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Chapter 10: Sexual Orientation Learning Objectives Understanding Sexual Orientation • Identify the different expressions of sexual orientation. • Explain the factors that contribute to sexual orientation. • Describe compulsory heterosexuality and how society may influence the expression of sexual orientation. Variations in Sexual Orientation • Identify same-sex relationships across cultures as structured by differences in age, gender, and roles. • Describe the social and political context of the LGBTQ movement in the United States. • Describe bisexuality, sexual fluidity, and queer or questioning. Homosexuality, Discrimination, and Stigma • Discuss the nature of sexual prejudice and homophobia. • Explain how bullying may lead to terrible outcomes. • Identify the factors that contribute to hate crimes. Coming Out and Sexual Well-Being • List various steps in deciding to be out socially. • Describe the social and related pressures of keeping sexual orientation hidden. • Discuss the dynamics of LGBTQ family formation in the United States. Sexual Orientation as a Human Right • Explain how the United Nations’ stance came about. • Discuss gay rights as human rights. Chapter Outline Chapter 10: sexual Orientation Learning Objectives 10.1 Discussion Topic 10.1 Discussion Topic 10.2 Learning Objectives 10.2 Discussion Topic 10.3 Discussion Topic 10.4 Discussion Topic 10.5 Learning Objectives 10.3 Discussion Topic 10.6 Discussion Topic 10.7 Learning Objectives 10.4 Discussion Topic 10.8 Discussion Topic 10.9 I. Understanding Sexual Orientation • Sexual orientation is the structure of a person’s sexual or romantic attractions to people of the same or other sex or toward both sexes. • Heterosexual, or straight, people are attracted to the other sex. • Women who are attracted to other women may refer to themselves as lesbian, whereas men who are attracted to other men may refer to themselves as gay or homosexual. • Some individuals are known as bisexual because they are attracted to both sexes, though not necessarily at the same time or to the same degree. • Some individuals prefer to call themselves queer, which is an umbrella term for all sexual minorities. • Collectively, these sexual orientations are often referred to as LGBTQ. • For some, the “q” also means questioning, which refers to people who are considering if they are LGBTQ or at least do not wish to identify as heterosexual. • The “T” in LGBTQ stands for transgender, which is not a sexual orientation. Generally, all sexual orientations except heterosexuality are regarded as nonconforming sexual behaviors, which means they are not consistent with a society’s gender roles, norms, and relationships. Some people confuse non-conforming gender behaviors with nonconforming sexual behaviors. • Most experts agree that the roots of sexual orientation are in childhood. Research in the United States and across cultures shows that by age 9 or 10, most individuals feel more or less attracted to one or the other sex (McClintock & Herdt, 1996; Savin-Williams, 2005). o Over time, most individuals experience these attractions as so routine that they hardly think about them, a phenomenon that is called habitualization. These feelings and behaviors recur frequently enough to become a pattern. A. The Spectrum of Sexual Orientation • Researchers have found that sexual orientations exist on a spectrum and range from being exclusively heterosexual to being exclusively homosexual. Bisexuality and other orientations exist between the two ends of the spectrum Newer research has updated these early studies, revealing an even greater spectrum of sexual orientation than previously known, as well as its causes and expressions. • The Kinsey scale (1948) of sexual orientation measures the spectrum of orientation (Figure 10.1). Through interviews with more than 10,000 people, Kinsey found that “pure” homosexuals and “pure” heterosexuals are the exception, not the rule, in the United States. In fact, only about 4% of the males in his historic sample were exclusively homosexual, while about 12% were bisexual, and the remainder was heterosexual (84%). At the time, a smaller percentage of females reported being homosexual or bisexual. Most people tend toward one end of the spectrum or the other and have had a smattering of experiences in between. B. The Gap Between Sexual Attraction and Behavior • Research reveals that some individuals experience a gap between their sexual attractions and their expressed sexual behavior. For example, a man may be attracted to other men, but date or have sex only with females. • More people experience attraction to the same gender than there are people who actually express their attractions and engage in sexual behavior with the same gender. • Women experience attractions for women more frequently than men experience attractions