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This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 10 Instructor’s Manual to Accompany Organizational Behavior 7/e by Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Von Glinow Chapter 9: Communicating in Teams and Organizations Prepared by: Steven L. McShane, The University of Western Australia Communicating in Teams and Organizations LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain why communication is important in organizations and discuss four influences on effective communication encoding and decoding. 2. Compare and contrast the advantages of and problems with electronic mail, other verbal communication media, and nonverbal communication. 3. Explain how social acceptance and media richness influence the preferred communication channel. 4. Discuss various barriers (noise) to effective communication, including cross-cultural and gender-based differences in communication. 5. Explain how to get your message across more effectively, and summarize the elements of active listening. 6. Summarize effective communication strategies in organizational hierarchies, and review the role and relevance of the organizational grapevine. CHAPTER GLOSSARY communication -- the process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. emotional contagion -- the nonconscious process of ‘catching’ or sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that person’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior grapevine -- an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions information overload – a condition where the volume of information received exceeds the person’s capacity to process it. management by walking around (MBWA) -- A communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organization through face-to-face dialogue. media richness -- the medium’s data-carrying capacity, that is, the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time. persuasion -- using facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person’s beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing their behavior CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE 9-1 Explain why communication is important in organizations and discuss four influences on effective communication encoding and decoding. Communication refers to the process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. Communication supports work coordination, organizational learning, decision making, changing others’ behavior, and employee well-being. The communication process involves forming, encoding, and transmitting the intended message to a receiver, who then decodes the message and provides feedback to the sender. Effective communication occurs when the sender’s thoughts are transmitted to and understood by the intended receiver. The effectiveness of this process depends on whether the sender and receiver have similar codebooks, the sender’s proficiency at encoding that message to the audience, the sender’s and receiver’s motivation and ability to transmit messages through that particular communication channel, and their common mental models of the communication context. 9-2 Compare and contrast the advantages of and problems with electronic mail, verbal communication media, and nonverbal communication. The two main types of communication channels are verbal and nonverbal. Various forms of Internet-based communication are widely used in organizations, with e-mail being the most popular. Although efficient and a useful filing cabinet, e-mail is relatively poor at communicating emotions; it tends to reduce politeness and respect; it is an inefficient medium for communicating in ambiguous, complex, and novel situations; and it contributes to information overload. An emerging set of communication channels is social media, which are Internet- or mobilebased channels that allow users to generate and interactively share information. Social media are more conversational and reciprocally interactive than traditional channels. They are “social” by encouraging collaboration and the formation of virtual communities. Nonverbal communication includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence. Unlike verbal communication, nonverbal communication is less rule-bound and is mostly automatic and nonconscious. Some nonverbal communication is automatic through a process called emotional contagion. 9-3 Explain how social acceptance and media richness influence the preferred communication channel. The most appropriate communication medium partly depends on its social acceptance and media richness. Social acceptance refers to how well the communication medium is approved and supported by the organization, teams, and individuals. This contingency includes organization and team norms, individual preferences for specific communication channels, and the symbolic meaning of a channel. A communication medium should also be chosen for its data-carrying capacity (media richness). Nonroutine and ambiguous situations require rich media. However, technology-based lean media might be almost as effective as rich media for transferring information. This particularly occurs where users can multi-communicate and have high proficiency with that technology, and where social distractions of high media richness channels reduce the efficient processing of information through those channels. These contingencies are also considered when selecting the best channels for persuasion. 