Chapter 2
Philosophical Issues
1. The term epistemology, is derived from the Greek episteme, which means
a. to value highly.
b. to exist.
c. to understand or know.
d. to be skeptical.
Answer: c. to understand or know.
Rationale:
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge,
its origins, and validity. It is derived from the Greek word "episteme," meaning "to
understand or know."
2. The term A Priori refers to
a. that which is derived from experience.
b. knowledge that is acquired through learning.
c. self-evident truths known through intuition.
d. the nature of being.
Answer: c. self-evident truths known through intuition.
Rationale:
A Priori knowledge refers to knowledge that is independent of experience and is known to be
true through reasoning or intuition alone, without the need for empirical evidence.
3. The term A Posteriori refers to
a. that which is derived from experience.
b. the study of problem solving.
c. self-evident truths known through intuition.
d. the nature of being.
Answer: a. that which is derived from experience.
Rationale:
A Posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is derived from experience or empirical evidence,
acquired through observation or experimentation.
4. The empiricist, unlike the nativist, believes that
a. all perceptions are learned or derived from experience.
b. we discern many truths through intuition alone.
c. A Posteriori knowledge is relatively unimportant.
d. there are a great many self-evident truths.
Answer: a. all perceptions are learned or derived from experience.
Rationale:
Empiricists argue that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and perception,
rejecting the notion of innate ideas or knowledge present at birth (nativism).
5. The nativist believes that perceptual abilities
a. are learned or derived from experience.
b. are learned through interaction with others.
c. learned after birth are relatively unimportant.
d. are operational from birth.
Answer: d. are operational from birth.
Rationale:
Nativists assert that certain abilities or knowledge are innate or present from birth, including
perceptual abilities, and do not solely rely on learning or experience.
6. According to the text, each of the following terms refer to abilities, or beliefs about
abilities, that are built into living systems, EXCEPT
a. a priori knowledge
b. instinct
c. empiricism
d. nativism
Answer: c. empiricism
Rationale:
Empiricism does not refer to built-in abilities or beliefs about abilities; instead, it is a
philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of experience and observation in acquiring
knowledge.
7. According to the text, the method of _____ is surely the most common method of assessing
truth.
a. rationalism
b. authority
c. empiricism
d. pragmatism
Answer: b. authority
Rationale:
The text suggests that authority, or accepting truth based on the word of an authoritative
figure or source, is often the most common method of assessing truth, despite its limitations.
8. Knowledge, according to empiricism, is based on facts presented through
a. observation and experience.
b. intuition.
c. instinct.
d. authority.
Answer: a. observation and experience.
Rationale:
Empiricism holds that knowledge is derived from observation and experience of the world,
rather than from intuition, instinct, or authority.
9. The term rationalism comes from the same Latin root as
a. logic.
b. intuition.
c. reason.
d. mathematics.
Answer: c. reason.
Rationale:
Rationalism emphasizes the role of reason and logic in acquiring knowledge and
understanding the world. It is derived from the Latin word "ratio," meaning "reason."
10. Aestheticism emphasizes
a. an active mind.
b. dependence on sensory experience.
c. the belief that the principles of beauty are applicable to other arenas of thought.
d. the cash value of an idea.
Answer: c. the belief that the principles of beauty are applicable to other arenas of thought.
Rationale:
Aestheticism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes the importance of beauty and
aesthetic experience in all aspects of life, including thought and philosophy. It suggests that
principles of beauty can be applied to various domains of human experience and
understanding.
11. Pragmatism emphasizes the _____ of an idea.
a. absolute truth.
b. intuitive success
c. importance of authoritarian validation
d. cash value or workability.
Answer: d. cash value or workability.
Rationale:
Pragmatism, as a philosophical approach, prioritizes the practical consequences or usefulness
of an idea. It focuses on the practical outcomes or "cash value" of beliefs and actions rather
than their abstract truth.
12. Strong emotions are more likely to be conditioned to ____________ as a way of
knowing.
a. authority.
b. pragmatism.
c. empiricism.
d. rationalism.
Answer: a. authority.
Rationale:
Strong emotions can often lead individuals to rely on authority as a way of knowing,
accepting information or beliefs based on emotional attachment to authoritative figures or
sources, rather than through critical evaluation.
13. Observational evidence alone does not warrant a universal conclusion. Thus, though
every observed swan is white, there is no basis for saying that all swans are white. Such a
contention is found in the work of an important philosopher of science by the name of _____.
a. Thomas S. Kuhn
b. Paul Feyerabend
c. Karl Popper
d. William James
Answer: c. Karl Popper
Rationale:
Karl Popper is known for his concept of falsifiability, which asserts that scientific theories
should be potentially falsifiable through empirical observation. The example given
demonstrates the principle that no amount of confirming instances can establish a universal
truth, according to Popper.
