough to work well and make wise decisions under extreme stress. You are presenting information on academic programs to a group of emergency managers. You are asked by one of the audience members when hazard mitigation started to become recognized as important. What do you tell the audience? Hazard mitigation was not taken seriously until after Hurricane Andrew struck in August 1992. Before that, emergency management was more concerned with civil defense, particularly during the cold war. During the early 1990’s, emergency management turned its attention to reacting to natural and technological disasters. FEMA Director James Lee Witt recognized the value of hazard mitigation, and took FEMA in this direction after Hurricane Andrew’s devastating effects. You are writing a report about the legal responsibilities of an emergency manager. What do you include in the report? An emergency manager has the legal responsibility to adhere to applicable state and federal laws as well as local ordinances. In my report, I would provide an overview of such laws. No discussion of the law would be complete without mentioning those cases where the laws were not followed. Generally, legal claims having to do with emergency management deal with damage to property or injury to people either as a result of the government response, or the absence of government response or planning. During disaster response, there are federal laws giving responders immunity from lawsuits in certain situations: damages caused by quarantine orders, if “due care” was used in carrying out statutes, or in the case of discretionary functions. Most states have similar immunity laws, which protect emergency managers and respondents unless there has been negligence of some kind. In cases of negligence that end up in litigation, the issue is usually failure to perform adequate disaster planning and/or hazard analysis according to state or federal mandates. In my report, I would discuss the laws in my state, as well as prominent examples of legal cases in which these laws were tested. 15 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT Challenges and Opportunities Answers to Self-Check Questions Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 15.1 Define megadisaster. An extreme event that costs hundreds of lives and millions of dollars in a small city but costs thousands of lives and billions of dollars in a major city. Explain the effects of the population growth. Population growth will create increasing demands for food, water, and energy. If these needs cannot be met, the countries will experience great political instability. We know now that politically unstable nations are breeding grounds for terrorists. Afghanistan and Somalia are recent examples. Explain what could happen if the needs of developing countries are not met. If the needs of the developing countries are not met, the following conditions could develop: The populations could become vulnerable to disasters. The people could try to farm unsustainable land. The population could deplete available fresh water resources. There could be social, economic, and political instability. There could be mass migrations following disasters. Explain what is meant by rising income inequity. Income and wealth are becoming increasingly concentrated in the hands of the wealthiest. This is apparent between countries as well as within countries. In 1900, the richest five countries had an average per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP in 1990 dollars) of $4,000. The poorest five had GDPs about 1% of that value (OECD, 2003). A century later, the richest five countries had an average per capita GDP of about $20,000. The poorest five had made little progress. Rich countries control most of the world’s economic resources. Poor countries have become increasingly burdened with levels of debt that are impossible for them to repay. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 15.2 Explain some uses of emergency management information technology. We can now conduct hazard vulnerability analyses with computers. With the help of powerful computing hardware and software, we can identify areas at risk and project damage. In addition, there are many rapidly developing technologies we will be able to use. These include the following: Remote sensing systems. Global Positioning System (GPS). Cellular and satellite communication. Name websites that are helpful to mitigate hazards. Information can be found at state emergency management websites as well as websites of federal agencies such as the following: FEMA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Define Emergency Alert System. A new alert system that replaced the Emergency Broadcast System and provides a greater range of capabilities in the digital age. List three reasons for adopting new information technology. Advances in technology will aid you in your job. The main reasons for implementing new technology are as follows: Increased office efficiency (e.g., word processing capability). Networking potential. Budget management. Resource management. Public warning/evacuation applications (e.g., flash flood warnings). Automated emergency notification for staff. Decision support systems (e.g., hurricane or hazmat plume tracking). Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 15.3 Explain how property owners in disaster prone areas are being subsidized by the rest of the taxpayers. Federal disaster relief programs pay for many of the losses from environmental hazards. Those who live in disaster prone areas benefit from this system. However, the cost is spread among all taxpayers. This would be a fair system if those who received the most disaster relief also paid the highest taxes, but there is no evidence this is the case. Thus, property owners in disaster prone areas are being subsidized by the rest of the taxpayers. Explain how a diverse population makes disaster recovery challenging. Recent years have seen an increase in the cultural and language diversity of the American population. Large numbers of Hispanics continue to immigrate here. In some jurisdictions, such as Los Angeles County, there are more than 100 major languages or dialects in daily use. Emergency information must be translated into all of these languages. In addition, the percentage of the population greater than 65 years of age is rapidly increasing. This means many more risk area residents will have physical or mental limitations. Some of these will be in nursing homes where they can be readily warned and evacuated. Others who live independently will require additional assistance when disasters strike. Define signal value. An indication that a previously unnoticed threat warrants attention. Explain why there is a conflict between the goals of economic development and private property rights. There is a conflict between the goals of economic development and private property rights, on the one hand, and public safety and welfare, on the other hand. The balance between these two sets of goals is managed by a system of case law, legislation, and executive orders and regulations. Answers to Self-Check questions immediately following section 15.4 List two important professional challenges confronting emergency managers. Linkage of Emergency Management with New Professions, Linkage of Emergency Management Practitioners and Academic Disciplines Explain the duties that professors must perform in addition to the service activities they perform for emergency management agencies. At teaching universities, professors must teach many courses and must