9-4 Discuss various barriers (noise) to effective communication, including cross-cultural and gender-based differences in communication. Several barriers create noise in the communication process. People misinterpret messages because of misaligned codebooks due to different languages, jargon, and the use of ambiguous phrases. Filtering messages and information overload are two other communication barriers. These problems are often amplified in cross-cultural settings, where these problems occur, along with differences in the meaning of nonverbal cues, silence, and conversational overlaps. There are also some communication differences between men and women, such as the tendency for men to exert status and engage in report talk in conversations, whereas women use more rapport talk and are more sensitive than are men to nonverbal cues. 9-5 Explain how to get your message across more effectively, and summarize the elements of active listening. To get a message across, the sender must learn to empathize with the receiver, repeat the message, choose an appropriate time for the conversation, and be descriptive rather than evaluative. Listening includes sensing, evaluating, and responding. Active listeners support these processes by postponing evaluation, avoiding interruptions, maintaining interest, empathizing, organizing information, showing interest, and clarifying the message. 9-6 Summarize effective communication strategies in organizational hierarchies, and review the role and relevance of the organizational grapevine. Some companies try to encourage communication through workspace design, as well as through Internet-based communication channels. Some executives also meet directly with employees, such as through management by walking around (MBWA) and town-hall meetings, to facilitate communication across the organization. In any organization, employees rely on the grapevine, particularly during times of uncertainty. The grapevine is an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions. Although early research identified several unique features of the grapevine, some of these features may be changing as the Internet plays an increasing role in grapevine communication. LECTURE OUTLINE (WITH POWERPOINT® SLIDES) Communicating in Teams and Organizations Communicating in Teams and Organizations Slide 1 Communicating at Infosys Infosys has adopted an “adult–adult” communication strategy by introducing InfyBubble, an in-house social media platform similar to Facebook. Communicating at Infosys Slide 2 Communication Defined The process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people Effective communication – transmitting the sender’s intended meaning Communication: Definition and Importance Slide 3 Importance of Communication 1. Coordinating work activities • Frequent, timely, and accurate communication is the primary means through which employees and work units synchronize their work 2. Vehicle for organizational learning • Means for knowledge to enter the organization and be distributed to employees 3. Decision making • Critical ingredient for decision making 4. Influencing others – changing their behavior • May be passive e.g. describing the situation or may be a deliberate attempt to change someone’s thoughts/actions 5. Employee well-being • Fulfills the drive to bond; validates self-worth; maintain social identity Communication Process Model 1. Sender forms and encodes message into words, gestures, voice intonations, and other symbols or signs 2. Encoded message is transmitted to the intended receiver through one or more communication channels (media) Communication Process Model Slide 4 3. Receiver senses the incoming message and decodes it into something meaningful (ideally, the decoded meaning is what the sender had intended 4. Sender looks for evidence that the other person received and understood the transmitted message e.g. formal or indirect Note: Feedback repeats the communication process i.e. intended feedback is encoded, transmitted, received, and decoded from the receiver to the sender of the original message Noise -- Psychological, social, and structural barriers that distort and obscure the sender's intended message Improving Communication Coding/Decoding Four main factors that influence the effectiveness of the encodingdecoding process: 1. Sender and receiver have similar codebooks Improving Communication Coding/Decoding Slide 5 • Codebooks are symbols used to convey message content e.g. words and gestures have same meaning 2. Sender has experience encoding the message • As a person gains more experience with the subject matter, he/she becomes more proficient at conveying the message 3. Sender and receiver are motivated and able to use the selected communication channel • Both know how to use the communication channel effectively (e.g. text messaging proficiently) • Both are engaged with the channel -- enjoyment using a channel seems to increase communication vigilance and effort 4. Sender and receiver have shared mental models of the communication context • Share common understanding about the setting/environment, so less communication is needed to clarify meaning (e.g. US and Russian astronauts have mutual understanding of space station setting) Atos Origin Replaces Email with Social Media Communication Slide 6 Communication Channels Two main types of channels • Verbal – uses words and occurs through spoken or written channels • Nonverbal – any part of communication that does not use words Altos Origin Replaces Email