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This document contains Chapters 6 to 9 CHAPTER 6 Communication and Human Relations Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students will be able to: 1. Explain the crucial role of communication at work and what occurs when miscommunications happen. 2. Compare and contrast successful and unsuccessful listening skills. 3. Explain the importance of timing with regard to messages. 4. Examine the role of nonverbal communication. 5. Identify the functions of nonverbal communication. 6. Outline strategies for communication within an organization. 7. Explain the importance of intercultural communication in today’s professional world. Key Terms Active listening: Listening with greater concentration, less tolerance for distractions, and more feedback to the speaker. Context: A point of reference (or a place from which to begin) when communicating. Displays: Gestures that are used like nonverbal punctuation marks, such as pounding your fist on a table. Distancing: The distance of physical space that you maintain between other people and yourself. Emblems: Gestures that are used in a specific manner because they have a specific meaning, usually one understood by both sender and receiver; the peace sign is an example of an emblem. Filtering: A method listeners use to hear only what they want to hear, which may result in failing to receive messages correctly. Grapevine: A network within the organization that communicates incomplete, but usually somewhat accurate information. High-context culture: A culture in which social context surrounding a written document is far more important than the document itself: One must be very careful about cultural norms, nonverbal behaviors on both sides, and anything else involving the overall atmosphere of the communication. Horizontal communication: Messages that are communicated between you and your equals in the formal organization. Illustrators: Gestures that are used to clarify a point, such as pointing when giving directions. Information overload: The type of listening that happens when a listener is overwhelmed with incoming information and has to decide which information will be processed and remembered; this is a common cause of poor listening skills. Intensity: The degree to which you show serious concentration or emotion; another dimension of nonverbal communication. Low-context culture: A culture in which a written agreement, such as a contract, can be taken at face value. Nonverbals: Ways of communicating without speaking, such as gestures, body language, and facial expressions. Organizational communication: The oral and written communication within an organization. It has both formal and informal dimensions and travels both vertically and horizontally. Prejudice: Prejudice in communication is the unwillingness to listen to members of groups the listener believes are inferior, such as other ethnic groups or women. It can also take more subtle forms. Red flag words: Words that bring an immediate emotional response (usually negative) from the listener, generally because of strong beliefs on the subject. Regulators: Gestures that are used to control the flow of communication; eye contact is a common type of regulator. Rumor mill: A gossip network that produces mostly false information. Selective listening: The type of listening that happens when a listener deliberately chooses what he or she wants to pay attention to. Vertical communication: Messages that are communicated according to an organization’s chain of command by flowing both upward and downward. Lecture Outline I. Communication and Miscommunication Communication can be defined as the giving and receiving of ideas, feelings, and information among people. Communication includes listening as well as speaking. Good listening skills are critical to success in work. Communication is a very important aspect in the business world. The ability to communicate well on the job is often called the most important job skill for employees as everything else about a specific job can be taught. A. Online Communication Using the Internet can make it easier to connect with others quickly and more often, and can be used to increase effective communication. Electronic communication allows users to communicate with one another from nearly any location, at any hour, eliminating the barriers of time and distance. And online communication can encourage more flexibility for workers, who may have the option of working away from the office during the week. Ideas that were once exchanged in person or in small groups are now sent digitally to co-workers, friends, and family members via wireless devices. But the same things that make online communication so popular, such as the speed, and efficiency, can sometimes become problematic for the sender or receiver. For example, a note may be sent too soon, before it is checked for mistakes, and lead to unnecessary delays. Another potential problem is that the personalization and “tone” of messages can get lost in brief e-mail or text messages, which can cause misunderstandings and time lost in clearing up confusion. Also, technical glitches and human error can delay messages, or reroute them to unintended recipients. Miscues in online communication can lead to major and minor misunderstandings and can cost a person or company valuable time and resources. II. Listening—and How It Can Fail Need to be listened is crucial to human relations. Most people have a very strong need to have others hear them, understand them, and process the information they receive. This need is so strong that when listening is purposely withheld, the speaker’s self-esteem can suffer. The need to be a good listener to others is often ignored by people who consider themselves good communicators. A. Selective Listening There are some legitimate reasons for poor listening. For instance, in modern society everyone is constantly bombarded with messages. No one could possibly give full attention to every message, so many people practice selective listening, which is when people deliberately choose what they want to hear. The main cause of selective listening is information overload—the type of listening that happens when a listener is overwhelmed with incoming information and has to decide which information will be processed and remembered; this is a common cause of poor listening skills. Sometimes better listening may simply be a matter of taking a break from technology—by going “offline” and refocusing on face-to-face communication. Many other reasons for poor listening come from bad communication habits such as assuming that a subject is too difficult or too easy to understand. A listener might reject a speaker because the message seems too difficult and beyond (or basic and beneath) the listener’s level of knowledge; so, basically the message is lost. One reason for this tendency is that most humans have a capacity for listening at a speed that far exceeds the ability of the fastest speaker. People can improve their listening by keeping their focus on the speaker and using the free time to take notes or think about what is being said, this way they will hear more and remember more. B. Tuning Out Some people simply refuse to listen to co-workers or other people due to prejudice—the unwillingness to listen to members of groups the listener believes are inferior, such as other ethnic groups or women; it can also take more subtle forms. People who want to improve listening skills should watch their personal listening habits because the process of doing business can be badly hampered by prejudice. Red flag words and expressions are those that bring an immediate emotional response (usually negative) from the listener, generally because of strong beliefs on the subject. Some red flag words have implied meanings beyond their literal meaning. Words such as communist or terrorist might begin a flood of emotions that would prevent some people from hearing anything else for quite a while. According to listening expert Dr. Anthony Allesandra, a major cause that underlies poor listening habits is that from childhood, most people have been taught that talking requires energy, attention, and organization, but that listening is a passive, compliant behavior. Until recently, though, little has been done to teach what Dr. Allesandra calls active listening, which is listening with greater concentration, less tolerance for distractions, and more feedback to the speaker. III. The Timing of Messages Timing can be a major factor when a message becomes distorted and misunderstood. A. Emotional Timing Emotional timing refers to the emotional readiness of the listener to hear a message. Sometimes a message gets to the receiver when the mood is inappropriate. The amount of time one takes to return calls also communicates a message. Different cultures maintain different attitudes toward time, and should not forget this and make false assumptions when dealing with people from another culture. B. Situational Timing Situational timing refers to the listener’s situation when a message is received. Privacy is usually a key element. Often, communication that would be totally appropriate in one situation is out of place in another. Because of this, a listener usually can’t fully hear the message unless the situation is appropriate. C. Relevance Timing Relevance timing is similar to situational timing. It simply means that communication should fit the other topics being discussed. D. Filtering