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Chapter 9: Gender and Identity: Process, Roles, and Culture Learning Objectives Understanding Gender in Development and in Context • Define the difference in the use of the words sex and gender. • Explain the spectrum of gender based on masculinity and on femininity. • Describe five genetic intersex conditions. Gender Identity and Expression • Explain the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation. • Describe the relationship between gender identity and transsexuality. • Explain the difference between androgyny and transgender. Gender Roles • Explain how culture influences gender roles and how they vary across cultures. • Explain the role of power, stereotypes, and control in gender roles. • Identify the five major social institutions that influence gender roles. Gender Norms and Variance • Describe how norms influence conformity to traditional masculine and feminine behavior. • Define gender nonconformity. Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being • Describe gender identity rights for individuals who choose a nonconforming gender orientation. Chapter Outline Chapter 9: Gender and identity: Process, Roles, and Culture Learning Objectives 9.1 Discussion Topic 9.1 Discussion Topic 9.2 Learning Objectives 9.2 Discussion Topic 9.3 Learning Objectives 9.3 Discussion Topic 9.4 Discussion Topic 9.5 Discussion Topic 9.6 Discussion Topic 9.7 Learning Objectives 9.4 Discussion Topic 9.8 I. Understanding Gender in Development and in Context A. Gender and Sex • The process of gender and sexual differentiation is an intricate constellation of chromosomes, hormones, and body tissues in the context of culture and socialization. These elements often work together to determine two things: o Sex o Gender • Sex is based on biological elements, whereas gender is based primarily on external social, cultural, and environmental elements. • For the most part, a person’s biological sex is often the same as his or her gender identity, but it is not that way for all people. In fact, there are individuals who consider themselves to be neither male nor female but distinct in their gender. Healthy Sexuality Sex and Gender Terminology • When it comes to the discussion of sex and gender, the terminology can be confusing. To increase your understanding and to reduce any confusion, refer to the definitions of these terms: o Sex—the biological differentiation into male or female, based upon genes, hormones, and other internal developmental factors. With the term sex, the focus is on: Biological structures and development Hormones and endocrine processes Genes, chromosomes, and DNA o Gender—the social differentiation into masculine or feminine, based upon institutions, roles, and meanings of a particular culture. With gender, the focus is on: Social individuals defined by society Gender meaning as defined by culture Institutions and roles as defined by society o Gender identity—the sense of maleness or femaleness, inside of someone’s own experiences of growing up. The term gender identity focuses on: Individual self-awareness and subjectivity The sense of maleness or femaleness, or something different Development in the context of family and peers o Gender role—the culturally patterned expression of masculinity or femininity that is identified with particular tasks, knowledge, and power. Sometimes gender roles are referred to as sex roles. The term gender roles focuses on: Social categories of men and women Cultural codes of masculinity and femininity Power and who gets to use it in society B. Biological Processes in the Development of Sex • The biological process of sexual differentiation—that is, developing into a male or female—begins before conception and continues during fetal development. At conception, chromosomes for being male or female are fixed. This process continues as the fetus develops gonads, produces hormones, develops internal and external reproductive structures associated with being male or female, and then culminates with the sex differentiation of the brain. • A person’s biological sex is determined at the moment of conception. Both the ovum and sperm cells carry sex chromosomes. Each ovum normally carries an X chromosome. Each sperm cell normally carries either an X or a Y chromosome. An XY chromosomal combination will typically produce a male child and an XX combination will typically produce a female child. C. Biological Sex Variations and Intersexuality • Though we often discuss anatomy as it relates to male or female bodies, sexual dimorphism—being either female or male—does not account for the variation among all human bodies. In fact, some children are born with an extra sex chromosome or a missing sex chromosome. • When the process of sexual differentiation follows an atypical path, intersexuality may result. Intersexuality in humans refers to intermediate or atypical combinations of physical features that typically differentiate male from female. Intersexuality is congenital, and involves chromosomal, genital, and gonadal variations. People who are intersex may have biological characteristics of both the male and female sexes. • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia—The most common cause of sexual ambiguity in XX individuals with XX sex chromosomes is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which occurs in 1 in 10,000 to 18,000 people (White, 2011). In this endocrine disorder, the adrenal glands produce abnormally high levels of hormones that masculinize the female body, retarding breast development and pubic hair growth. • Progestin-Induced Virilization—Another condition of individuals with XX sex chromosomes is caused by the mother’s use of progestin during pregnancy. In the United States, mothers were given this drug in the 1950s and 1960s to prevent miscarriage. If the timing is right, virilization occurs, which means the fetal genitals are masculinized. • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome—It occurs when a fetus with XY sex chromosomes is unable to respond to androgens. This insensitivity ranges from mild to extreme and results in the newborn having female genitalia. In its mild form there may be some variation in the appearance of the genitals. • Klinefelter Syndrome—In the condition known as Klinefelter Syndrome (Figure 9.3), people inherit an extra X chromosome from either the father or the mother. The typical result, then, is XXY sex chromosomes. • Turner Syndrome—In Turner syndrome (Figure 9.4), which occurs only in females, cells are missing all or part of an X chromosome. Most commonly, then, the female has only one X chromosome. Some may have two X chromosomes, but one of them is incomplete. Sometimes, a female has some cells with two X chromosomes, and other cells have only one. • 