with Social Media Executives at the Paris-based global information technology consulting firm believe that email is creating “information pollution” that stifles productivity and undermines employee well-being. Atos Origin’s strategy is radical—it is completely replacing email with other communication tools that are part of its social media site. How Email Has Altered Communication • Preferred channel for coordinating work e.g. scheduling • Often increases the volume of communication • Significantly alters the flow of information within groups and throughout How Email Has Altered the organization -- Increases communication with people up the hierarchy Communication • Reduces some face-to-face and telephone communication Slide 7 • Social and organizational status differences are somewhat less apparent Problems with Email Poor medium for communicating emotions • Email lacks the parallel communication channel that conveys the emotional meaning of words e.g. facial expression Problems with Email Slide 8 Reduces politeness and respect • Email messages are often less diplomatic e.g. “flaming” • People are more likely to write things they would not say in a face-to-face conversation Poor medium for ambiguous, complex, and novel situations • Although fine for well-defined situations, email can be cumbersome in ambiguous, complex, and novel situations Contributes to information overload • Messages are created and copied to many people with little effort required Communicating Through Social Media Internet- or mobile-based channels that allow users to generate and interactively share information • blogs, wikis, tweets, personal presentation sites (e.g. Facebook) Communicating Through • more conversational and interactive between sender and receiver Social Media Slide 9 • typically enable users to develop a public identity • encourage formation of communities through links, interactive conversations, common space • audience can be participants (e.g. feedback) Serves diverse functions • Presenting individual’s identity; enabling conversations; sharing information; sensing others’ online presence; maintaining relationships; revealing reputation/status; etc. Nonverbal Communication Includes actions, facial gestures, physical distance and even silence • Most information is communicated nonverbally • Like a parallel conversation, nonverbal cues signal subtle information Nonverbal Communication Slide 10 to both parties • Influences meaning of verbal symbols • Less rule-bound than verbal communication • More ambiguous and susceptible to misinterpretation • Most is automatic and nonconscious • Can communicate the same meaning across cultures e.g. smiling Emotional Contagion Nonconscious process of ‘catching’ or sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that person’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior Emotional Contagion Slide 11 Serves three purposes 1. Provides continuous feedback that we understand and empathize with the sender 2. Increases emotional understanding of the other person’s experience – helps experience that emotion more fully 3. Communicates a collective sentiment i.e. social solidarity—people see others share the same emotions that they feel Choosing Channels: Social Acceptance Do others support use of that communication channel for that purpose? Depends on: 1. Organizational and team norms regarding the use of specific Choosing Channels: Social Acceptance Slide 12 communication channels • e.g. email or text messaging is the medium of choice in some organizations, whereas meeting face-to face may be the norm elsewhere 2. Individual preferences for specific communication channels • e.g. some co-workers ignore (or rarely check) voice mail, but quickly respond to text messages or email 3. Symbolic meaning of a channel • e.g. some may be considered professional vs. casual Choosing Channels: Media Richness Media richness – a medium’s data-carrying capacity i.e. the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time Communication channel has high richness when: Choosing Channels: Media Richness Slide 13 1. It is able to convey multiple cues e.g. both verbal and nonverbal information 2. Allows timely feedback from receiver to sender 3. Allows the sender to customize the message 4. Makes use of complex symbols e.g. words with multiple meanings Note: Use rich communication media when the communication situation is nonroutine and ambiguous Hierarchy of Media Richness • Highest for face-to-face – transmit verbal and nonverbal, get almost immediate feedback from the receiver, quickly adjust message and style, use complex language Hierarchy of Media Richness Slide 14 • Lowest for lean media e.g. financial statements, newsletters, email Contingencies of media richness: 1. Routine situations – lean media works because the sender and receiver have common expectations through shared mental models 2. Ambiguous situations – requires rich media -- parties must share more information with immediate feedback to resolve multiple and conflicting interpretations Exceptions to Media Richness Theory Media richness theory doesn’t apply as well to electronic communication channels because: 1. Ability to multi-communicate Computer-Mediated Exceptions to Media Richness Slide 15 • Might be able to exchange as much information through two or more lean media simultaneously as through one high media richness channel • e.g. write text message while listening to a discussion at a large meeting 2. Communication proficiency • Proficient users can “push” more information through the channel • e.g. experienced smartphone users can process messages quickly 3. Social presence effects • Lean channels have less social distraction than do media rich channels Persuasive Communication Persuasion – changing another person’s beliefs and attitudes Spoken communication (particularly face-to-face interaction) is more persuasive because: Persuasive Communication Slide 16 • It is typically accompanied by nonverbal communication e.g. animated hand gestures can amplify the emotional tone of the message • It offers the sender high quality immediate feedback whether or not the receiver understands and accepts the message – sender can adjust more quickly than with written communication • It has high social presence so listeners are more motivated to pay attention and consider the sender’s idea Communication Barriers Perceptions • Receivers don’t listen as well as senders assume • Senders overestimate how well other people understand the message Communication Barriers Slide 17 Filtering • Delete or delay negative information or use less harsh words so the message sounds more favorable Language • Jargon – noise when specialized words and phrases are transmitted to people who do not have the jargon codebook • Ambiguity – ambiguous language causes misunderstandings, but may be appropriate to minimize emotional responses (e.g. “rightsizing”) Information Overload • (see next slide) Information Overload • Information processing capacity – the amount of information an employee is able to process in a fixed unit of time • Information load – the amount of information to be processed per unit Information Overload of time (jobs have a varying information load) Slide 18 • Noise occurs because information gets overlooked or misinterpreted when people can’t process it fast enough -- poorer decisions and higher stress Managing Information Overload Solution 1: Increase information processing capacity • Learn to read faster • Scan through documents more efficiently • Remove distractions • Time management • Temporarily work longer hours Solution 2: Reduce information load • Buffering – having incoming information filtered • Omitting – overlooking messages • Summarizing – reading executive summaries Cross-Cultural Communication Verbal differences • Language • Voice intonation Cross-Cultural Communication Slide 19 • Silence and conversational overlaps Nonverbal differences • Nonconscious/involuntary nonverbal cues tend to have the same meaning across cultures (e.g. smiling), but meaning varies for deliberate gestures Gender Communication Differences Men more likely than women to view conversations as negotiations of relative status and power • Report talk – impersonal and efficient information exchange Gender Communication Differences Slide 20 • Give advice directly • Dominate the talk time in conversations with women Women tend to: • Engage in more “rapport talk” – relationship building • Make more use of indirect requests; apologize more often; seek advice from others more quickly than do men • More sensitive than men to nonverbal cues in face-to-face meetings Getting Your Message 2. Repeat the message Across Slide 21 • e.g. rephrase the key points a couple of times 3. Use timing effectively • Find a time when the receiver is less likely to be distracted 4. Focus on the problem not the person • When communicating bad news or criticism Active Listening Process & Strategies Slide 22 • Avoid interruptions – give speaker chance to finish message • Remain motivated to listen to the speaker Evaluating • Empathize – try to understand and be sensitive to the speaker’s feelings, thoughts, and situation • Organize the speaker’s ideas during the communication Responding • Show interest e.g. maintain sufficient eye contact and send back signals e.g. “I see” • Clarify the message—rephrase speaker’s ideas at appropriate breaks e.g. “So you are saying that….” Active Listening Process & Strategies Sensing • Postpone evaluation – not forming an opinion until the speaker has finished Communicating in Hierarchies Workspace design • Open offices – all employees (including management) work together; increase communication, but may increases stressors (noise, distractions) Communicating in Hierarchies Slide 23 • Cluster employees into team spaces Internet-based organizational communication • Wikis – collaborative document creation • E-zines – rapid distribution of company news Direct communication with management • Management by walking around (MBWA) • Town hall meetings/roundtable forums to hear opinions Organizational Grapevine Grapevine – an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions Early research findings Organizational Grapevine Slide 24 • Transmits information very rapidly in all directions • Follows a cluster chain pattern • More active in homogeneous groups • Transmits some degree of truth Changes due to internet • Emerging grapevine channels -- Email, social networking, tweets • Social networks are now global, not local, so grapevine is extended Grapevine Benefits/Limitations Benefits • Fills in missing information not available through formal channels • Strengthens corporate culture e.g. communicates stories Grapevine Benefits/ Limitations Slide 25 • Relieves anxiety – most active during times of uncertainty • Associated with drive to bond – drive for social interaction Limitations • Distortions might escalate rather than reduce anxiety • Employees develop more negative attitudes toward the organization when management is slower than the grapevine What should corporate leaders do with the grapevine? • Listen to the grapevine as a signal of employee anxiety, then correct the cause of this anxiety • Directly inform employees of news before it spreads through the grapevine Communicating in Teams/Organizations Slide 26 Instructor’s Manual to Accompany Organizational Behavior 7/e by Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Von Glinow Chapter 10: Power and Influence in the Workplace Prepared by: Steven L. McShane, The University of Western Australia Power and Influence 10 in the Workplace LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Describe the dependence model of power and the five sources of power in organizations. 