When listeners engage in filtering, they may fail to receive messages correctly because they are hearing only what they want to hear. Sometimes the listener wants something to be true so badly that he or she interprets the message to make it true. IV. Communicating Without Words Nonverbal communication is also related to communication skills. Much of what people say is expressed by nonverbals—which are ways of communicating without speaking, such as gestures, body language, and facial expressions—rather than words. V. Functions of Nonverbal Messages Nonverbal messages reflect the relationship between speaker and listener. These three functions are as follows: • Showing the speaker’s attitudes and emotions—people often communicate feelings and opinions to others without any awareness they are doing so; when one communicates unconsciously, one’s internal climate—the way one feels within oneself—is likely to give him or her away and self-esteem is the key to it; the response given by other will vary depending on the attitude and emotions expressed while communicating. • Clarifying messages—nonverbal communication allows one to understand and interpret meaning in context, which is a point of reference (or a place from which to begin) when communicating. • Showing the speaker’s reactions to the listener—variations in facial expression, tone and pitch of the voice, amount of time spent in the greeting, and eye contact are all likely to show at least some differences in emotional reaction; these differences include variations in acceptance, approval, and comfort level; the difference in intensity—the degree to which you show serious concentration or emotion, is another dimension of nonverbal communication—is obvious. A. Nonverbal Messages about Self-Esteem Nonverbal communication signals one’s self-esteem level. When one’s self-esteem is high, it will be evident in his or her nonverbal behavior. The person will be listened to more effectively, and the overall communication process will improve. B. Gestures and their Meanings By observing gestures, one can tell a great deal about how open or closed people are in their attitudes. Gestures also indicate the true leader of a group, and how open a person is to physical contact. Gestures fall into the following categories: • Illustrators—gestures people use to clarify a point they might be making. • Regulators—used to control the flow of communication; regulators can include raised eyebrows, head nods, or any other nonverbal indications. • Displays—these are gestures that show the emotions going on inside a person, and they effectively reveal just how strongly people mean what they say. • Emblems—used in a specific manner because they have a specific meaning, usually one understood by both sender and receiver; an emblem one assumes is universal can easily mean something quite different in another culture; this is especially important to remember when traveling and doing business in different parts of the world. C. Distance Between Speakers Another area of nonverbal communication is called proxemics, or distancing, which can be defined as the distance of physical space that people maintain between other people and themself. Most people carry a bubble of space, or several bubbles around them. These are illustrated in Figure 6.3. They are as follows: • The first bubble, from zero to 18 inches, is reserved for intimate relationships (mates, romantic partners, and children). • The next, from about 18 inches out to 4 feet, is the area saved for close friends. • The third bubble, from about 4 to 12 feet, is use for communicating with business contacts and casual acquaintances. • The last one, from 12 feet on out, is used for the general public. When any of the first three bubbles is violated, most people feel very uncomfortable. This distancing issue varies geographically. In some cultures, being very close to another person is much more acceptable than in the United States or in many European cultures. In most Middle Eastern countries, two businesspeople will typically stand about 18 inches from each other while talking. Most people in East Asian and Southeast Asian societies also feel more comfortable at close distances with strangers than most Americans do. As the world becomes more and more an international community, learning the norms of other societies is becoming increasingly important. VI. Communicating In an Organization Organizational communication has both formal and informal dimensions. In traditional organizations, most messages that need to be communicated must go through the chain of command. In other words, the flow of messages has to follow the organizational chart, both upward and downward. These are vertical communication channels. The policies of most firms include formal methods of communicating in oral, electronic, and written form. These policies should be followed closely, as the formal dimension of organizational communication is important. Even in horizontal communication, which refers to messages that are communicated between an individual and his or her equals in the formal organization, care should be taken to communicate without causing problems for oneself and others in the company. In this type of communication, one should ensure that he or she is not intruding into someone else’s area, and not setting up to be accused of causing trouble in someone else’s department or division. A. Grapevines When communication takes place in an informal context, the rules are less formal but still very real. Every company that has employees contains an informal organization. The informal organization is made up of friendships and friendly relationships that establish themselves naturally in any situation. Informal groups are apparently something humans never outgrow. The informal organization is made up of small groups based on particular interests, beliefs, and activities. These groups tend to communicate among themselves and with each other through a network known as the grapevine—network within the organization that communicates incomplete, but usually somewhat accurate information. The grapevine is different from the rumor mill, which is a gossip network that produces mostly false information. One of the most important characteristics of grapevines is that they are often selective: everyone doesn’t always get all of the information, and everyone doesn’t always get the same information. When companies have very poor formal lines of communication, the informal grapevine becomes even more important. Often, a grapevine will tend to be pro-employee, pro-manager, or in some other way biased, especially when other forms of communication are poor. It is wise, then, to keep these biases in mind when listening to a grapevine; this will help in determining what to believe. VII. International and Intercultural Communication Anthropologist Edward T. Hall has identified different cultures as being high context and low context. In a low-context culture, a written agreement, such as a contract, can be taken at face value. In other words, one can assume that it means what it says and that it is in itself binding. Low-context cultures include German and Scandinavian cultures. North American business culture tends to lean heavily toward the low-context end of the scale. In a high-context culture, on the other hand, the social context surrounding the writing is far more important than the writing itself. In a high-context culture, one must be very careful about cultural norms, nonverbal behaviors on both sides, and anything else involving the overall atmosphere of the communication. Figures 6.4 and 6.6 show examples of communication problems that take place when high- and low-context cultures collide. CHAPTER 7 People, Groups, and Teams Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students will be able to: 1. Discuss the characteristics and purposes of formal and informal groups. 2. Discuss development of groups. 3. Examine barriers to group effectiveness and their resolutions. 4. Define leadership, leadership styles, and types of power. 5. Explain the steps in teambuilding. 6. Improve the organizational climate of the workplace. 