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency—The rare condition 5-alpha-reductase deficiency occurs in genetic males. In developed societies such as the United States, this biological condition occurs at the rate of 1 in 200,000 individuals, but in communities that experience inbreeding, it can be as high as 1 in 200. This condition does not allow a fetus to convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is necessary for the development of male genitalia. The absence of DHT tends to result in ambiguous genitalia at birth; there may be a small or microscopic penis with testes and a vagina and labia. The small penis is capable of ejaculation but it looks like a clitoris at birth. This results in many of these boys being raised as girls. When additional sex hormones are released during puberty around age 11 or 12, these boys’ genitals develop to look more like an adult male penis and testes, though smaller. II. Gender Identity and Expression • Gender identity is the sense of feeling that you are male or female or, for some individuals, neither male nor female but intersexed. When this sense of gender identity is expressed as masculine and feminine, you get a spectrum of meanings. A. Gender Identity—A Brief History • Theorists about gender identity believe that it is the rock of our self-awareness and truly cannot be changed, no matter what (Bailey, 2003; Stoller, 1974; Zucker & Bradley, 1995). There is one well-known story that highlights just how critical gender identity is to our sense of who we are and how we interact with the world around us. Because of this story, in the late 1950s psychologists and medical doctors created the clear concept of “gender identity.” At that time there were reports of individuals seeking to change their gender identity from being male to female. One was Christine Jorgensen. • During Christine’s era, all cases of gender identity change were male to female. Today, we see a dramatic shift, as females now also transition into a male gender identity. • Many psychological and behavioral effects are attributed to gender identity. These range from the trivial preference for either pink or blue, to whether a child likes to climb trees or to play with dolls, to whether someone prefers to sit down or to stand up when peeing. B. Biology and Gender Identity Development • In trying to understand biology’s effects on gender identity, some scientists have looked at the role of hormones. While many scientists believe that hormones are part of gender identity development, it is difficult to study this in human beings. It would be unethical to subject people to hormonal changes to study how they impact gender identity. This means we rely on studying individuals with hormonal disorders to gain insight into how hormones may affect gender identity. • Dr. John Money in the mid-1950s founded a gender identity clinic at Johns Hopkins University Hospital. This was a time of strict gender roles, due to Cold War pressures to ensure that men were very masculine and fit for war, while women were prepared to be homemakers and mothers. This clinic began to receive increases in parents’ requests to examine and possibly treat their children who seemed to be different in terms of gender identity. C. Transgender—A New Identity • In the United States, some individuals appear to depart from traditional gender identities. They are called transgender, an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex assigned to them at birth. The term transgender also includes people who may refer to themselves as gender-variant, gender or sex-changing, gender-bending, and gender-blending. Unlike transsexuals who wish to have their genitals and bodies altered, transgender people do not necessarily feel that they wish to have surgery. • One form of prejudice is transphobia, a term that describes the fear and hatred of transgender people. Transphobia can result in violence directed toward transgender people. D. Transexualism • Since 1950s, some individuals have sought sex change using surgery to obtain a body for life that more closely reflects their gender identity. This process of “re-becoming” is known as transsexualism. • A transsexual is a transgender person who has changed or is changing from his or her biological sex to a self-identified gender through actions, dress, hormone therapy, or surgery. Transsexualism has often been spoken of as a man’s feeling that he is trapped in a woman’s body or a woman’s feeling that she’s trapped in a man’s body. It occurs at the rate of roughly 1 in 30,000 males and 1 in 100,000 females who seek sexual reassignment in the United States. • In the United States, and in many other countries, transsexualism is treated as a medical condition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), a reference book that mental health professional’s worldwide use. The DSM currently refers to transsexualism as “[a] desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with, or inappropriateness of, one’s anatomic sex, and a wish to have surgery and hormonal treatment to make one’s body as congruent as possible with one’s preferred sex” (APA, 2000). • Many surgeons require extensive therapy before agreeing to perform sex change surgeries. Additionally, a complete sex change usually requires a few stages of surgical procedures. The good news is that most individuals who do undergo these procedures are satisfied and feel better adjusted in their own body (De Cuypere et al., 2005). E. Androgyny • Some people seem to have a greater degree of both masculine and feminine traits in their personality and behavior, a phenomenon commonly referred to as androgyny. In the view of an expert on this issue, Dr. Sandra Bem (1993), being androgynous is a good thing and may mean that you are psychologically healthy and creative. She believes that androgynous men and women seem to be both more flexible and mentally healthier than individuals who are either more strictly masculine or feminine. • Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes, differences, and roles of individuals and/or groups. III. Gender Roles • Gender roles are the behaviors, attitudes, and characteristics that any given society expects of males and females. These gender roles are the bedrock of many societies’ systems of power relations due to the economic, political, religious, familial, and even military attitudes that are directed toward men and women in the roles expected of them. A. Gender Roles Across Time and Cultures • Gender roles connect individuals’ behaviors and lives to the history, culture, and context in which individuals grow up and express their sexuality. This means that the societal standards have changed, and the meaning of gender identity expression is still changing, as we learned. B. Social Institutions and Gender