2. Discuss the four contingencies of power. 3. Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks. 4. Describe eight types of influence tactics, three consequences of influencing others, and three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic. 5. Identify the organizational conditions and personal characteristics associated with higher organizational politics, as well as ways to minimize organizational politics. CHAPTER GLOSSARY centrality – a contingency of power referring to the degree and nature of interdependence between the powerholder and others. charisma -- A personal characteristic or special “gift” that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others. coalition -- A group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members. countervailing power -- The capacity of a person, team or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship. impression management -- the practice of actively shaping our public images. influence -- any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior. inoculation effect -- A persuasive communication strategy of warning listeners that others will try to influence them in the future and that they should be wary about the opponent’s arguments. legitimate power -- an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. Machiavellian values -- The belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable. norm of reciprocity -- A felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something to you. organizational politics -- Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics at the expense of other people and possibly the organization. persuasion -- the use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person’s attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person’s behavior. power -- the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. referent power -- The capacity to influence others based on an identification with and respect for the powerholder. social capital -- The knowledge and other resources available to people or social units (teams, organizations) from a durable network that connects them to others. social networks -- Social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence. structural hole -- An area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties. substitutability – a contingency of power referring to the availability of alternatives. upward appeal -- A type of influence in which someone with higher authority or expertise is called upon in reality or symbolically to support the influencer’s position. CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE 10-1 Describe the dependence model of power and the five sources of power in organizations. Power is the capacity to influence others. It exists when one party perceives that he or she is dependent on the other for something of value. However, the dependent person must also have countervailing power—some power over the dominant party—to maintain the relationship, and the parties must have some level of trust. There are five power bases. Legitimate power is an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. This power has restrictions, represented by the target person’s zone of indifference. It also includes the norm of reciprocity (a feeling of obligation to help someone who has helped you), as well as control over the flow of information to others. Reward power is derived from the ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions. Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment. Expert power is the capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value. An important form of expert power is the (perceived) ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment. People have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them. 10-2 Discuss the four contingencies of power. Four contingencies determine whether these power bases translate into real power. Individuals and work units are more powerful when they are non-substitutable, such that there is a lack of alternatives. Employees, work units, and organizations reduce substitutability by controlling tasks, knowledge, and labor and by differentiating themselves from competitors. A second contingency is centrality. People have more power when they have high centrality, which means that many people are quickly affected by their actions. The third contingency, visibility, refers to the idea that power increases to the extent that a person’s or work unit’s competencies are known to others. Discretion, the fourth contingency of power, refers to the freedom to exercise judgment. Power increases when people have the freedom to use their power. 