7. Understand the new organizational or corporate culture. Key Terms Authority: The vested power to influence or command within an organization. Autocratic leaders: Leaders who make all the decisions and use authority and material rewards to motivate followers. Charismatic power: Power that is based on the attractiveness a person has to others. Coercive power: Power that depends on the threat of possible punishment. Conformity: Behaving in a way that meets a specified standard in coordination with a group. Consultative leaders: Leaders who tend to delegate authority and confer with others in making decisions. Culture stories: Stories that illustrate the values of the people who make an organization work. Expert power: Power that comes from a person’s knowledge or skill in areas that are critical to the success of the firm. Formal group: A group that is usually governed by the formal structure of the organization. Free-rein leaders: Leaders who set performance standards then allow followers to work creatively to meet the standards. Group: Two or more people who interact, share common goals, have unspoken or formal rules or norms, maintain stable role relationships and form subgroups. Group process: The way group members deal with one another while working on a task. Groupthink: A problematic type of thinking that results from group members who are overly willing to agree with one another because of time pressure, stress, and low collective self-esteem. Hidden agendas: Secret wishes, hopes, desires and assumptions hidden from the group. People often try to accomplish hidden agendas while pretending to care about the group goals. Informal group: A group that tends to form around common interests, habits, and personality traits. Leadership: The ability to influence others to work toward the goals of an organization. Legitimate power: Power based on the position a person holds in an organization that is effective only when followers believe in the structure that produces this power. Networking power: Power that is attained by gaining contacts and knowing the right people. Norm: A standard of behavior expected of group members. Organizational climate: The emotional weather within an organization that reflects the norms and attitudes of the organization’s culture and effects worker moral. Organizational or corporate culture: An organization’s network that includes the shared values and assumptions within it. Participative leaders: Leaders who encourage the group to work together toward shared goals. Power: The ability of one person to influence another. Psychological contract: An agreement that is not written or spoken but is understood between people. Reward power: Power that comes from the user’s ability to control or influence others with something of value to them. Status: The rank an individual holds within a group. Task activity: The assignment of tasks to get a job done. Team building: The process of creating and encouraging a group of employees to work together toward achieving group goals and increased productivity. Work team: A group of employees with shared goals who join forces on a work project. Lecture Outline I. People in Groups A. Why Do People Join Groups? Groups are composed in different ways, and for different purposes. A formal group is one that is usually governed by the formal structure of an organization. In these groups, members don’t necessarily have the final say about whether or not they can become members, and they often do not have the choice to leave. In contrast, the informal group just happens. Informal groups tend to form around common interests and habits, as well as personality traits. Informal organizations can be defined as the ever-changing relationships and interactions that can be found within an organization, but they are not formally put together by anyone. In informal groups, members may come and go. People join groups to fulfill needs that can’t be met alone. Those needs and their fulfillment fit the following categories: • Affiliation—everyone has a basic need to be with other people and relate to them. • Attraction—people are drawn to others who have attitudes, values, personalities, and economic positions similar to their own. • Activities—people join a group because the group is involved in interesting activities which they would like to pursue. • Assistance—people join groups because of the advice or assistance the group can give them in some area of their lives. • Proximity—people often form groups just because they tend to form close ties with people they see frequently. B. What Makes a Group? All groups have certain qualities in common. A group is defined as two or more people who interact with other members on either an individual or network basis, and share common goals. In defining a group, it is important to understand that they are governed by formal rules and unspoken norms (standards of behavior) as a system of attitudes and behavior. They maintain relatively stable role relationships or tasks within the group, and often form subgroups through various networks of attraction and rejection. II. Groups Development There are usually four distinct stages in group development, all these stages focus on two behaviors of the group: task activity and group process. Task activity is the assignment of tasks to get a job done. Group process is the way group members deal with each other while working on a task. Following are the four stages of group development: • Forming—this stage is also called orientation; during this phase, members take a close look at their task, adjust themselves in terms of what behaviors are expected of them, and begin accepting one another. • Redefining—at this point, group members reexamine the task as a group problem; the greater the differences in the enthusiasm levels, the stronger will be the internal conflict during this stage of group development. • Coordinating—this stage often lasts the longest, as the group starts collecting information and translating it into group objectives; discussion about issues from the redefining stage brings feelings out into the open in this stage, and more conflicts take place here than in any other stage; this conflict can be so strong that it destroys the group. • Formalizing—this is the point where the group works smoothly in its roles and can accomplish its objectives; the group is now at a point where it can perform meaningfully, and where it is much more likely to last. When becoming a member of a newly formed group, these four stages should be kept in mind. When conflicts begin, they should be considered to be normal parts of the group development process. Remaining open yet assertive increases the chance that the group will form and evolve realistically and successfully. III. Barriers to Group Effectiveness Many barriers to effectiveness can arise in group interaction, such as the problem of overconforming known as groupthink, status differences that cause negativity, excessive conflict among members, lack of creativity, one-member domination, and resistance to change. When group norms have been established and status issues have been sorted out, conformity becomes an issue. Conformity is acting in coordination and agreement with one’s group. One reason members of groups conform is to avoid pressure or rejection by the rest of the group. Other reasons may include a desire to meet the group’s shared objectives or to be rewarded for their work. Certain amount of conformity is necessary for a group to function effectively. Too much conformity can kill creativity and discourage people from saying what is really on their minds. Groupthink is a type of mistaken thinking that results from groups “getting along too well.” Status is the rank an individual holds within a group. It comes from a variety of different sources, some based on formal factors and others on informal ones. Sources of status include a person’s formal position in a company, effective interpersonal skills, personal charm or charisma, educational level, physical appearance, persuasive ability, and other values shared by the group. Group members with high status will usually have a high impact on the group morale, and on its output. An important related factor is degree of status acceptance. If someone has lower status in a group than he or she feels to be deserving, then his or her own morale, and in turn, the group’s morale, may be badly affected. People with healthy self-esteem may be more content with the status level the group has given them and may attain higher status than those who have trouble liking themselves. A. Solutions to Group Effectiveness Barriers Three steps will help improve group effectiveness: • Changing ineffective norms—the most efficient way of making a group more effective is by changing its norms. • Identifying problems—problems faced by the group should be identified so as to help the group members to discuss ways to solve it; the solution arrived at should utilize the full potential of each group member. • Improving the composition of the group—group leaders should try to change the group’s composition, if possible, to make it more effective; the leader should look for a balance of skills and knowledge to allow the group to be effective. B. Hidden Agendas Hidden agendas are individual members’ secret wishes, hopes, desires, and assumptions that they don’t want to share with the group, although they will work hard to accomplish them without being discovered. As with other barriers to group effectiveness, hidden agendas may be uncovered and reduced through good communication, good group composition, and creation of norms that discourage them. IV. Leadership: What It Is and What It Requires Without effective leadership, groups function poorly or not at all. Leadership is usually defined as the ability to influence people toward the attainment of goals. A. Leadership versus Management The manager who is also a leader is the most effective of managers. Some argue that leaders are simply born with traits that make them effective. Others argue that leaders have mastered different sets of skills that nearly anyone can develop. Still others emphasize the situation in which a leader finds himself or herself. V. Leadership Styles The leadership styles are based mostly on the extent to which the leader includes others in the process of making decisions. They are usually called autocratic, consultative, participative, and free-rein. Autocratic leaders make it very clear that they are in charge. The power and authority autocratic leaders have from their position in the organization are important to them, and followers usually have little or no freedom to disagree or to disobey. Although this style sounds arrogant and dehumanizing, autocratic leaders are often neither. Many simply operate in an environment where the leader is not questioned. Consultative