for men: 59% for women compared to 44% for men. Women do not necessarily express their attraction in their behavior, however. Men tend to act on their attractions more often than women: 22% for men compared to 13% to women. C. Sources of Sexual Orientation • Genetic Sources—Twin studies compare twins to see what part of nature or nurture may influence behavior. There are two types of twins: monozygotic (MZ), or “identical,” twins share 100% of their genes. This means, then, that the variation that occurs in the traits of MZ twins, whether they be in weight, intelligence, depression, or sexual orientation, is the result of their individual life experiences, or the influence of nurture. Dizygotic (DZ), or “fraternal,” twins share only 50% of their genes, which is the same as siblings who are not twins. Because MZ twins are more similar than DZ twins, it is possible to tease out the effects of genes, culture, and unique experiences when it comes to sexual orientation (Bailey & Pilliard, 1991). o Research shows that if one identical twin is gay, the other is most likely to be gay, too; or if one is straight, the other is most likely to be straight (Blanchard & Bogaert, 2004). This research may allow us to see the likelihood that MZ brothers have the same sexual orientation compared to DZ brothers or non-twin brothers. The largest twin studies have determined that 30% of identical twins share a homosexual or bisexual orientation, as compared to 8% of fraternal twins. Note that this 30% linkage is not even close to 100%, though identical twins share 100% of their DNA. This means that 70% of the individuals’ source of sexual orientation is social. The social factors may include social learning experiences, family environment, and culture. • Prenatal Sources—Researchers of prenatal sources of sexual orientation typically consider two factors. The first is hormones. They look for a patterned link between a hormonal trait in the mother’s biology and the expression of sexual orientation in her offspring. o Some scientists hypothesize that a portion of the brain determines sexual orientation. A classic study done of this kind on the bodies of AIDS victims after they had died indicated important differences in the brains of heterosexual men compared to homosexual men (LeVay, 1991). o Birth order is a second factor in research on prenatal sources of sexual orientation. These studies try to demonstrate a correlation between the birth order of siblings and the possibility of being homosexual. • Postnatal Sources—Imprinting is an early learning process when newborns establish a behavior pattern of recognition and attraction to another animal of its own kind or to an object identified as the parent. It is essential for human infants to develop a deep attachment to an adult during the sensitive period from about 6 months to 2 years of age. o One study suggests that during this period, adults could implicitly communicate sexual feelings or implant sexual scripts, called love maps, in children’s development of sexual orientation (Money, 1988). Few studies have empirically supported this idea, though it remains appealing to some sexual orientation theories (Bem, 1996). • Interactive Biopsychosocial Sources—This is a more comprehensive explanation of sexual orientation than the first three. The interactive biopsychosocial approach suggests that, starting in early life, biological, psychological, and social factors interact to produce sexual attractions and sexual orientation. o In this explanation, sexuality is viewed as a biological process that is later reinforced by culture and behavioral experiences such as pleasure. For example, if an individual has a biosocial tendency to be attracted to the same sex, and his or her culture allows or requires this expression in growing up, the biological and social experiences can combine to ensure one or another form of sexual orientation. • There is no scientific consensus on which of these four explanations is accurate or that they are mutually exclusive. Today researchers in psychology and biology lean toward the genetic and prenatal approaches. These approaches imply that orientation is, to a certain extent, “hard wired” in human development, especially during the prenatal stage. D. Sexual Socialization and Compulsory Heterosexuality • In the United States and many other countries, the essential norm is to live socially as heterosexual and be married with children. Researchers call this concept compulsory heterosexuality. E. Sexual Individuality and Sexual Orientation • The integration of sexual individuality with sexual orientation is vital to sexual well-being. Sexual individuality may be an acquired expression of self that is grounded in very basic experiences of our own body and biology: our DNA, prenatal hormones, genitals, attractions, attachments, and early feelings about other people’s