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Chapter 9: Environment and Adaptation True/False Questions 1) The people at Catalhoyuk were sedentary and had food surpluses. Answer: True Rationale: Catalhoyuk, located in modern-day Turkey, was a Neolithic settlement dating back to around 7500 BCE. Excavations at Catalhoyuk have revealed evidence of a sedentary lifestyle, characterized by permanent dwellings and a reliance on agriculture for food production. Additionally, the presence of storage facilities and surplus food storage indicates that the inhabitants had food surpluses, contributing to their sedentary lifestyle. 2) Before becoming farmers, homo sapiens rarely incorporated plants into their diet. Answer: False Rationale: Before the development of agriculture, early Homo sapiens and their ancestors relied heavily on gathering and hunting for food. Plant foods, including fruits, seeds, nuts, and roots, were a significant component of their diet. While hunting provided animal protein, plant resources were essential for sustenance and likely contributed a substantial portion of their calorie intake. 3) As people become more numerous, and as technology becomes more complex, we have learned to decrease the scale of our impact on the environment. Answer: False Rationale: While advances in technology and increased awareness of environmental issues have led to improvements in some aspects of environmental impact mitigation, overall, human activities continue to exert significant pressure on the environment. Population growth, coupled with industrialization and resource extraction, has resulted in widespread environmental degradation, including habitat loss, pollution, and climate change. Despite efforts to develop sustainable practices and technologies, the scale of human impact on the environment remains substantial. Therefore, the statement is false. 4) Geomorphology is the study of how landforms change through time. Answer: True Rationale: Geomorphology is a branch of Earth science that focuses on the study of landforms, their origin, evolution, and the processes that shape them over time. It encompasses the study of various landforms, including mountains, valleys, rivers, coastlines, and glaciers, and examines the dynamic interactions between geological, hydrological, climatic, and biological processes that shape the Earth's surface. 5) It is easier for archaeologists to reconstruct past climates than past weather. Answer: True Rationale: Archaeologists primarily rely on proxy indicators such as sediment cores, pollen records, ice cores, and tree rings to reconstruct past climates. These proxies provide valuable information about long-term climate trends and environmental changes but may not capture short-term variations in weather patterns, which can be more challenging to reconstruct accurately from archaeological evidence alone. 6) Optimization models are used to explain aspects of behavior related to the use of resources. Answer: True Rationale: Optimization models are theoretical frameworks used in archaeology and anthropology to understand how past human societies made decisions about resource procurement, allocation, and utilization. These models seek to identify patterns of behavior that maximize benefits (such as food acquisition or social status) while minimizing costs (such as energy expenditure or risk) within specific environmental and cultural contexts. 7) Rock art is an example of the kind of archaeological data that can be used to reconstruct paleoclimates. Answer: True Rationale: Rock art, including petroglyphs and pictographs, often depicts scenes related to environmental conditions, wildlife, and human interactions with the landscape. By analyzing the motifs, locations, and styles of rock art, archaeologists can infer aspects of past climates, ecological conditions, and cultural practices, providing valuable insights into the environmental context of prehistoric societies. 8) All organisms, including humans, affect their environment to some degree. Answer: True Rationale: Human activities, like those of other organisms, can have significant impacts on the environment, including changes to landscapes, ecosystems, and biodiversity. Through activities such as hunting, agriculture, settlement, and resource extraction, humans have altered environments throughout history, shaping landscapes and influencing ecological processes. 9) An example of a leveling mechanism is the seasonal adaptation to differences in food availability between the spring and the winter. Answer: True Rationale: Leveling mechanisms are cultural practices or social norms that help to reduce inequalities within societies by redistributing resources or regulating access to them. Seasonal adaptations to fluctuations in food availability, such as sharing food stores or organizing collective hunting or gathering expeditions, can serve as leveling mechanisms by ensuring that individuals or groups have access to resources during times of scarcity. 10) Religious practices, such as calls for supernatural intervention, can be considered a form of cultural adaptation. Answer: True Rationale: Religious practices and beliefs often serve adaptive functions within societies by providing explanations for natural phenomena, promoting social cohesion, regulating behavior, and offering coping mechanisms in times of uncertainty or crisis. By fostering a sense of community, shared identity, and collective values, religious systems contribute to the resilience and survival of cultural groups in diverse environmental and social contexts. 