leaders will often spend a great deal of time and energy consulting with followers to get information about what decisions should be made for the good of the organization. However, when the actual decision is to be made, the consultative leader makes it alone, usually accepting responsibility for the decision regardless of how much input on that decision has been provided by others. Consultative leaders are comfortable delegating authority. Participative leaders have both concern for people and concern for getting the job done. This type of leadership invites subordinates to share power with the leader. This style is very popular in organizations that use teams and team building. The effective participative leader will hold company needs equally with group morale, placing emphasis on both factors. Free-rein leaders often have subordinates who don’t complain about the leadership; however, these leaders are not really leading at all in any strict sense. This approach is often called laissez-faire leadership. This type of leader usually acts as a representative for the group members, while allowing them to plan, control, and complete their tasks as they wish. For success with this leadership style, follower must be self-directed and motivated to act without intervention, and have a clear vision of goals and how to accomplish them. The effectiveness of the leadership style will depend on two variables. First, the situation will often determine the most effective style. The second variable focuses on the personality and skill level of the leader. A. Leaders and the Use of Power and Authority The effectiveness of a leader also depends greatly on the leader’s attitude toward power. Power can be defined as the ability of one person to influence another. This is not to be confused with authority, which is the power vested in a specific position within an organization. Some leaders have authority, but little or no power. Other people—sometimes not even designated leaders—have power despite having very little authority. B. Sources of Power The way followers respond to power largely determines its effectiveness. How the leader’s power is received often depends on where the power comes from. Three power sources are based at least in part on the position of the person using them. Therefore, they are often seen as different forms of position power. They are as follows: • Legitimate power—this source of power is based on the position the person holds in the organization. • Reward power—this type of power comes from the user’s ability to control or influence others with something of value to them, such as praise or a promotion; the reward must be obtainable, and the potential receiver of the reward must believe in the other person’s ability to bestow it. • Coercive power—this source of power depends on the threat of possible punishments, and is commonly used to enforce policies and regulations. • Networking power—this source of power is sometimes also called “connection power;” gaining contacts to help influence others allows a leader to use this power source in many different situations; often, other people’s perception that a leader has that connection or network of connections is just as powerful as the fact itself. • Expert power—this source of power comes from a person’s knowledge or skill in areas that are critical to the success of the firm; the employee or manager with expert power has a power source that can often be amazingly strong. • Charismatic power—this power source is based on the attractiveness a person has to others; to produce genuine power, the user of charismatic power must also be respected and have characteristics that others admire. VI. Team Building A fairly recent use of groups and committees in the organization is known as team building. Through conscious effort, a manager can build a team of employees who will function as a unit and achieve group goals. Such a group is known as a work team. In building a work team, many of the qualities of informal groups are created by the team leader. Team building is a process that requires effort from everyone involved and usually takes quite a bit of time. Work teams actually allow individuals to have more say in their jobs, because they can discuss ideas with peers rather than just following instructions from a supervisor. Job satisfaction is then improved. When job satisfaction is improved, morale and productivity rise. Most people who work in teams say they would not want to go back to the “old” way of doing business. The use of work teams typically improves the company’s “bottom line” while producing a higher-quality workplace atmosphere for employees. For make a team-building approach work or effective, several guidelines should help. First, good intentions are not enough. A formal training program should be used, preferably with a leader who has had some experience with team building elsewhere. Also, a manager may need to learn to let go. Team building involves delegating responsibilities to the group—responsibilities that were once only the manager’s business. Such delegation often makes managers feel threatened by a loss of authority. The new management role they must learn is more like a coach or captain of a sports team. A. Implementation When a team-building consultant starts working to create a work group, he or she will need to ask the following questions: • What do you want from this team? What can your membership in this group do for you personally, and what do you want it to do for you personally? • What skills, abilities, or talents do you bring to this team? These questions will often be asked in writing. From the answers, the team builder can learn a great deal about the needs and concerns of the people who will make up the team. The answers to these questions will determine the complexity of the task of building the team. B. Trust Building trust is one of the first steps in creating a team. Without trust, there can be no team building. Often, a great deal of group interaction must take place for a beginning level of trust to develop. Whatever method of trust building is used, it must get members’ feelings out in the open so issues of trust can be resolved. C. Goals The team needs to review and agree upon goals, both individually and collectively. Establishing and refining goals can be aided by using two questions: “What do you want the team to accomplish, and what can you give?” Goals must be clear and attainable, and they must be considered important by all members of the team. VII. Organizational climate: The Weather of the Workplace The interaction of groups within the workplace aids in the formation of organizational climate. Climate in the workplace has some qualities in common with climate in the context of weather. Climate can change rapidly, without warning. A manager with a negative attitude can change a positive climate to a stressful one just by walking into the room. Climate in the workplace can be influenced by environmental factors, such as the color of the room, the noise level, and the way people dress. It also involves the attitudes, stress levels, and communication of the people in the organization. A. Major Qualities of Organizational Climate The way people see things as individuals, their interactions, and the way an organization is put together produce the climate that all perceive with similar eyes. Perception is a very important part of organizational climate, as are structure and interaction. Organizational climate involves the way members of an organization see it in terms of trust, recognition, freedom to create fairness, and independence. The climate is produced by the way members relate to each other. It reflects the norms and attitudes of the organization’s culture. Most importantly, organizational climate is a basis for understanding any situation in the organization. A manager has a heavy responsibility to lead the organization in a way that will produce a good, or positive, organizational climate. B. Maintaining a Climate The best organizational climate is one that allows the most productivity over the longest period of time. That type of climate will almost always include qualities such as high trust levels, a reasonable level of freedom, high standards of fairness, and fair recognition for the work of each person. The best way to communicate these qualities is to set a conscious example. The manager could also thank individual employees for work done well, while allowing them the freedom to be creative. VIII. Organizational or corporate culture: Shared values Organizational or corporate culture refers to the collection of deeply held values and assumptions a group of people share. Climate reflects the day-to-day norms and attitudes of the organization’s culture. Culture is found in every type of organization—not just individual companies but also career fields often promote a shared culture. Organizational or corporate culture is the network of shared values in an organization. Values are more deep-seated than attitudes. While every organization has a culture, sometimes it is difficult to see, especially if you look at it from the outside. Any culture, be it a corporation, a nation, or a family, is preserved and defined by oral history or culture stories. Culture stories are miniature myths. The culture of an organization can be understood more fully by listening to these stories and finding common themes in them. In addition to culture stories, leaders transmit organizational culture