14. According to Popper, a theory should
a. survive over time.
b. be falsifiable.
c. have intuitive appeal.
d. meet an aesthetic criterion.
Answer: b. be falsifiable.
Rationale:
Popper argued that scientific theories should be falsifiable, meaning that there must be
empirical observations or experiments that could potentially refute or disprove the theory.
This criterion distinguishes scientific theories from non-scientific ones.
15. The term paradigm as used by _____ refers to _____.
a. Popper . . . anarchy in science
b. Kuhn . . . conventional ways of solving problems
c. Feyerabend . . . normal science
d. Descartes . . . the hypothetico-deductive method
Answer: b. Kuhn . . . conventional ways of solving problems
Rationale:
Thomas Kuhn introduced the concept of paradigm in his work "The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions." A paradigm refers to the accepted framework or set of beliefs, methods, and
practices within a scientific community at a given time. It represents the conventional ways
of solving problems and understanding the world within that community.
16. According to Kuhn, a shift in scientific view marked by a radical new and more
successful organization of the world is
a. normal science.
b. a paradigm.
c. a scientific revolution.
d. all of the above.
Answer: c. a scientific revolution.
Rationale:
Kuhn defined scientific revolutions as periods of profound change in scientific paradigms,
where old theories are replaced by new ones that offer a more successful framework for
understanding the world.
17. Which of the following has argued for an anarchistic epistemology marked by the belief
that there is no such thing as a single unified and unchanging scientific method?
a. Paul K. Feyerabend
b. Thomas Kuhn
c. Karl Popper
d. Francis Bacon
Answer: a. Paul K. Feyerabend
Rationale:
Paul K. Feyerabend advocated for an anarchistic epistemology, rejecting the idea of a single,
unified scientific method and instead arguing for openness to various methodologies and
approaches in scientific inquiry.
18. Domino A impacts domino B and B falls over. According to Aristotle, domino A is the
____ cause of the fall of B.
a. formal
b. efficient
c. final
d. material
Answer: b. efficient
Rationale:
In Aristotle's philosophy, the efficient cause is the force or agency that brings about a change
or motion in an object. In this scenario, domino A's impact is the efficient cause of domino B
falling over.
19. An airplane could be constructed of appropriate materials and have an adequate
propulsion system, but if the wing or some other part were not shaped appropriately, the
plane would not fly. The importance of the shape of the plane is close in meaning to
Aristotle's ___ cause.
a. material
b. final
c. teleological
d. formal
Answer: d. formal
Rationale:
Aristotle's formal cause refers to the defining characteristic or shape of an object, which
determines its identity and function. In this example, the shape of the airplane's wing is
crucial for its functionality, akin to Aristotle's concept of formal cause.
20. The final cause, according to Aristotle, refers to
a. that which immediately sets a thing in motion
b. the shape or identifying features of an object of interest
c. the purpose or end for which a thing was intended
d. free will
Answer: c. the purpose or end for which a thing was intended
Rationale:
Aristotle's final cause is the purpose or goal for which something exists or is created. It
represents the ultimate aim or intended function of an object or process.
21. The term teleology refers to
a. the formal cause
b. purpose or design
c. the energy that sets a causal chain in motion
d. the technical study of religion
Answer: b. purpose or design
Rationale:
Teleology is the philosophical study of purpose or design in nature, suggesting that
phenomena are directed towards specific ends or goals.
22. The view that any design in nature is immanent in nature is found in _____ , whereas the
view that any design in nature is the work of a designer is found in _____.
a. intrinsic teleology . . . extrinsic teleology
b. extrinsic teleology . . . intrinsic teleology
c. intrinsic teleology . . . formal cause
d. extrinsic teleology . . . formal cause
Answer: a. intrinsic teleology . . . extrinsic teleology
Rationale:
Intrinsic teleology suggests that design or purpose is inherent in nature itself, while extrinsic
teleology argues that design in nature is the result of external intervention or a designer.
23. Psychological determinism is the belief that
a. there are causes, known or unknown, for every behavior or experience.
b. some events may really be random.
c. humans freely determine their own choices.
d. all of the above.
Answer: a. there are causes, known or unknown, for every behavior or experience.
Rationale:
Psychological determinism asserts that all human behavior and experiences are determined
by prior causes, whether known or unknown, and that there is no true freedom of choice.
24. The contemporary status of the free will – determinism debate in psychology is best
characterized as
a. abandoned due to its irrelevance to the discipline
b. focused on physiological determinants of intentions
c. resolved in favor of determinism due to recent advances in technology and neuroimaging
tools
d. resolved in favor of free will due to recent advances in technology and neuroimaging tools
Answer: b. focused on physiological determinants of intentions
Rationale:
The debate on free will vs. determinism in psychology is currently focused on understanding
the physiological processes and brain mechanisms underlying decision-making and
intentions, rather than being definitively resolved in favor of one perspective.
