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Chapter 3 Blood and Milk 1. What do anthropologists mean by the term “maidenhood?” a. virginity b. a culturally constructed period between menarche and adulthood c. the period of time during which a woman remains unmarried d. female adolescence Answer: B Rationale: Maidenhood, in anthropology, refers to a culturally constructed period between menarche (the first occurrence of menstruation) and adulthood. This term encompasses more than just virginity or the state of being unmarried, focusing on the transitional phase between childhood and adulthood marked by biological and social changes. 2. Which of the following statements about the practices associated with menstruation of Ethiopian Jews who immigrated to Israel is accurate? a. Most Ethiopian Jews who immigrated to Israel had abandoned menstrual seclusion before immigration. b. Ethiopian immigrants easily adopted the practices of immersion and separation followed by observant Jews in Israel. c. The religious community in Israel encouraged Ethiopian immigrants to continue their practices of menstrual seclusion. d. Ethiopian immigrants gradually adapted their menstrual seclusion practices to urban life in Israel. Some developed their own interpretations of immersion and separation, while others abandoned the practice. Answer: D Rationale: The accurate statement is that Ethiopian immigrants gradually adapted their menstrual seclusion practices to urban life in Israel. Some developed their own interpretations of immersion and separation, while others abandoned the practice. This reflects the cultural adaptation and evolution of practices among Ethiopian Jews transitioning to life in Israel. 3. What does the anthropological record show about the practice of abortion? a. Abortion has been practiced throughout time as a means of controlling fertility and reproduction. b. Abortion is a relatively recent practice made possible by modern medicine. c. In most cultures, abortion is practices only when there are no other reliable methods of birth control. d. Where women have access to abortion, infanticide is never practiced. Answer: A Rationale: The anthropological record demonstrates that abortion has been practiced throughout time as a means of controlling fertility and reproduction. It predates modern medicine and has been utilized in various cultures and contexts for centuries. 4. Middle age for women is generally associated with _________. a. cessation of regular menses b. a relaxation of restrictions on mobility, association, and sexuality c. fewer obligations to children, husbands, and in-laws d. all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Middle age for women is generally associated with the cessation of regular menses, a relaxation of restrictions on mobility, association, and sexuality, as well as fewer obligations to children, husbands, and in-laws. These factors collectively contribute to the experience and perception of middle age for women in different societies. 5. The practice of a woman bearing a child for another using her own genetic material (the egg), is called _________. a. gestational surrogacy b. genetic surrogacy c. traditional surrogacy d. donated-egg surrogacy Answer: C Rationale: The correct term for the practice described is traditional surrogacy, where the surrogate provides both genetic material (the egg) and carries the pregnancy to term. Gestational surrogacy involves carrying a child not genetically related to the surrogate, while genetic surrogacy isn't a recognized term. 6. In Israel, Ely Teman found that the surrogacy was characterized by which of the following? a. attempts by the surrogate to distance herself from the fetus b. a strong bond between the surrogate and the fetus c. anger on the part of surrogates who are seen as incubators d. legal battles over the true parentage of the baby Answer: A Rationale: In Israel, Ely Teman found that surrogacy was characterized by attempts by the surrogate to distance herself from the fetus. This reflects a cultural dynamic where the surrogate may strive to detach emotionally from the pregnancy to navigate complex social and legal implications. 7. Which of the following statements about contraceptives is NOT correct? a. Contraceptives can be made from a variety of common household ingredients. b. Using an emmenagogue blurs the line between birth control and abortion. c. Reliable contraception has only been possible since the 20th century. d. Women use wax, lemons, lard, or bamboo vaginally to protect against pregnancy. Answer: C Rationale: The statement that reliable contraception has only been possible since the 20th century is incorrect. Various forms of contraception, albeit not as reliable or accessible as modern methods, have been utilized throughout history in different cultures. The other options represent historical or alternative contraceptive methods. 8. Post-partum sex taboos ________. a. only affect women, not their husbands b. are illegal in Western cultures c. may work as birth control by delaying a new pregnancy d. are practiced only after the birth of the first child Answer: C Rationale: Post-partum sex taboos may work as birth control by delaying a new pregnancy. This reflects a cultural practice aimed at spacing pregnancies to ensure the health and well-being of both the mother and the newborn. 9. In studying infertility in Egypt, anthropologist Marcia Inhorn learned that ____________. a. Egyptian husbands will support their wives even if they cannot bear children b. the only option for infertile women is to go to expensive Western-style doctors c. doctors in Egypt’s Western-style hospitals are uninterested in solving infertility d. all of the above Answer: C Rationale: In studying infertility in Egypt, anthropologist Marcia Inhorn learned that doctors in Egypt’s Western-style hospitals are uninterested in solving infertility. This reflects a significant barrier to addressing infertility issues within the context of Egypt's healthcare system. 