in many other ways. The way they react to crises at work, divide up limited resources, train and coach employees, even recruit and select employees—all of these actions tell employees what is important to the person in charge. Employees also look at the design and layout of the physical work space, the leadership structure of the organization, its systems and policies, rites and rituals, and reinforcement for employee behavior, in order to see what is valued. A. The “New” Organizational or Corporate Culture: A Focus on Fairness These days, many companies are working on developing an organizational or corporate culture that is more humane, more closely knit, and above all, more profitable and productive than in the past. The so-called new corporate culture is made up of a set of new assumptions about how people should be treated. Much of this new thinking is based on a deeper understanding of the importance of employee self-worth on the job. Following are some of the commonly accepted qualities that an organizational or corporate culture should have; all of them are directly related to human relations and self-esteem issues: • Instead of bullying or shouting, or otherwise being autocratic, a manager should avoid making an employee feel intimidated or overly uncomfortable. • Among the shared values of the culture, fairness is very high. Managers need to respond to the same behavior by different people in a consistently equal and just manner. • An emerging element of the new culture is participative management. A participative culture is open and nonthreatening. • The new culture allows for the self-esteem development of all members of the organization. A strong corporate culture must contain a sense of justice, equality, and balanced emotion in its treatment of people. The following factors are required to ensure fairness. Trust in the workplace is the main tool for employees’ confidence in management, and management’s confidence in employees. One’s actions provide a record of trustworthiness. Consistency means remaining predictable and fair. Stability is threatened when there are apparent contradictions in the behaviors of people whom others are depending on, especially managers. With unpredictability and lack of stability come high stress levels. Truth is one of the most obvious necessities for fairness. Yet the temptation can be great to tell “white lies,” withhold information, and tell people what they want to hear. Integrity is a way of describing the extent to which managers and others are truly willing to put the shared values and expectations of a culture into action. It also means maintaining an ethical code—which is basic to all cultures, as well as to organizations. Expectations refer to those that come from management. Through their expectations, managers allow the employees to know exactly what is expected of them both individually and in groups. Equity means treating everyone with the same rules. If a culture has both consistency and equity, all are treated in a way that is fair and just, under all conditions. Influence means allowing each member of the organization to have a stake in a wide range of activities, including goal setting, problem solving, and helping to make changes. Justice means that the reward must fit the achievement; the punishment must fit the crime. The two extremes in violation of this quality are overkill (strict zero tolerance, while looking for infractions to punish) and “looking the other way” by ignoring the situation when an infraction occurs. Respect, or a deep sense of high regard for people, is the basis of all fairness. When a person believes that others truly value him or her, he or she tends to consider their actions fair. Overall fairness means much more than simply treating people nicely. Fairness is a central issue in the psychological contract between managers and subordinates. This contract is not a piece of paper; it is a sometimes unconscious, usually unspoken, agreement between two people to behave in certain ways toward each other. Psychological contracts are a part of all cultures. Although they may not be written down or discussed, they are understood between people. A healthy organization will not violate employees’ psychological contracts, rather it will respect agreements and expectations set up among management and staff. CHAPTER 8 Achieving Emotional Control Learning Objective After studying this chapter, students will be able to: 1. Identify the eight forms of intelligence. 2. Explain the significance of emotional intelligence and how it compares with earlier theories of measuring intelligence. 3. Describe how to apply emotional intelligence. 4. List ways to deal with anger. 5. Compare and contrast assertiveness, aggressiveness, and anger. 6. Give examples of defensive behaviors and how they affect the workplace. 7. Distinguish among the various scripts that influence our actions. 8. Explain why people “play games” in the workplace, and how to deal with games. Key Terms Assertiveness: Standing up for your rights without threatening the self-esteem of the other person. Aggressiveness: Hurting others and putting them on the defensive. Defensive Behavior/Defensiveness: The inappropriate reaction to another’s behavior as though it was an attack. Eight intelligences: Eight separate areas in which people put their perceptiveness and abilities to work. Emotional competence: A learned capability based on emotional intelligence; results in outstanding performance at work. Emotional intelligence (EI): The ability to see and control your own emotions and to understand the emotional states of other people. Emotional mind: A powerful, impulsive, sometimes illogical awareness; an ability to perceive emotions. First-, second-, and third-degree games: In transactional analysis, categories of games based on intensity of play. First-degree games are relatively harmless; second-degree games are moderately harmful; third-degree games are extremely damaging. Game: An encounter between two people that produces a “payoff” for the one who starts the game, at the expense of the other player. Intelligence: Traditionally seen as reasoning ability, as measured by standardized tests. Personal competence: The ability to be self-aware, motivated, and self-regulated. Rational mind: An awareness of reality, which allows you to ponder and reflect. Script: In relationship transactions, a psychological script like a movie or theater script, with characters, dialogue, and so on, that most people heard as children; used in transactional analysis. Social competence: Empathy for others combined with sensitivity and effective social skills. Lecture Outline I. The Eight Forms of Intelligence For many years, people assumed that intelligence was a one-dimensional concept of just reasoning ability, measured by standardized tests. Researchers, such as Psychologist Howard Gardner, have discovered that there is more than one way to be smart; referring to the eight intelligences—eight separate areas in which people put their perceptiveness to work (Figure 8.1). A. Language People who have verbal intelligence are gifted writers, poets, songwriters, and speakers. If a person loves language and is fascinated by its meanings, expressions, and rhythms, his/her intelligence falls into this area. Standardized intelligence tests usually tap into this intelligence in questions on verbal comprehension and vocabulary. B. Math and Logic Scientists and mathematicians find pleasure in using the logical, reasoning parts of the brain. If a person enjoys puzzles of logic or brain teasers, he or she is strong in this type of intelligence. Most of the standardized intelligence tests measure math and logic ability levels. C. Music Most people whose intelligence falls into this category have a relationship with sounds. Individuals who can play, write, or read music with ease and enjoyment, have this strength. Ludwig van Beethoven, who continued to write music even after he lost his hearing, provides an example of musical intelligence. D. Spatial Reasoning A person who excels in this area has a knack for seeing how elements fit together in space. Spatial reasoning is physical and mechanical, and less tied to ideas and concepts. E. Movement Most people probably haven’t thought of physical movement as a part of intelligence because it is not part of the traditional definition, but the ability to use body or parts of the body to solve problems is a type of intelligence (also known as kinesthetic intelligence). Athletes and dancers are examples of people who excel in this area. F. Interpersonal Intelligence This area of intelligence deals with one’s ability to understand and deal with the world of people. It is an essential skill in all aspects of life and is particularly important in business. A person with interpersonal intelligence is usually in a position of power and leadership, respected by others. G. Intrapersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence means knowledge of oneself. The person with this type of intelligence is introspective, or able to examine his or her own life and experiences. A person high in this type of intelligence knows his or her own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and fears—and can act on that knowledge realistically. Aristotle, who advised that people should know thyself, understood the importance of the introspective process known as intrapersonal intelligence. H. Naturalist Intelligence The person who is high in this type of intelligence has