11) Kirchʹs models of Polynesian agriculture were based on both archaeological and ethnographic research. Answer: True Rationale: Kirch, a prominent archaeologist, conducted extensive research on Polynesian agriculture, drawing from both archaeological evidence and ethnographic studies of contemporary Polynesian societies. By combining insights from these diverse sources, Kirch developed comprehensive models to understand the complex agricultural systems of the Polynesian islands. 12) The strongest most centralized cultures will always arise in the areas with the most productive agricultural system. Answer: False Rationale: While agricultural productivity can influence the development of complex societies, other factors such as environmental stability, social organization, technological innovations, and political dynamics also play crucial roles. Strong centralized cultures can emerge in diverse environmental settings, depending on a combination of ecological, cultural, and historical factors. 13) Intensive management of certain resources can lead to domestication. Answer: True Rationale: Intensive management practices, such as selective breeding, controlled harvesting, cultivation, and protection of wild plants and animals, can facilitate their transition to domesticated forms over time. By exerting selective pressures on desirable traits, human activities can drive the genetic and behavioral changes necessary for domestication to occur. 14) Controlled burning probably was the most widely used method of environmental manipulation in the human past. Answer: True Rationale: Controlled burning, also known as fire-stick farming or cultural burning, has been practiced by numerous societies worldwide for thousands of years. This technique involves deliberately setting fires to manage vegetation, clear land for agriculture, promote regrowth of desired plant species, maintain hunting grounds, and reduce the risk of wildfires. Evidence of controlled burning is widespread in the archaeological record, indicating its importance as a tool for environmental manipulation. 15) The remains of animals can be used as evidence for identifying the type of vegetation near a site. Answer: True Rationale: Faunal remains, such as bones, teeth, and coprolites (fossilized feces), can provide valuable information about past environments and ecosystems. By analyzing the isotopic composition, dental microwear patterns, and dietary preferences of animal remains, archaeologists can infer the types of vegetation consumed by animals, reconstruct past habitats, and identify ecological changes over time. 16) Robert Braidwood rejected the oasis theory of agricultural development because he saw no evidence of the kind of severe climatic change proposed by Childe. Answer: True Rationale: Robert Braidwood, a prominent archaeologist, proposed the "hilly flanks hypothesis" to explain the origins of agriculture in the Near East, challenging V. Gordon Childe's "oasis theory." Braidwood argued that there was insufficient evidence to support Childe's hypothesis of dramatic climatic shifts leading to agricultural development in oasis environments. Instead, he emphasized the role of gradual environmental changes and human experimentation with wild plant resources in the domestication process. 17) The mass extinction of large animals at the end of the Pleistocene was a ʺfood crisis.ʺ Answer: True Rationale: The mass extinction of large animals, known as the Pleistocene megafaunal extinction, coincided with significant environmental changes and the spread of human populations around the world. While the exact causes of this extinction event are debated, human hunting and habitat alteration likely played significant roles. The loss of large-bodied prey species would have disrupted food chains and affected ecosystems, potentially leading to food shortages and ecological imbalances for human and other animal populations. 18) An ecosystem operates within a biome. Answer: True Rationale: A biome is a large geographical area characterized by distinct climate, vegetation, and animal communities. Within each biome, various ecosystems exist, each defined by unique interactions between living organisms and their environment. Ecosystems encompass specific habitats, such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and wetlands, where organisms interact with each other and their surroundings. 19) Unless a culture develops the optimal adaptation to its environment, it is doomed. Answer: False Rationale: Cultural adaptation is a complex process influenced by numerous factors, including environmental conditions, technological innovations, social organization, and historical contingencies. While optimal adaptations can enhance a culture's resilience and sustainability, the absence of perfect adaptations does not inevitably lead to cultural failure or extinction. Cultures can exhibit flexibility, creativity, and adaptive capacity, allowing them to survive and thrive despite challenges and constraints. 