make their time available to many undergraduate students. At research institutions, professors have fewer courses to teach but spend many hours supervising graduate students and conducting research. Answers to Summary Questions The world population will increase as much as _____ in the next 50 years. A. 25% B. 50% C. 75% D. 100% Technology has improved greatly, and we can now accurately detect all hazards. True or False? Which of the following is not an emergency response functions after a threat? A. Emergency assessment B. Hazard operations C. Population protection D. Recovery management Increased concern about biological threats has increased the interaction of emergency managers with public health departments. True or False? The human resource management process for a given job consists of which of the following? A. The applicant pool B. Performance evaluation C. The selection process D. A and B only E. All the above Answers to Review Questions Why is climate change especially important for emergency managers? It will increase the number of extreme events. Climate change will increase the number of severe storms and floods (Mileti, 1999). One of the most serious effects of climate change will be an increase in drought conditions across the plains of Africa, North America, and South America. Such droughts could cause severe disruption of agriculturally based economies in those areas. Some of the effects of climate change are already becoming conflicts across sub-Saharan Africa. These conflicts are driven, in part, by competition for increasingly scarce water resources and the shrinking availability of land that can be used for growing crops. Even in countries where droughts do not cause famines and political unrest, they will increase the incidence of massive wildfires in parched forests and grasslands. Explain how natural disturbances can be healthy events that lead to a better use of land. For example, seasonal flooding improves the health of rivers. It also maintains delta lands that are habitat for protein-rich stocks of marine life. Scientists have found that excessive flood control measures are producing a loss of coastal land in Louisiana by confining the Mississippi River, speeding the stream flow, and causing silt to be transported out into the Gulf of Mexico. Naturally occurring wildfires maintain the health of prairie land and some forest habitats. The wildfires eliminate diseased trees and reduce the amount of fuel (trees, brush, leaves, and grass) available for burning. Scientists now understand that suppressing small to medium-sized fires increases the amount of fuel and the potential for catastrophic firestorms. Accommodating nature improves our patterns of settlement and patterns of resource use. Many resources have been exploited for short-term economic purposes with little regard to the long-term effects on the environment. Businesses around the world are beginning to understand their impact on the environment. Businesses are adjusting their product lines and distribution systems to protect the environment. How do you prepare for a terrorist threat? Link preparedness for each hazard agent into your existing emergency management network Anticipate the impact on each risk area population segment Assess the capabilities of population segment for self-protection Develop clear lines of authority and mechanisms for interagency coordination Assign response functions according to agency abilities and resources Identify potential sources of extra-community assistance Promote emergency resource acquisition at household, organization, community, and supra-community levels Provide training, drills, and exercises on hazard-specific methods of emergency assessment, expedient hazard mitigation, and population protection Why is cooperation not easy between emergency managers and disaster researchers? Each group claims the other fails to understand its problems meets or meet its needs. This gap between academics and emergency managers is not unique to emergency management. This complaint arises in all professions, including architecture, business, construction, engineering, public administration, public health, and urban and regional planning. There is no easy way to bridge the gap. Academics and emergency managers are employed by organizations that have very different cultures. They also have very different job responsibilities. Emergency managers face problems that that demand immediate solutions. By contrast, professors have many duties in addition to the service activities they perform for emergency management agencies. Name and explain the two objectives that pre-impact recovery planning accomplishes. The first objective is to accelerate housing recovery. The second objective is to achieve hazard mitigation activities at the same time as disaster recovery. Pre-impact recovery planning provides also additional opportunities to work with land use planners and building construction officials. Answers to Applying This Chapter Questions What are some examples of technology that aid in emergency management? Sensing and recording devices include the following: Hazmat detection systems Satellite and aerial remote sensing Geographical positioning (GPS) systems Portable weather stations, scanners Digital cameras Communications devices include the following: Cell and satellite telephones Pagers Fax machines Personal computers that are connected through systems such as satellite dishes Local and wide area network connections Radio If wildfires burned hundreds of acres in California, destroying many homes, how would you explain the environmental benefits to the homeowners? Naturally occurring wildfires maintain the health of prairie land and some forest habitats. The wildfires eliminate diseased trees and reduce the amount of fuel (trees, brush, leaves, and grass) available for burning. Scientists now understand that suppressing small to medium-sized fires increases the amount of fuel and the potential for catastrophic firestorms. Why is standardization important? Standardization is needed because assisting organizations are of no use if they have incompatible structures, training, and equipment. You are asked to make a presentation about the new opportunities in emergency management education. What would you say in your presentation? Emergency managers now have more ways they can record information and communicate it. Sensing and recording devices include: Hazmat detection systems Satellite and aerial remote sensing Geographical positioning (GPS) systems Portable weather stations, scanners Digital cameras Communications devices include: Cell and satellite telephones Pagers Fax machines Personal computers that are connected through systems such as satellite dishes Local and wide area network connections Radio With software such as GIS and CAMEO/ALOHA, we can create databases. Modeling programs are now being used as well to determine impact of disaster and help create evacuation plans. If you were recruiting new employees at a job fair, what qualities in the applicant would you look for? Someone with experience, someone with a degree in emergency management, and someone who can work well with others. You are rolling out a new software and database system in your office that will coordinate and track relief and response efforts. What are some of the challenges in transitioning to this new system? All the agencies must cooperate and share information for this to be effective. Solution Manual for Introduction to Emergency Management Michael K. Lindell, Carla Prater, Ronald W. Perry 9780471772606