an understanding of nature and natural processes. This person becomes a part of the rhythms and cycles of nature. If one is happiest outdoors and has a natural understanding of the natural world, he/she has this strength. A manager should watch for the type of intelligence each of the employees exhibits and learn to use their abilities to the fullest capacity. Such knowledge can help to significantly raise the level of an organization’s creative output. II. Emotional Intelligence (EI) Another, more recent approach to intelligence is the concept of emotional intelligence, also referred to as EI—the ability to see and control your own emotions and to understand the emotional states of other people. Daniel Goleman, a prominent writer and scholar, has stated that emotional intelligence is a much better predictor of success in nearly every area of life, not always including academic success. According to Goleman, people have “two minds”. First is the rational mind, which is aware of reality and which allows people to ponder and reflect. The emotional mind is another way of knowing. It is powerful, impulsive, and sometimes illogical. Emotional competence is also an extremely important factor in understanding EI. Emotional competence can be defined as “a learned capability based on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at work.” In other words, it is the application of EI use in the workplace. According to Goleman, there are two types of emotional competence: personal competence—the ability to be self-aware, motivated, and self-regulated—and social competence—empathy for others combined with sensitivity and effective social skills. Recent studies have isolated four different areas of emotional intelligence, which are called “clusters,” because they each contain a set of related EI skills. They are as follows: • Self-awareness—the ability to understand the way one is “coming off” to other people; healthy self-awareness was defined as “the ability to see yourself realistically, without a great deal of difference between what you are and how you assume others see you;” a self-aware person will have a clearer view of what other people are really about. • Social awareness—being socially aware is when one has a set of skills required to understand the politics of his or her own workplace; examples include discerning different attitudes from different people toward oneself and effective interpretation of nonverbal communication such as facial expressions and body language. • Self-management—one of the most important parts of self-management is self-control, which is the ability to control oneself in check and not overreact when something is bothersome. • Relationship management—individuals with effective relationship management skills will be able to settle conflicts and disagreements between groups and people; this skill set enables the individual to communicate effectively and build meaningful interpersonal relationship both with individuals and groups. III. Learning to Apply Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence can be learned and can improve over time, often as a lifelong learning process. Motivation expert Richard Boyatzis says that the most common mistake made by people wanting to improve their EI is thinking that knowing more about the issue will make a person’s skills better. The trick is learning to apply and use that knowledge in a practical, real way, rather than just learning about it. A few practical approaches that people can take are: • Review what you know about self-awareness. • Carefully watch others whose social competence seems to be high, who have social awareness skills that you don’t have but would like to attain. • Work actively on improving your self-management skills. • Develop relationship management skills. IV. Dealing with Anger Anger is one of the most potentially harmful of all emotions. One of the most important parts of emotional intelligence is the ability to deal with this important area of our personality. Many psychologists say that anger comes more from how people process events than the nature of the events themselves. Anger becomes what it is because of “trigger thoughts” about the things that happen around you. These trigger thoughts usually come to the surface when at least one of the following two things has happened: • One is convinced that other people are to blame for deliberately and unnecessarily causing him or her trouble. • One interprets the behavior of other people as breaking the rules of appropriate behavior. Anger produces three basic results that are negative and damaging: • Anger blinds a person in several ways—it blinds the individual to other ways of seeing reality; anger blinds the individual to his or her responsibility for what has happened; anger can blind one to other, less painful ways of dealing with the problem. • Left unchecked, anger will grow—anger is discussed, pondered, and rediscussed to the point where the anger turns to aggression, and, almost unavoidably, to armed conflict. • Anger is often based on fear of some type—many types of anger stem from fear; fear causes apprehension, which in turn causes new layers of pain. A. Five Steps for Dealing with Anger Following are some simple steps that should help anyone who is dealing with the control of anger: • Examine your anger to find the inner causes—focus on what triggered anger in a given situation. • Learn to recognize your own “flashpoints”—flashpoints might include fatigue, excessive stress, and factors such as excessive alcohol intake. • Examine specifically what damage your anger has caused—examples would be damage to relationships, retaliation from others, or health issues. • Work on developing and using conflict management skills—for example, work on being assertive, rather than passive or aggressive. • Get in touch with what types of things help calm you down—think about what constructive steps one can take, i.e. steps that specifically work for a person. V. Assertiveness, Aggressiveness, and Anger Assertiveness means standing up for one’s rights without threatening the self-esteem of the other person. Aggressiveness involves hurting others and putting them on the defensive. A working knowledge of these differences can help one avoid the excesses of aggressiveness while maintaining assertiveness. Assertiveness is based on one’s rights and the rights of others, and it is important to use when one senses that someone is trying to take advantage of him/her. When one’s equal rights as a human being are threatened, one might be tempted to be either passive or aggressive. Both these extremes will damage the individual and his/her relationship with others. By remaining sensitive to the attitudes of the other person, and giving oneself time to react assertively, one can improve both his/her self-esteem and human relations skills. VI. Defensive Behaviors Defensiveness is defined as the inappropriate reaction to another’s behavior as though it was an attack. It can be seen as the body’s method of keeping one from being unduly uncomfortable. It usually comes from two sources: low self-esteem and fear. When people really like themselves and feel comfortable with their own value, avoiding defensiveness is much easier than it is for an individual with low self-esteem. Following is a list of the most common defensive reactions used in the workplace: • Counterattack—when people feel under attack, the automatic response is to go into the attack mode themselves; this is known as counterattack. • Passive-aggressive behavior—the person who uses a passive-aggressive approach is usually expressing an understated rage; this variety of defensiveness can cause even more negative behavior from both sides. • Pointless explanations—this defensive behavior stems from a belief that the other person has been on the attack only because that person “doesn’t understand;” this leads to endless and pointless explanations, frustrating everyone involved. • Creating a distraction—this defensive behavior is sometimes called using a “red herring,” as it introduces a point or fact that is irrelevant to the issue at hand; the person who uses this defense brings up something totally unrelated simply to distract attention from the real issue or issues. Ending the defensive cycle is actually not difficult for the person who is paying close attention to what others are saying. Defensiveness is like putting on heavy armor, armor that keeps you from functioning as you would normally. Once the armor is off the backs of both people—or more, if it’s a group issue—those involved can talk normally and in a more detached and constructive manner. At some point, one of the people involved in the defensiveness chain needs to stop and challenge the assumptions he or she is using. Following are some steps that can be taken to reduce defensiveness and its destructive effects in the workplace: • Back off and cool down. • Use “I statements.” • Avoid absolutes, words like always and never. • Make positive assumptions about the other person or persons involved. • Learn to separate your work from who you are. VII. Scripts Part of a school of psychology known as “transactional analysis,” the concept of script has been used to explain some important facts about one’s behavior as human beings. Much of what one does and say in one’s daily lives is based on scripts that most people heard repeatedly as children. A psychological script is very much like a movie or theater script. Scripts can be divided into four basic