20) The development of environmental archaeology was linked to the development of processual archaeology. Answer: True Rationale: Environmental archaeology emerged as a distinct subfield within archaeology during the mid-20th century, coinciding with the rise of processual archaeology. Processual archaeology emphasized the use of scientific methods, systems theory, and interdisciplinary approaches to understand past human societies and their interactions with the environment. Environmental archaeology contributed methods and perspectives from ecology, geography, geology, and other disciplines to enhance archaeological research on human-environment relationships. Multiple Choice Questions 1) The evidence that the people at Catalhoyouk were sedentary and had food surpluses is __________. A) the large number of animal bones found at the site B) the size of the buildings C) house floors with ovens and storage bins D) foods left at sacrificial shrines E) human burials beneath house floors Answer: C Rationale: House floors with ovens and storage bins indicate settled, sedentary living patterns and food surplus, suggesting that the inhabitants engaged in agriculture and food storage practices. 2) Julian Steward said which of the following __________. A) environment has no impact on cultural adaptation B) adaptations are long-term C) changes in culture can result in entirely new ones through cultural evolution D) technology drives cultural change E) changes in culture only appear via diffusion Answer: C Rationale: Julian Steward proposed the theory of cultural ecology, which suggests that changes in culture can lead to the emergence of entirely new cultures through cultural evolution, making option C the correct choice. 3) A distinct geographic area containing a specific group of interdependent living species is called __________. A) a climate B) an ecotone C) an ecosystem D) a biome E) an ecozone. Answer: E Rationale: An ecozone refers to a distinct geographic area containing a specific group of interdependent living species, making it the appropriate choice. 4) The study of the relationship between humans and their environment is called __________. A) paleodemography B) human adaptation C) cultural evolution D) human ecology E) cultural adaptation Answer: D Rationale: Human ecology is the study of the relationship between humans and their environment, encompassing social, cultural, and physical aspects. 5) The place where two ecozones meet and overlap is called __________. A) an ecotone B) a habitat C) a biome D) an ecosystem E) a continent Answer: A Rationale: An ecotone is the transition area between two distinct ecological communities, making it the correct choice. 6) Research at Lakeside Cave, Utah, indicated that __________. A) grasshoppers were a critical resource, crucial to survival B) grasshoppers were a highly prized ritual food C) the optimal diet of the prehistoric people of the area cannot yet be determined. D) optimization models can never be proven E) acorns were less important than previously thought Answer: C Rationale: The research at Lakeside Cave, Utah, did not provide conclusive evidence about the optimal diet of prehistoric people, thus indicating that the optimal diet cannot yet be determined. 7) A commodity actually used by an organism is called __________. A) a cost B) a resource C) an ecotone D) a requirement E) a niche Answer: B Rationale: A resource refers to a commodity actually used by an organism for sustenance or other purposes, making it the correct choice. 8) The geographic place where an organism lives is called __________. A) a region B) an ecosystem C) a habitat D) an ecotone E) a biome Answer: C Rationale: A habitat refers to the specific geographic place where an organism lives, meets its basic needs for survival, and reproduces. 9) Which of the following is a way landforms may be modified? A) plate tectonics B) tidal activity C) climate D) solar flares E) fossils Answer: A Rationale: Plate tectonics, the movement of Earth's lithosphere, is a major factor in modifying landforms through processes like folding, faulting, and volcanic activity. 10) Cores taken from some lakes can reveal varves which are __________. A) microscopic animals B) deposition of phytoliths C) glacial snowfall D) annual temperature change E) annual records of sediment deposition Answer: E Rationale: Varves are annual layers of sediment deposited in lakes, with each layer representing one year's deposition, making them useful for studying past environmental conditions. 11) Malnutrition is an example of something __________. A) that would manifest as a physiological adaptation B) that would manifest as an anatomical adaptation C) that would not show up in the archaeological record D) that is only present in past populations E) that is rare in agricultural populations Answer: A Rationale: Malnutrition often leads to physiological adaptations in the body as it tries to cope with nutrient deficiencies, such as changes in metabolism or organ function. 12) Short-term changes in the body and responses to rapid change in the environment are __________. A) Physiological adaptations B) Unlikely to show up in the archaeological record C) Anatomical adaptations D) Passed on to subsequent generations E) Entirely the result of cultural shifts Answer: A Rationale: Short-term changes in the body, such as adjustments in metabolism or behavior, are examples of physiological adaptations, which occur in response to rapid changes in the environment. 