Role Development • How do we learn what each society considers to be appropriate gender roles? In each sphere of society, be it home, school, or work, forces are at work that shape gender roles and behaviors. • Parents and caregivers—Parents and caregivers are the first to influence gender roles. In some ways they may be the most significant influence until late childhood. They teach children the ways of society and how to behave in it. This is reflected in everything from the toys that children receive, to parental responses to their apparent masculinity or femininity, to the way that parents model their own gender roles for children. o Gender expectations are also conveyed through the toys that parents give their children. Although an increasing number of parents appear to be more open to allowing their children to play with whatever pleases them, many parents still encourage their children to play with toys that reinforce the gender roles and stereotypes society holds. • Peers—Children are among the most powerful teachers of gender roles to each other. Studies show that both the emotional and cognitive sides of peer group learning help the process of becoming a boy or becoming a girl along. As children mature they tend to play in groups that are either all male or all female. In play, girls appear to use their verbal skills and to learn cues that help them understand societal rules. Their play reinforces the relational and emotional skills exhibited by their mothers, teachers, and other adult women. • School—One function of school is to teach societal standards and institutional expectations, and gender roles are very powerful parts of such expected learning. Most studies show that, on average, girls do better in school than boys. Girls get higher grades and complete high school at a higher rate compared to boys. For years, researchers have wondered if these gender differences in ability in school subjects were more a product of biological differences or of social impact. Parents, as a socializing agent, may tip the scale in this nature versus nurture balance. Some parents tend to view math as more important for sons and language arts and social studies as more important for daughters. • The media—Children early on begin to learn gender roles on television and the Internet. Today, they grow up with a sense that these media are a natural extension of the self and imitate dress, makeup, behavioral and emotional expression, and games they see in the media. Then they apply what they learn from these sources to interactions with family and peers. • Religion—Religion influences gender socialization, especially regarding attitudes about morality, masculinity/femininity, and sexual expression (Regnerus, 2007). In fact, historically, most clergy were men and this male role has had an important effect on how the imagery of religious teaching works. C. Sexism and Gender Roles • For many women, part of that historical reality of power is the continuing prejudice of sexism that holds them back from achieving their fullest human potential, and full equality. Sexism in our society is defined in a number of ways. • Sexism is considered to be a prejudice based on biological sex. It is a belief system that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of the differences between the sexes. • In the United States, sexism is an ideology of male supremacy, superiority, and authority. IV. Gender Norms and Variance • People who manifest gender behaviors that go beyond or against the norm of their community may be referred to as gender nonconforming. A gender nonconformist is “someone who adopts gendered traits that are stereotypically associated with member of the opposite sex” (Lester, 2002, p. 4). Researchers treat gender nonconformity as being motivated by biological forces such as genes and hormones (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972; Stoller, 1974). • Gender variance is different from the physical forms of biological development, although in popular culture and in the public mind they are often confused. The causes of gender variance are probably complex and may be thought of in terms of the interaction of biology, culture, and individual characteristics such as personality and temperament. A. Factors of Gender Nonconformity • Many children were once punished for exhibiting gender variant behaviors, and in some conservative communities they still are. Why? Parents may fear that their child’s actions may become permanent expressions of gender variance in adulthood. • Now, in the United States, girls have much more freedom to engage in such activities without being labeled as gender nonconforming. It does seem, however, that boys who engage in gender nonconforming behaviors still provoke strong reactions. V. Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being • Recognizing that some individuals do not identify as either male or female, the Australian state of New South Wales has adopted a passport application that includes a box called “unspecified,” in addition to the traditional male or female option for sex. Someday “other” gender categories for all legal documents may become the norm. Key Terms Sex—the genes and biological development that determines whether we are male or female Gender—the social assignment of people to one sex or the other in an historical culture Gender identity—the sense of being male (maleness) or female (femaleness) Gender role—the socialization of people as masculine or feminine Sexual differentiation—the process of developing into a male or female that begins before conception and continues during fetal development Sexual dimorphism—being either female or male Intersexuality—the condition of being biologically between a male and female Virilization—the masculinization of the human body and genital structures Transgender—someone whose self-identification and behavior do not match the traditional gender role for their assigned sex Transphobia—fear and hatred of transgender people Transsexualism—the condition of changing one’s biological sex to a self-identified gender, through actions, dress, hormone therapy, or surgery Androgyny—characteristics of a male or female who has a high degree of both feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) characteristics Gender stereotypes—traditional notions about being masculine or feminine Sexism—prejudice directed toward women Gender nonconforming—individuals who manifest gender behaviors that go beyond or against the norm of their community Gender variance—nonconforming gender behavior that may result from the interaction of biology, culture, and individual characteristics, such as personality and temperament Instructor Manual for Human Sexuality: Self, Society, and Culture Gilbert Herdt, Nicole Polen-Petit 9780073532165, 9780077817527