categories: • Cultural scripts—for example, Alaskans are tough, Americans are free and rich, and New Englanders are traditional and intelligent. • Family scripts—for example, the Smiths are honest, the Johnsons are medical people, and the Kennedys enter politics. • Religious scripts—it is sometimes the strongest script; for example, Catholics don’t believe in abortion. • Gender scripts—how members of one gender should behave; for example, men don’t cry, women cook and clean houses. VIII. Games People Play A game can be defined as an encounter between two people that produces a “payoff” for the one who starts the game—at the expense of the other player. The concept of “games” comes from transactional analysis. Negative game playing can hurt positive relationships. The two characteristics that all games have in common are that they include: • At least one insincere statement per game • A payoff of some kind to at least one of the players Games are usually emotion-based activities that allow one person to feel “one up” or “one down” on someone. Some games are worse than others, in terms of intensity. Although they sometimes seem to help one person gain something of value, games usually don’t really help any of the players. Instead, they cause damage to the organization in wasted time, lowered morale, and decreased output. First-degree games are usually quite harmless, whereas a third-degree game can result in physical injury. Second-degree games flirt with being harmful and often cause anger. A. “Why Don’t You … Yes, But” The payoff for “Why don’t you . . . yes, but” is that the person (acting like a sympathetic parent or adult) reassures both her or himself and the other individual: “Nobody’s going to tell me what to do.” It is also sometimes a way that game players to get others to take over their responsibilities for them. B. Wooden Leg This game is also known as “My Excuses Are Better Than Yours.” Excuses are the focus here. Real reasons for things going wrong exist in many situations, but this game makes an art out of creating excuses. In the end, excuses take the place of a job well done. C. Harried (or Harried Executive) This game is played by someone who uses being “too busy” as an excuse not to interact with others. The reasons for this type of payoff are fairly complex. Nearly always, though, the reason is related to low self-esteem. This may also be why they want to be seen as working harder than others. D. Now I’ve Got You This is a game in which one person tries to trap the other in a mistake, a lie, or some other type of negative situation. These aren’t all of the game categories that exist. The entire experience known as office politics can be seen as a large game that contains many combinations of these and other games. If one learns these basic categories well, one’s knowledge of them should help him/her identify other games people might attempt to play with him/her. Most important, one can learn to stop playing games, and to stop allowing other people to play them in the workplace. Game playing prevents employees from enjoying open, honest relationships with others, and it wastes company time and money. CHAPTER 9 Individual and Organizational Change Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students will be able to: 8. Discuss why change is a fact of life in the 21st century. 9. List the seven major life changes. 10. Describe the seven stages of personal change. 11. Compare and contrast models of organizational change. 12. Give reasons for why employees resist change. 13. Explain the kaizen approach to change in the business world. 14. Discuss organizational development. Key Terms Beginning: The last of three general steps in the acceptance of personal loss. This is where “experimenting” and “completion” take place. Change agent: The person responsible for an organizational change effort. Ending: The first of three general steps in the acceptance of personal loss. This is where “emotional standstill,” “denial,” and “anger” take place. Force field analysis: A model in which the status quo is like a battlefield being fought for by two armies: the driving forces and the restraining forces. Holmes–Rahe Readjustment Scale: A tool that measures the relative impact of many kinds of changes, which are rated from 100 to 0 on the basis of their intensity and the adjustment problems they can create. Kaizen: Involves employees’ participation and feedback in operational and change decisions, and encourages active communication among top managers and workers. A literal translation of the term is “to become good through change.” Lewin change model: A workplace change model with three steps: unfreezing the status quo, making changes, then refreezing to the previous work mode. Logical incrementalism: A model that acknowledges that bringing about changes in a large organization is usually time-consuming and complicated. Neutral zone: A transition phase in which uncomfortable feelings of “helplessness” and “bottoming out” may take place before recovery begins. OD change agent: A company’s formal change agent, often an outside consultant who specializes in planned change. OD interventions: Training tools that teach members of the organization how to solve the problems they face. Organizational change: Change that a group of people must learn to accept and implement. Organizational development (OD): A planned, companywide, systematic method of achieving change in an organization. Quality Circles: Bring employees and managers together to brainstorm and find ways to improve quality and performance. Regression: Slipping backward to an earlier stage of growth; it can be either temporary or permanent. Seven major life changes: Loss, separation, relocation, a change in relationship, a change in direction, a change in health, and personal growth. Seven stages of personal change: Emotional standstill, denial, anger, helplessness, bottoming out, experimenting, and completion. Lecture Outline I. Change as a Fact of Life Change is a reality everyone lives with. Swift, radical changes can be overwhelming. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, change has become a way of life in Western civilization. Centuries ago, it was very likely that one would spend his/her entire life in the same social class or occupational group—even the same geographic area. Whatever was meaningful to one generation would remain so in the next. The changes that did take place were usually so gradual that one hardly noticed them. By the 20th century, the pace of change in all areas of life had picked up greatly, and today it is still increasing. In today’s realities, the world has more than ever: more people, more gadgets and electronic devices, more information—and more problems. Specific coping plans are essential to deal with changes in life. Coping means being able to deal with change and its effects without allowing them to injure one emotionally. The first step is to realize that intense change is a part of being a human in today’s changing world. II. The Seven Major Life Changes Severe change can create tremendous stress and is usually accompanied by a great sense of loss. But stress-causing events aren’t always negative; they could also include marriage, promotion, or relocation. Figure 9.1 presents the Holmes–Rahe readjustment scale—a tool that measures the relative impact of many kinds of changes, which are rated from 100 to 0 on the basis of their intensity and the adjustment problems they can create. The most important dramatic changes in a person’s life can be placed in seven categories: • Loss • Separation • Relocation • A change in relationship • A change in direction • A change in health • Personal growth Not all of these changes are negative. In fact, some—such as personal growth—are almost completely positive. Often the effects of change are both positive and negative, and yet the impacts are similar. These seven major life changes—loss, separation, relocation, a change in relationship, a change in direction, a change in health, and personal growth—have basic characteristics in common: • They happen to everyone. • Many of them seem to happen without one’s control. • Each one of these changes has its own ripple effect. • People feel the results of change before, during, and after the event. III. The Seven Stages of Personal Change Humans process major transitions through basic, recognizable steps. Figure 9.2 shows a diagram of the seven stages of personal change that make up the process of healthy reaction to such change. An emotionally healthy person takes each of these steps in order. Failing to go through each of these steps is often detrimental. If one step is skipped, one will likely have to return to it at some time. Following are the steps: • Emotional standstill—the first reaction someone usually has to the news of a sudden death, for example, is to come to an emotional standstill; in shock there is a gap between rational thinking and emotions; according to William Bridges, beginning of the personal change process nearly always involves an ending; an element of shock exists even when an event is expected. • Denial—with denial, the mind is keeping the sufferer from accepting reality fully and completely; ideally, this denial period will be over in a few weeks or months; the longer the period lasts, the longer it will take to move through the healing process. • Anger—some form of anger usually replaces the emotional vacuum left by denial; the anger felt at this time usually contains a feeling of