13) Optimal foraging models assume __________. A) That people will spend the least to get the most B) That people will spend the most to get the least C) That people are without domesticated animals D) That people need no special knowledge of their environment E) That people are inherently greedy Answer: A Rationale: Optimal foraging models predict that individuals will maximize their energy intake while minimizing the energy expended during foraging activities, hence choosing options that allow them to spend the least to obtain the most resources. 14) The primary mechanism by which humans adapt to their environment is __________. A) technology B) culture C) biological adaptation D) equilibrium E) ecology Answer: B Rationale: Culture, including social organization, knowledge, and technology, is the primary mechanism by which humans adapt to their environment, allowing for flexibility and innovation in response to changing conditions. 15) A simple technique to alleviate seasonally uneven resource distributions is __________. A) the use of storage. B) letting animals graze C) living near a water source D) hunting larger animals Answer: A Rationale: Storing surplus resources during times of abundance for later use during scarcity is a common strategy to alleviate seasonally uneven resource distributions. 16) Taro was the most important crop in leeward Hawaii because __________. A) it was the most commonly grown B) it had symbolic significance C) it was tremendously productive D) it grew such large tubers E) it was the richest food available Answer: B Rationale: Taro had significant symbolic significance in Hawaiian culture, making it the most important crop in leeward Hawaii. 17) Modern humans began to domesticate plants and animals __________. A) After the last Ice Age B) Before the last Ice Age C) 50,000 years ago D) In Africa E) About 20,000 years ago Answer: A Rationale: Domestication of plants and animals began after the last Ice Age, approximately 10,000 years ago, marking the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. 18) Large-scale segments in which ecosystems operate are called __________. A) regions. B) niches. C) biomes. D) habitats. E) ecotones. Answer: C Rationale: Biomes are large-scale segments in which ecosystems operate, characterized by distinct climate, vegetation, and animal life. 19) Biotic and abiotic elements of the environment that operate within a system are called __________. A) an ecosystem B) an ecotone C) an ecozone D) a biome E) symbiotic relationships Answer: A Rationale: An ecosystem encompasses all biotic and abiotic elements interacting within a defined area, including plants, animals, soil, water, and climate. Short Answer Questions 1) What does the term “environment” refer to? How is it different from the palaeoenvironment? Answer: The term "environment" refers to the surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives and interacts. It encompasses both biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors such as climate, geography, vegetation, and other organisms. The palaeoenvironment, on the other hand, refers to the environment of the past, reconstructed through various methods including sediment analysis, pollen studies, and examination of fossilized remains. Unlike the present environment which can be directly observed, the palaeoenvironment is inferred from indirect evidence found in the archaeological record. 2) List three questions an environmental archaeologist would ask regarding the relationship between humans and the environment. Answer: 1. How did past human populations adapt to and exploit their natural surroundings for survival? 2. What impact did human activities, such as agriculture or resource extraction, have on local ecosystems and landscapes? 3. How did environmental changes, such as climate fluctuations or natural disasters, influence human behaviors, settlement patterns, and cultural developments? 3) Describe how glacial cores provide information regarding paleoclimate. Answer: Glacial cores, extracted from ice sheets or glaciers, contain layers of ice formed from snowfall over thousands of years. These layers, or ice cores, serve as a record of past climatic conditions. By analyzing the isotopic composition of oxygen and hydrogen within the ice, researchers can infer past temperatures. Additionally, trapped air bubbles in the ice provide information about atmospheric composition, including greenhouse gas concentrations. Other indicators such as dust and chemical impurities offer insights into past environmental conditions, such as volcanic eruptions or changes in vegetation patterns. 4) Explain the difference between climate and weather. Answer: Climate refers to the long-term average patterns of temperature, precipitation, wind, and other atmospheric conditions in a particular region, typically observed over decades or centuries. It represents the overall climatic regime of an area. Weather, on the other hand, refers to the short-term, day-to-day variations in atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, humidity, cloud cover, and precipitation, observed over hours or days. While climate describes the typical conditions expected in a given region, weather describes the current state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. 