10-3 Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks. Social networks are social structures of individuals or social units (e.g., departments, organizations) that connect to one another through one or more forms of interdependence. People receive power in social networks through social capital, which is the goodwill and resulting resources shared among members in a social network. Three main resources from social networks are information, visibility, and referent power. Employees gain social capital through their relationship in the social network. Social capital tends to increase with the number of network ties. Strong ties (close-knit relationships) can also increase social capital because these connections offer more resources more quickly. However, having weak ties with people from diverse networks can be more valuable than having strong ties with people in similar networks. Weak ties provide more resources that we do not already possess. Another influence on social capital is the person’s centrality in the network. Network centrality is determined in several ways, including the extent to which you are located between others in the network (betweenness), how many direct ties you have (degree), and the closeness of these ties. People also gain power by bridging structural holes—linking two or more clusters of people in a network. 10-4 Describe eight types of influence tactics, three consequences of influencing others, and three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic. Influence refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior. The most widely studied influence tactics are silent authority, assertiveness, information control, coalition formation, upward appeal, impression management, persuasion, and exchange. “Soft” influence tactics such as friendly persuasion and subtle ingratiation are more acceptable than “hard” tactics such as upward appeal and assertiveness. However, the most appropriate influence tactic also depends on the influencer’s power base; whether the person being influenced is higher, lower, or at the same level in the organization; and personal, organizational, and cultural values regarding influence behavior. 10-5 Identify the organizational conditions and personal characteristics associated with higher organizational politics, as well as ways to minimize organizational politics. Organizational politics refer to influence tactics that others perceive to be self-serving behaviors, sometimes contrary to the interests of the organization. It is more common when ambiguous decisions allocate scarce resources and when the organization tolerates or rewards political behavior. Individuals with a high need for personal power and strong Machiavellian values have a higher propensity to use political tactics. Organizational politics can be minimized by providing clear rules for resource allocation, establishing a free flow of information, using education and involvement during organizational change, supporting team norms and a corporate culture that discourages political behavior, and having leaders who role model organizational citizenship rather than political savvy. LECTURE OUTLINE (WITH POWERPOINT® SLIDES) Power and Influence in the Workplace Slide 1 Whale Power at JP Morgan Slide 2 Whale Power at JP Morgan Through unconstrained power and influence, a handful of traders (including infamous London Whale) in the London bureau of JP Morgan’s chief investment office produced a mammoth $7 billion loss. The Meaning of Power The capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others • Power is not the act of changing someone’s attitudes or behavior – it is only the potential to do so The Meaning of Power • People may have power they don’t use – may not even know they Slide 3 have power • Power is based on the target’s perception that the powerholder controls a valuable resource • Power involves unequal dependence of one party on another party Power and Dependence The less powerful party still has some degree of power – called countervailing power: • Capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful Power and Dependence person or group in the exchange relationship Slide 4 • Person A dominates the power relationship, but Person B has enough countervailing power to keep Person A in the exchange relationship • Power relationships depends on some minimum level of trust Model of Power in Organizations Power is derived from five sources The model also identifies four contingencies of power Model of Power in Organizations Slide 5 Deference to Authority: Le Jeu de la Mort French reality television recently revealed how far people are willing to submit to authority. In a variation of the 1960s experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram, only 16 of the 80 contestants refused to administer Deference to Authority: Le Jeu do la Mort Slide 6 the strongest shocks (460 volts – enough to kill a person) when another contestant gave the wrong answers. Fortunately, the other contestant was an actor whose screams were fake; he did not actually receive the shocks. Legitimate Power • Agreement that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others – a perceived right or obligation • Based on job descriptions, but also on mutual agreement Legitimate Power • Zone of indifference Slide 7 • Range of behaviors granted deference to authority • Varies with individual, company, culture (power distance) • Increases with trust in the power holder • Norm of reciprocity • Felt obligation to help someone who has helped you • Legitimate power because