helplessness; most psychologists advise that this anger should be expressed in a way that will not harm others. • Helplessness—at this step in the process, the individual is trying but still failing to move forward; with this step the individual enters the neutral zone—a transition phase in which uncomfortable feelings of ”helplessness” and ”bottoming out” may take place before recovery begins; the individual will usually make one of two mistakes: either the suffering person might try to share too much emotion with other people, or will retreat into isolation; to move through this stage effectively, the individual must be constantly aware of the reality of others. • Bottoming out—at this bottom point, for the first time since the event, it becomes possible to let go of the emotional burden; at this point, the person is allowing the life-completing processes to take their course; the shock, denial, and anger are becoming memories. • Experimenting—once a person bottoms out, the recovery can begin; normal curiosities and desires come back and new experiences become evident. • Completion—some people call this step rebirth; this step completes the cycle. However, regression often takes place, even in the best of mending cycles; the important thing to know about regressions is that it is normal and human and is nothing to be disturbed about. One danger with the seven-step recovery diagram is that people might be tempted to think they should passively let these steps happen to them. The process is a natural process, but sufferers still need to maintain control of their destinies. Healing is the process of returning to a point where a person knows who he or she is and feel good about himself or herself once again. Figure 9.3 contains specific advice on how to do this. IV. Models of Organizational Change Organizational change is change that a group of people must learn to accept and implement. It is a real challenge for a manager. Members of an organization can get so comfortable with the status quo that it becomes easy to ignore warning signs that something has to change. One common mistake is that many companies have spent too much money on traditional strategies, instead of changing their style to adopt newer and more creative approaches. A. The Lewin Change Model One of the most popular workplace change models is the Lewin change model. According to Kurt Lewin, there are three different levels where any change has to happen: • The individuals who work for a company must be convinced that a change is essential, and then be guided to the necessary attitudes and behaviors. • The systems of an organization need to be changed. Systems include work design, information systems, and compensation plans. • The organizational climate must be adjusted. Essential climate change areas include methods of conflict management and the decision-making processes. The Lewin change model contains three steps: • Unfreezing the status quo—in the unfreezing process, fear in some form is nearly always one of the major obstacles. • Moving to a new condition—this is the step where the actual changes are made. • Refreezing to create a new status quo—this final stage is referred to as “relatively secure” against change; during this stage, it must be ensured that the new behaviors actually become new norms or standards. B. Current Criticism of Lewin’s Change Model. The most important criticism has been that refreezing is not a realistic concept in today’s business world. The 21st century faces a growing number of change situations, where taking time to refreeze would simply hinder progress. The refreezing step is unrealistic when environmental and technological changes are everyday realities. In today’s world, one must be realistic about the fact that changes take place so rapidly that people don’t have the luxury they once had of refreezing, even for a short time, because they may fall behind. C. Force Field Analysis Another approach to change that was developed by Lewin is the concept of force field analysis. According to this model, the status quo is like a battlefield being fought for by two armies: the driving forces and the restraining forces. The driving forces are trying to take over and change the status quo, and the restraining forces are trying to defend it. If driving and restraining forces are equal in strength, no change will take place. The driving forces can be strengthened in several ways. If resistance takes place, more driving forces must be added. Another method is to improve the quality of the driving forces. Diminishing the restraining forces involves persuasion by showing the benefits of change. Force field analysis is positive in three ways: • It gets the changers to plan for the change. • It allows those who are organizing the change to take a close look at the forces likely to restrain them and put together a strategy to overcome that restraint. • Analyzing the restraining forces before a conflict starts can often keep the conflict from beginning at all. D. Logical Incrementalism Logical incrementalism acknowledges that bringing about changes in a large organization is usually time-consuming and complicated. Like the Lewin model, logical incrementalism can address change at the individual or corporate levels. The five stages of logical incrementalism are: • General concern—a vague feeling or awareness of a threat or opportunity. • Broadcasting a general concern or idea without details—trial balloon procedure is used. • Development of a formal plan for change • Development of a formal plan for change—the new idea is outlined both in terms of its nature, and of the method of making it happen. • Using an opportunity or crisis to begin the change plan. • Ongoing adaptation of the plan. The model shows a natural process of change as it should happen. Critics of logical incrementalism see it as generally ineffective. Logical incrementalism is most successful when used to bring a well-designed plan into general acceptance. V. Why Employees Resist Change People resist change for a number of different reasons. For one thing, the status quo is often just too comfortable. Among the other reasons people resist change are: • Hearing only what they want or expect to hear. • Fear of the unknown. • Fear of loss. • Resentment of the change agent—the person responsible for an organizational change effort. • Belief that the change is wrong. • Rebellion against the speed of change. Figure 9.6 lists 25 common excuses for resisting change. VI. The Japanese Approach Many Japanese businesses seem to be remarkably adaptive to change. One of the reasons for Japan’s economic success has been its companies’ approach to business. This approach, termed kaizen, involves employees’ participation and feedback in operational and change decisions, and encourages active communication among top managers and workers. A literal translation of the term is “to become good through change.” The concept of kaizen is one of restructuring and organizing every aspect of a system to ensure optimal efficiency. This approach is different from typical Western business models, which tend to seek change and increased business productivity through large-scale, radical shifts. Under the Western model, success is thought to come only from dramatic change and immediate improvement. In contrast, kaizen is different because it takes a continuous, long-term approach to improvement. Under the kaizen concept, business productivity is viewed as an ongoing, continual process. Increased productivity, therefore, is thought to result from constantly bettering one’s relation to his or her workplace, as well as bettering one’s self as a person. And unlike many Western management techniques, kaizen essentially proposes that happy employees are productive employees. Once a mostly Japanese phenomenon, kaizen is now used by businesses across the globe. It has become a model that can be modified by each culture to best suit its own business needs. VII. Organizational Development Organizational development is a planned, companywide, systematic method of achieving change in an organization. It requires the participation and support of top management. Usually the change agent is an outside consultant who specializes in planned change. This person is called an OD change agent. This agent’s job is to use OD interventions, which are training tools that teach members of the organization how they can solve the problems they are facing. OD change agents base their procedures on specific ideals concerning organizations. These specific ideals usually involve the following values: • Participative operations—the more the employees are involved with a change effort, the stronger will be their commitment to putting that change into effect. • Equality—effective organizations must de-emphasize hierarchy and heavy-handed authority. • Respect for others—since people are mostly responsible and conscientious, they should be treated accordingly. • Confrontation—problems must be confronted and dealt with immediately. • Trust and mutual support—a climate of openness and trust is the most productive in any organization. OD is often used as a tool for empowerment. Empowered employees feel that they are in control of their own contributions to the firm. OD interventions can serve another purpose—to help make employees more comfortable and accepting of the new position that empowerment gives them. Instructor Manual for Human Relations: Strategies for Success Lowell Lamberton, Leslie Minor-Evans 9780073524689