bodies. • Sexual individuality leads to this question: Will children brought up in a household headed by a gay or lesbian couple become gay or lesbian? Considerable controversy exists over whether someone can actually be socialized as LGBTQ or whether someone can teach someone else to be gay. • No evidence supports the idea that parental sexual orientation influences that of their children. II. Variations in Sexual Orientation A. Same Sex Behavior Variations across Cultures • Cultures Defined by Age Difference—In some cultures, age is the primary difference for structuring the expression of same-sex relationships. Ancient Greece is an example of a culture that for centuries used age to define how males engaged in same-sex relations. • Cultures Defined by Gender Difference—Many cultures in Asia and the Pacific, North and South America, and Africa permitted the expression of same-sex behaviors by a male who would actually take on the gender role of women. • Cultures Defined by Role Difference—In some complex societies, such as in ancient Japan and Korea, as well as in England during the period of Shakespeare, same-sex relationships were allowed for males who performed as actors in plays or on stage, as well as in certain religious institutions, such as monks in the Buddhist tradition or shamans in some traditional cultures. o In The Netherlands, too, the variety of role-defined same-sex practices seemed to explode in the modern period; for example, women dressed in men’s clothes to gain position and status. This practice is known as cross-dressing; and in 19th-century sexology, the focus was on being a transvestite, someone with a sexual interest in cross-dressing. B. The Invention of Modern Gay and Lesbian Identity • Before the use of sexual identity as a concept, homosexuals thought of themselves as neither male nor female, and definitely abnormal. Freud (1905) referred to homosexuals as psychic hermaphrodites, meaning they were a woman in a man’s body or a man in a woman’s body. The medical and cultural ideal was that “opposites attract.” C. The Modern LGBTQ Movement • Doctors considered homosexuality to be physically and mentally diseased, while among the clergy, LGBTQ people were considered morally degenerate. • Dr. Evelyn Hooker, a psychologist from UCLA who employed standard psychological personality tests comparing homosexuals and heterosexuals discovered that there was no difference between them (Bayer, 1987). Thus began the long, difficult challenge of changing the status of homosexuality in medicine from that of mental illness to normality. • President Obama’s expressed support for the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2012 is certainly a positive indication of the winds of change. D. 10% Are Gay: Myth or Sexual Geography? • During the modern LGBTQ movement, the press began to report the number of gay people as being around 10% of the general population. In fact, critics and advocacy groups of LGBTQ alike have used this 10% number to claim different things. • The best national random sample available shows that 2.4% of all men and 1.3% of all women are LGBTQ. • One explanation for the difference may be sexual geography, the idea that people with different sexual orientations live in particular cities and even distinct neighborhoods or social spaces that are “safe” and more gay-friendly (Laumann et al., 2004). In fact, many LGBTQ people believe that large cities are the safest spaces to live because of their diverse, tolerant, and anonymous population. • Estimates for homosexual behavior in the largest 12 cities in the United States range between 8% and 12%, with the median being 10%. Thus, the LGBTQ population averages 10% in big cities and a lot less in small towns. E. Bisexuality • In the 19th century, medical sexologists saw bisexuality as another form of mental and physical disease. Moreover, both heterosexuals and homosexuals were suspicious of people who stated that they had dual attractions to both sexes, because they saw this as lying or fence-sitting—or even being disloyal. F. African American Men Being on the Down Low • Homosexuality and bisexuality in the African American community remain deeply controversial in the United States. • Being on the down low (BODL) is an African American term that refers to a man who hides his sexual orientation. It may be another result of compulsory heterosexuality. G. Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) • Another global variation of sexual orientation similar to BODL is one in which some men are married or date women and also have sex with other men on occasion or even regularly. This orientation is referred to as men who have sex with men (MSM). • It is more common in countries around the world that traditionally require all males to be married with children and lack a category of homosexual identity. Here again, compulsory heterosexuality may be at the root of this issue. H. Female Sexual Fluidity • Researchers have come to see female sexuality as generally being more socially flexible and responsive than male sexuality (Baumeister, 2000). This sexual plasticity is referred to as sexual fluidity, a form of sexual expression that is more situation-dependent and perhaps more open to the characteristics of the individual, rather than focusing so much on the anatomy. • It may be that women can be attracted to another’s personality or other traits, such as “creativity” or “energy” rather than anatomy or gender per se. These attractions are referred to as person-based attractions. I. Queer and Questioning • When a young person says “it is cool to be queer,” what does this statement mean? For older LGBTQ people, the term queer was once extremely offensive. With the advent of the LGBTQ movement and increasing change in how young people have grown more accepting and tolerant of sexual variation, a larger number of young people now use queer as an alternative to calling themselves gay, lesbian, bisexual, or straight. From the context of their expression of sexual attractions and identity labels, they may also be exploring or questioning their orientation. III. Homosexuality, Discrimination, and Stigma • Discrimination against LGBTQ people may profoundly shape the development and expression of their orientation in much the same way that racism affects how people of color grow up, develop self-awareness, and behave in their lives. • Stigma, which is a sign of all this social unacceptability, is a huge effect of this process for LGBTQ people. Stigma spoils a person’s identity and turns him or her into a social outcast. Stigma definitely influences people’s health and sexual well-being because their family and friends may avoid them, and they may be deprived of basic services such as health care as a result. A. Sexual Prejudice and Homophobia • Sexual prejudice is the general intolerance and hostility directed toward people because of their sexual orientation or sexual behavior. Sexual prejudice, like racism, is learned during childhood and adolescence. • One specific type of sexual prejudice is homophobia, the specific fear and hate projected toward homosexuality in general and LGBTQ people in particular. Researchers have found that homophobia is a lot more common than previously known. • Victims of sexual prejudice and homophobia often face discrimination or are denied a job, military service, housing, or health care. They tend to develop feelings of distress, poor self-esteem, and alienation from society. As a consequence, their health and wellbeing may suffer greatly, a condition known as minority stress, associated with chronic physical and mental health stress and disease. B. Bullying and Internalized Homophobia • Tragic incidents connect bullying and internalized homophobia (a feeling that a person may absorb from societal hostility toward LGBTQ people). Internalized homophobia can also harm LGBTQ individuals, as they may turn to bullying and inflict harm on themselves. • When people’s ability to express their sexual orientation is stunted by fear of rejection by religion or family, stigma, bullying, or discrimination, their mental distress and anxiety may increase significantly. They may engage in self-destructive behaviors, such as drug use, risky sex, or suicide and these effects may extend into midlife and aging for LGBTQ people. C. Hate Crimes • The most severe form of homophobia can lead to hate crimes where people inflict violence on gay men and lesbian women or other minorities. It is tempting to think that hate crimes are rare but sadly they are all too common. While some aspects of LGBTQ life are improving, such as the positive role models on television, hate crimes have actually increased in some parts of the United States, and especially in classroom settings. As recently as 2003, 55% of Americans continued to view gay sex as a sin, whereas straight sex is seen more as a blessing. IV. Coming Out and Sexual Well-Being A. Social Acceptance and Being Out • One meta-study examined hundreds of school studies in the United States and discovered that violation of sexual orientation rights continues today. The 2007 National School Climate Survey of 6,209 LGBT youths found that 86% were verbally harassed due to their sexual orientation and 67% were bullied, harassed, or assaulted because of their gender identity expression. Researchers also found that when principals, teachers, parents, and community members speak out in support of LGBTQ people in the classroom, things get better. B. Being Out—Steps Toward Well-Being • Being out, in this context, means disclosing a sexual orientation to the people who truly matter, whether that be friends and family, peers or grandparents, a favorite teacher, and others. Being out is not an “all or nothing” gamble with life. The