5) Compare and contrast indirect and direct control of resources. Answer: Indirect control of resources involves strategies such as trade, exchange networks, or social mechanisms to access or influence resource availability. This may include forming alliances with other groups, establishing trade routes, or monopolizing certain resources through social or political means. Direct control, on the other hand, involves physical manipulation or management of resources within a specific territory. This could include practices like agriculture, irrigation, animal husbandry, or the construction of resource management infrastructure such as dams or canals. While indirect control relies on social relationships and economic systems, direct control involves physical interaction and management of resources on the landscape. 6) What is meant by the term “agricultural revolution”? Answer: The term "agricultural revolution" refers to the transition from hunting and gathering to agricultural-based societies that occurred approximately 10,000 years ago. It marked a significant shift in human history, characterized by the domestication of plants and animals, the development of sedentary settlements, and the emergence of complex social structures. 7) Describe the marginal environment theory of agricultural development. Answer: The marginal environment theory suggests that agricultural development often occurs in marginal or less productive environments where hunting and gathering alone cannot sustain growing populations. In these areas, people are motivated to experiment with cultivation and domestication to supplement their diets and ensure food security. Over time, successful agricultural practices may spread to more fertile regions, leading to the expansion of farming societies. 8) How is the Hohokam irrigation system an example of human cultural adaptation? Answer: The Hohokam irrigation system, developed by the ancient Hohokam people in present-day Arizona, is an example of human cultural adaptation to arid environments. By constructing an extensive network of canals, ditches, and check dams, the Hohokam effectively managed scarce water resources, allowing for the cultivation of crops in regions with limited rainfall. This engineering feat facilitated the growth of agricultural communities and supported the development of complex societies in an otherwise challenging environment. 9) What does “carrying capacity” refer to? Answer: Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size that a given environment can sustainably support over the long term without causing environmental degradation or resource depletion. It is determined by factors such as food availability, water supply, habitat suitability, and the ability of the environment to absorb waste products. Understanding carrying capacity is essential for assessing sustainability and managing natural resources effectively. 10) What factors contributed to the overuse of resources on Easter Island? Answer: The overuse of resources on Easter Island, as evidenced by deforestation and the collapse of its civilization, can be attributed to several factors. These include: • Deforestation: The rapid clearance of forests for agriculture, fuel, and the construction of massive stone statues (moai) led to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and habitat degradation. • Population growth: A growing population, coupled with increased resource demands, put pressure on limited natural resources, exacerbating environmental degradation. • Cultural practices: The construction and transport of moai, along with the cultural emphasis on competitive statue-building, may have contributed to resource overexploitation and social competition. • Lack of external resources: Easter Island's isolation limited access to external resources, making it difficult to replenish depleted resources or mitigate environmental damage caused by overuse. Essay Questions 1) Define the term domestication and describe evidence in the archaeological record that can be used to demonstrate domestication in past populations. Use examples from the textbook in your response. Answer: Domestication refers to the process by which humans selectively breed and manipulate plants or animals for traits beneficial to human use, such as increased yield, docility, or desirable physical characteristics. Evidence of domestication in the archaeological record includes morphological changes in plant or animal remains, genetic evidence indicating artificial selection, and the presence of associated cultural artifacts. For example, in the Near East, the domestication of wheat and barley is supported by archaeological findings of domesticated grains with larger seed size, nonshattering seed heads, and genetic changes consistent with artificial selection. Similarly, the domestication of animals like sheep and goats is evidenced by changes in bone morphology, such as reduced horn size and changes in tooth morphology, as well as the presence of pens, corrals, or other infrastructure associated with animal management. 