25. The term ontology refers to
a. the study of the limitations of human knowledge
b. the study of values
c. the study of the nature and relations of being
d. the study of causality
Answer: c. the study of the nature and relations of being
Rationale:
Ontology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of being, existence, and reality,
including the study of categories of being and their interrelationships.
26. Materialism is the belief that
a. mind is the primary material of the universe.
b. matter makes up everything.
c. mind interacts with material.
d. all of the above.
Answer: b. matter makes up everything.
Rationale:
Materialism is the philosophical view that everything that exists is ultimately composed of
matter, and that all phenomena, including mental processes, can be explained in terms of
material interactions.
27. According to idealism
a. material reality is the basis of all science
b. language is the basis of all science
c. the mental world or the world of experience is the basis of all science
d. science studies only the physical world
Answer: c. the mental world or the world of experience is the basis of all science
Rationale:
Idealism is a philosophical perspective that asserts the primacy of the mental or experiential
realm, suggesting that reality is fundamentally based on ideas, thoughts, or consciousness
rather than material objects or physical phenomena.
28. Mind is a kind of overflow of by-product of brain activity, but mind has no causal
efficacy. Such a contention is most consistent with
a. interactionism
b. epistemology
c. ontological pluralism
d. epiphenomenalism
Answer: d. epiphenomenalism
Rationale:
Epiphenomenalism posits that mental states are mere by-products of physical brain processes
and lack causal efficacy, meaning they do not influence physical events. This perspective
suggests that mental events are epiphenomena, arising from brain activity but playing no
causal role.
29. According to the text, the commonsense position with respect to mind and body is known
as
a. interactionism
b. psychophysical parallelism
c. emergentism
d. epiphenomenalism
Answer: a. interactionism
Rationale:
Interactionism is the commonsense position that suggests that mind and body interact with
each other, influencing one another's functioning and behavior.
30. One of the more difficult problems associated with psychophysical parallelism is that
a. it fails to specify a source of interaction between mind and body
b. it implies a kind of preestablished harmony
c. it fails to show how mind emerges from body
d. it agrees in an uncanny way with common sense
Answer: b. it implies a kind of preestablished harmony
Rationale:
Psychophysical parallelism proposes a parallel relationship between mental and physical
events without specifying how they interact, leading to the problem of implying a
preestablished harmony where mental and physical events unfold in synchrony without direct
causal interaction.
31. Some philosophers have argued that mental processes are produced by brain processes,
but are nevertheless qualitatively different from brain processes. Such a position is called
a. emergentism
b. interactionism
c. psychophysical parallelism
d. attributive pluralism
Answer: a. emergentism
Rationale:
Emergentism posits that mental phenomena emerge from complex interactions of physical
processes in the brain but are qualitatively distinct from those processes, representing higherorder emergent properties.
32. The idea that there are many separate real things (e.g., a real mind, a real body, a real
God, a real material world, and so on) is most consistent with
a. attributive pluralism
b. ontological pluralism
c. epiphenomenalism
d. interactionism
Answer: b. ontological pluralism
Rationale:
Ontological pluralism asserts the existence of multiple separate entities or realities, such as
mind, body, God, and the material world, each having its own distinct existence or reality.
33. Psychogeny can be defined as the study of
a. the origin of psyche.
b. materialist mind-brain positions.
c. double-aspect monism.
d. the origin of the mind-brain debate
Answer: a. the origin of psyche.
Rationale:
Psychogeny refers to the study of the origin and development of the psyche or mind,
exploring its emergence and nature.
34. Psychogenic identity theory maintains that
a. psyche is instilled in the biological substrate at a given point in time.
b. the psychically endowed biological substrate is identical with the conscious adult.
c. the psyche does not change qualitatively across the lifetime of the individual.
d. all of the above.
Answer: d. all of the above.
Rationale:
Psychogenic identity theory suggests that the psyche or mind is inherent in the biological
substrate and remains consistent across the lifetime of an individual.
35. Psychogenic emergentism is the belief that
a. psyche is instilled in the organism at one point in time.
b. psyche develops with the developing biological organism.
c. the instilled psyche is identical with the conscious adult.
d. all of the above.
Answer: b. psyche develops with the developing biological organism.
Rationale:
Psychogenic emergentism proposes that the psyche emerges or develops alongside the
biological organism, evolving and changing over time as the organism grows and develops.
36. A central problem with explanations by comparison is
a. the risk of overgeneralization.
b. that humans lack confidence in analogies.
c. that differences between ideas or concepts may be overemphasized.
d. all of the above.
Answer: a. the risk of overgeneralization.
Rationale:
Explanations by comparison, while useful for illustrating complex concepts, run the risk of
overgeneralization, where similarities between ideas or concepts may be exaggerated or
applied too broadly, leading to inaccuracies or misunderstandings.
Test Bank for A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context
Brett D. King, Wayne Viney, William Douglas Woody
9780205987184