process is a bit different depending on whether someone is a young teen or a young adult, as being younger may require thinking about the impact of being out and living at home or being out at school C. LGBTQ Family Formation • Until sometime in the 1960s, gay men felt that they could only love or have sex with heterosexual men, not other gay men, and the same was true for lesbian women. Today, it is possible to find love and to create family with other LGBTQ people. Forming their own family is now considered an act of sexual orientation expression for many people in the world. • A family of choice is composed of intimate partners or spouses, close friends, and neighbors and other loved ones who feel so close to each other that they celebrate holidays and birthdays together as if they were a biological family. V. Sexual Orientation as a Human Right • Globally a sea change is occurring with new laws and policies about the rights of gay and lesbian people. But many places still have policies that oppose the rights of LGBTQ people or criminalize them. Many African countries, for example, not only do not offer gay civil rights, they also have extremely negative laws against LGBTQ people. In fact, 38 out of 53 African countries criminalize homosexuality, some with the death sentence, and prominent gay activists have been murdered in eastern and southern Africa for being open about or supporting the rights of LGBTQ people to live with dignity, marry, or have children. Key Terms Sexual orientation—the structure of a person’s sexual or romantic attractions or both to people of the same or other sex, or toward both sexes Heterosexual/straight—people who are attracted to the other sex Lesbian—a woman who is attracted to other women Gay/homosexual—a man who is attracted only or primarily to other men Bisexual—a person who is sometimes attracted to men or women or both, although not necessarily to the same degree or at the same point in time Queer or questioning—a person who does not wish to be classified as heterosexual and who may be questioning an attraction to people of the same sex LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer)—the collective name for the social movement supporting sexual minority rights in the United States and similar Western nations Nonconforming sexual behaviors—sexual expressions that are different from the society’s dominant sexual norms Habitualization—actions repeated frequently enough to be cast into a pattern so that they seem natural Twin studies—research that compares twins to determine what part of nature or nurture may have influenced behavior Imprinting—a rapid early learning process by which a newborn establishes a behavior pattern of recognition and attraction to another animal of its own kind or to an object identified as the parent Interactive biopsychosocial approach—a theory that suggests that biological, psychological, and social factors work together to produce sexual attractions and feelings, and perhaps sexual orientation Compulsory heterosexuality—the condition of being socially compelled to have sexual relationships with the other gender, be married, and have children, regardless of sexual orientation Transvestite—someone with an interest in wearing clothing typical of the other gender Sexual geography—cities and neighborhoods to which sexual minorities migrate as safe places to live Being on the down low (BODL)—an African American term that refers to a man who hides his sexual orientation Men who have sex with men (MSM)—men who are married or date women and also have sex with other men Sexual fluidity—a form of sexual expression that is more situation-dependent and perhaps more open to the characteristics of the individual, rather than focusing so much on the anatomy Person-based attraction—attraction to another person and not to that person’s gender Stigma—extreme disapproval attached to someone who deviates from socially and culturally acceptable standards of behavior, turning the person into a social outcast Sexual prejudice—irrational hatred directed toward people because of their sexual orientation or sexual behavior Homophobia—irrational fear of or discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals minority stress—chronic health effects of homophobia, such as high blood pressure and depression Internalized homophobia—negative stereotypes or beliefs about LGBTQ people that a person may absorb from societal hostility toward LGBTQ people Hate crime—an act of aggression or hatred targeted toward someone because of religion, race, or sexual orientation Family of choice—a group composed of those intimate partners or legally married spouses, close friends, and neighbors who feel so close to each other that they celebrate holidays and birthdays Instructor Manual for Human Sexuality: Self, Society, and Culture Gilbert Herdt, Nicole Polen-Petit 9780073532165, 9780077817527