2) Discuss the meaning of direct control of the environment and explain the two main types used by human cultures. Give an example of direct control of the environment by modern humans and describe the evidence that would remain for future archaeologists. Answer: Direct control of the environment refers to deliberate human manipulation or management of natural resources to meet specific needs or goals. The two main types of direct control are exploitation and modification. Exploitation involves harvesting or extracting resources from the environment without altering it significantly, such as hunting, fishing, or gathering wild plants. Modification, on the other hand, involves actively altering the environment to enhance resource availability or productivity, such as through agriculture, irrigation, or construction of infrastructure like dams or terraces. An example of modern direct environmental control is agricultural irrigation systems. Future archaeologists could find evidence of such systems through the presence of canals, ditches, or other water management structures, as well as associated agricultural remains like crop fields or terraces. 3) There are many theories for the origins of agriculture. Compare and contrast two of these theories using evidence used by the theorists in your response. Answer: Two prominent theories for the origins of agriculture are the Oasis Theory and the Population Pressure Theory. The Oasis Theory suggests that agriculture began in areas where environmental conditions were favorable, such as fertile river valleys or oases, allowing for the natural cultivation of plants and the eventual domestication of crops. Evidence for this theory includes archaeological findings of early agricultural settlements in regions like the Nile Valley or Mesopotamia, where fertile land and reliable water sources supported early farming practices. In contrast, the Population Pressure Theory posits that population growth and resource depletion in huntergatherer societies led to intensified food production and the transition to agriculture as a means of sustaining growing populations. Evidence for this theory includes demographic data indicating population increases preceding the adoption of agriculture, as well as archaeological evidence of sedentary settlements and increased reliance on domesticated plants and animals over time. 4) Reconstructing paleoenvironments involves a number of specialists and methods. Select two methods used to interpret past environments and discuss the benefits and limitations of each. Also include a description of the materials required for each method and the types of information each method provides. Answer: Reconstructing paleoenvironments requires various methods, two of which are palynology and isotopic analysis. Palynology involves the study of pollen grains and spores preserved in sedimentary deposits such as lake cores, peat bogs, or archaeological contexts. By analyzing pollen assemblages, palynologists can reconstruct past vegetation patterns and environmental conditions. This method requires sediment cores obtained from sites with suitable preservation conditions. Palynological analysis provides information about past plant communities, climate fluctuations, and human impact on the landscape. Benefits of palynology include its ability to provide high-resolution records of environmental change and its sensitivity to subtle shifts in vegetation composition. However, limitations include the potential for pollen dispersal over long distances and the influence of local factors on pollen deposition. Isotopic analysis involves the measurement of stable isotopes of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium in organic and inorganic materials like bones, teeth, shells, and sediments. Isotopic signatures can reveal information about past climate, diet, mobility, and resource use. This method requires samples of suitable materials from archaeological or geological contexts. Isotopic analysis provides insights into past environmental conditions, human subsistence strategies, migration patterns, and social interactions. Benefits of isotopic analysis include its ability to provide direct evidence of past behaviors and environments, as well as its nondestructive nature. However, limitations include the complexity of interpreting isotopic data and the potential for isotopic fractionation during sample preparation and analysis. 5) What is an optimal foraging model? What kinds of questions can optimal foraging models help archaeologists answer? Answer: An optimal foraging model is a theoretical framework used to understand the decisions made by organisms, including humans, when foraging for resources. It assumes that organisms seek to maximize their net energy intake while minimizing the time and effort expended in obtaining food. Optimal foraging models help archaeologists answer questions related to past subsistence strategies, resource procurement, and economic behavior. For example, archaeologists can use optimal foraging models to investigate questions such as which resources were prioritized by past societies, how environmental factors influenced foraging decisions, and what trade-offs were made between different food sources. Additionally, optimal foraging models can provide insights into the efficiency of past hunting and gathering strategies, the distribution of resources in the landscape, and the social and economic implications of subsistence practices. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311