10. Which of the following best describes the conditions of childbirth witnessed by Kris Holloway in rural Mali? a. Childbirth occurs at home and is a natural, warm, and beautiful experience for mother, midwife, and child. b. Childbirth is supported with limited medical technology that often does more harm than good. c. Childbirth occurs in well-equipped birthing centers funded by the government. d. Childbirth is considered animalistic, and women are forced to give birth outside of the village on their own. Answer: B Rationale: The most accurate description is that childbirth is supported with limited medical technology that often does more harm than good. This reflects the challenges and realities of childbirth in resource-limited settings where access to adequate healthcare infrastructure and services may be lacking. 11. In parts of the Middle East, children who are otherwise unrelated but were nursed by the same woman are considered _________. a. twins b. deviants c. siblings d. cousins Answer: C Rationale: In many cultures, including some parts of the Middle East, breastfeeding creates a bond akin to familial ties. Children nursed by the same woman are often regarded as siblings due to this shared nursing relationship, even if they are not biologically related. 12. Giving birth is more than just reproduction; it is social production. This means: ____________. a. Birth is an event that requires a number of people present, being social together b. Each child born can begin a new society of her/his own c. It is a rite of passage for the individual mother d. Birth rites show how things are done in a culture, reinforcing beliefs about life and the world Answer: D Rationale: Birth is not solely a biological event but also a social one. The process of birth, along with associated rituals and practices, contributes to the social fabric of a community by reinforcing cultural beliefs and practices about life, family, and the world. 13. Doing fieldwork in Yucatan, Brigitte Jordan noted the importance of midwives in Maya pregnancy and childbirth. What do these midwives do? a. Help avoid breech births, still births, and Caesarean sections. b. Make sure a woman gives birth in the lithotomy position. c. Promise the woman she will not experience pain with the birth. d. all of the above Answer: A Rationale: Midwives in Maya culture play a crucial role in ensuring safe pregnancies and childbirth. They help to avoid complications such as breech births, stillbirths, and unnecessary Caesarean sections, demonstrating their expertise in traditional birthing practices. 14. Which of the following is associated with aging for women in Bengal? a. the body becoming hot and moist b. inevitable widowhood c. loss of freedom d. the body becoming dry and cool Answer: D Rationale: In Bengal, aging for women is associated with the body becoming dry and cool, reflecting cultural beliefs about the physiological changes that accompany aging. This contrasts with some Western notions of menopause, which may associate it with symptoms like "hot flashes." 15. According to mainstream Jewish law, married, menstruating women _________. a. are dirty and polluting b. are powerful and magical c. should immerse in a naturally-fed body or pool of water several days after their period d. should always shower before having sex with their husbands Answer: C Rationale: According to mainstream Jewish law, menstruating women are not considered dirty or polluting, but rather they are required to immerse in a ritual bath called a mikvah several days after their period. This practice symbolizes spiritual purification and the restoration of ritual purity. 16. Which of the following statements about new reproductive technologies and genetics is NOT correct? a. New technologies, which emphasize disease, deny fetuses’ social personhood. b. Responses to new genetic information has created unprecedented changes in how family and kinship are defined. c. The mass media has become fascinated with ways to monitor fetal development. d. Commercialization has accompanied the popularization of new paths to motherhood. Answer: A Rationale: The statement "New technologies, which emphasize disease, deny fetuses’ social personhood" is not correct. While new reproductive technologies may focus on preventing or treating genetic diseases, they do not necessarily deny the social personhood of fetuses. Rather, they may raise ethical questions about the boundaries between medical intervention and the autonomy of individuals. 17. The political fight for reproductive freedom in the United States initially concerned _________. a. the right to have children b. the right to seek an abortion c. the right to use birth control d. the right to receive pain medication during childbirth Answer: A Rationale: Initially, the political fight for reproductive freedom in the United States focused on the right to have children. This included issues such as access to contraception, fertility treatments, and the ability to make reproductive choices without interference from the government or other institutions. 18. With which of the following has breastfeeding been associated? a. imparting personality traits b. religious duty c. nutrition and immunity to disease d. all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Breastfeeding has been associated with various factors including imparting personality traits (in some cultural beliefs), fulfilling a religious duty (as seen in some religious practices), and providing nutrition and immunity to disease through breast milk's nutritional and immunological properties. 19. What is kinaaldá? a. the Ethiopian term for a menstrual hut b. the Navajo ritual surrounding first menstruation c. an ancient herb used for contraception d. the Turkish practice of wet nursing Answer: B Rationale: Kinaaldá is the Navajo ritual surrounding a girl's first menstruation. It is a significant ceremony marking her transition into womanhood and often involves various rites and rituals to commemorate this milestone. 20. In general, cultures place the most constraints on women during _________. a. maidenhood b. menopause c. menarche d. pregnancy Answer: A Rationale: In many cultures, maidenhood, or the period of a woman's life before marriage or childbirth, is often associated with the most constraints. This may include restrictions on behavior, dress, and social interactions as societies often place great emphasis on a woman's purity and chastity during this phase of her life. ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What do we mean by the “medicalization of childbirth?” Is pregnancy equally “medicalized?” What about menstruation? How is “medicalizing” women’s bodies another form of the cultural construction of gender? Answer: The medicalization of childbirth refers to the increasing tendency to view childbirth as a medical event rather than a natural process. This involves the extensive use of medical interventions such as cesarean sections, epidurals, and continuous fetal monitoring during labor. While pregnancy itself is not inherently medicalized, certain aspects of it, especially prenatal care and birthing practices, are often heavily medicalized in many societies. Similarly, menstruation, although a natural biological process, has been medicalized through the marketing of menstrual products and the framing of menstruation as a medical issue requiring management. Medicalizing women's bodies reinforces gender norms by framing women's reproductive experiences as inherently flawed or in need of correction, thereby perpetuating the cultural construction of gender that positions women as biologically inferior or in need of medical control. 2. “Biocultural markers” refer to the moments in a woman’s life cycle where physiology and cultural constructs meet. How are these constructed as part of women’s work? How are the biocultural markers in men’s lives different? Answer: Biocultural markers in a woman's life, such as menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause, intersect with cultural expectations and roles assigned to women. Women are often expected to manage these biocultural markers in ways that align with societal norms and expectations, such as adhering to certain rituals or practices related to menstruation or childbirth. This can be seen as part of women's work in maintaining social and familial structures. In contrast, biocultural markers in men's lives, such as puberty or aging, may carry different cultural significance and expectations. Men may be expected to demonstrate virility, strength, or authority as they navigate these markers, but the social implications and responsibilities attached to them may differ from those for women. 3. Throughout time, women have striven to control pregnancy and reproduction. Choosing either fertility treatments or birth control, discuss women’s motivations to conceive or not to conceive within your circle of friends. In other words, apply crosscultural understanding to your own culture. Answer: In my circle of friends, women's motivations regarding conception or contraception vary widely. Some women are motivated to conceive due to cultural or familial expectations, wanting to fulfill traditional roles as mothers or to carry on family lines. Others may choose fertility treatments due to personal desires for motherhood, despite facing challenges with conception. Conversely, some women prioritize career aspirations or personal freedom and choose to delay or avoid conception altogether, opting for birth control to assert control over their reproductive choices. These motivations reflect a complex interplay of cultural, familial, and individual factors, echoing broader societal attitudes towards motherhood, career, and personal autonomy. 4. Discuss how social personhood is conferred upon fetuses? What are the possible implications of this? How does it relate to reproductive technologies such as surrogacy and fetal testing? Answer: Social personhood is often conferred upon fetuses through cultural and societal practices such as naming ceremonies, baby showers, and prenatal bonding activities. This conferral of personhood implies a recognition of the fetus as a social being with rights and value within the community. The implications of this can be profound, influencing attitudes towards abortion, fetal rights, and maternal obligations. In the context of reproductive technologies like surrogacy and fetal testing, the recognition of fetal personhood may raise ethical dilemmas regarding the autonomy and rights of the fetus, as well as the responsibilities of parents and surrogates towards the unborn child. 5. How is social birth different from biological birth? What are the cultural consequences in human societies for the status of fetuses? Of newborns? Of mothers? How is social birth related to the reasons people have for infanticide? Answer: Social birth refers to the cultural recognition and acceptance of an individual as a member of society, which may occur through naming ceremonies, rites of passage, or other cultural rituals. Biological birth, on the other hand, simply refers to the physical act of childbirth. In many societies, social birth carries significant cultural consequences, determining the status and rights of the newborn within the community. Fetuses may be valued or devalued based on cultural beliefs about personhood and the family's circumstances. Newborns may be celebrated or marginalized depending on factors such as gender, health, and lineage. Mothers may experience varying levels of support or stigma based on cultural norms surrounding childbirth and motherhood. Social birth is intimately linked to reasons for infanticide, as societies may justify the disposal of unwanted or marginalized infants by denying them social recognition and personhood. 6. Compare and contrast rites of passage surrounding women as they progress through the life cycle in two cultures. Answer: In Culture A, women's rites of passage often revolve around key biocultural markers such as menarche, marriage, childbirth, and menopause. These ceremonies may involve rituals to mark the onset of menstruation, elaborate wedding ceremonies symbolizing the transition to married life, and celebrations to welcome newborns into the community. Menopause may also be acknowledged through rituals symbolizing wisdom and status within the community. In contrast, in Culture B, women's rites of passage may focus more on individual and familial achievements rather than biological milestones. For example, educational attainment or career success may be celebrated as significant markers of transition for women. While both cultures recognize the importance of women's life transitions, the specific rituals and cultural meanings attached to them vary, reflecting diverse cultural values and norms surrounding femininity, family, and community. Test Bank for A World Full of Women Martha C. Ward, Monica D. Edelstein 9780205957620