an informal rule of society • Information control -- right to distribute information to others • Generates power in two ways 1. Dependence -- others depend on distributor for valued information 2. Selective distribution of information frames the situation, which affects others’ attitudes and decisions Expert Power Capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills valued by others – originates from within the person Perceived ability to manage uncertainties Expert Power Slide 8 Organizations operate better in predictable environments, so value Other Sources of Power Slide 9 those who can reduce uncertainty Three types of expertise that cope with uncertainty: 1. Prevention – e.g. ability to prevent the organization from experiencing a cash shortage 2. Forecasting – e.g. predicting changes in consumer preferences 3. Absorption – e.g. ability of maintenance crews to come to the rescue after an equipment breakdown Other Sources of Power Reward power -- Control over the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions Coercive power -- ability to apply punishment Anyone might have reward and coercive power, not just managers Referent power • Capacity to influence others through identification with and respect for the power holder • Occurs when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them • Associated with charisma – personal characteristic or special “gift” that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others Increasing Nonsubstitutability Substitutability – availability of alternatives More power when few/no alternatives to the resource: Increasing Nonsubstitutability Reduce substitutability through: Slide 11 • Monopoly over resource -- e.g. employee have undocumented information about business operations that no one else possesses • Controlling access to the resource -- e.g. professions control access to the occupation • Differentiating the resource -- e.g. consultants “package” services to look unique Other Contingencies of Power Centrality • Degree and nature of interdependence with powerholder • Higher centrality when (a) many people affected and (b) quickly Other Contingencies of Power affected Slide 12 Visibility • You are known as holder of valued resource • Increases when visible to others (face time) • Increases with display of power symbols (e.g., diplomas, photos, special clothing (physician garb) Discretion • The freedom to exercise judgment • Rules limit discretion – selective use of rewards and punishment • Perception of discretion – people with high internal locus of control act as if they have discretion Power Through Social Networks Slide 13 resulting resources shared among network members Social networks provide three types of resources (power): • Information – receive valuable knowledge more easily and more quickly, which improves the individual’s expert power • Visibility – members more easily remember other members when opportunities arise • Referent power – network members have common beliefs, identity, trust -- more reciprocity Power Through Social Networks Social networks – people connected to each other through forms of interdependence Social networks generate power through social capital – goodwill and Social Network Ties Strong ties: • Close-knit relationships – frequent interaction, share resources, multiple relationships (friend, co-worker) Social Network Ties • Advantage – offer resources more quickly and plentifully Slide 14 • Less unique – strong ties links know each other so have similar information (high redundancy) Weak ties: • Acquaintances • Advantage -- offer unique resources from others and link to others with low redundancy (good for career job hunting) • Disadvantage -- resources transmitted more slowly, lower visibility Many ties: • Resources increase with number of ties • Limits on number of weak/strong ties one can create Social Network Centrality Person’s importance in the network Three factors in centrality: Social Network 1. Betweenness – the extent to which you are located between others Centrality in the network e.g. gatekeeper who controls the flow of information Slide 15 to and from many people in the network 2. Degree centrality – number or percentage of connections you have to others in the network 3. Closeness – higher closeness occurs when a member has a shorter, more direct, and efficient path or connections with others in the network Example: “A” has highest network centrality due to all three factors: “B” has lowest centrality Influencing Others Influence is any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior • Applies one or more power bases to change others’ beliefs, feelings, Influencing Others decisions, behavior Slide 16 • Essential activity in organizations • Coordinate with others • Part of leadership definition • Everyone engages in influence Types of Influence Silent authority • Person complies with request without overt influence • Due to requester’s legitimate power as well as the target person’s Types of Influence Slide 17 role expectations • Most common form of influence in high power distance cultures Assertiveness • Vocal authority – actively applying legitimate and coercive power to influence others • e.g. persistently reminding an employee; using threats or sanctions; checking employee’s work Types of Influence (con’t) Slide 18 information Coalition formation • Pools power and resources of many people • Symbolizes legitimacy – represents broad support • Taps into social identity process – informal group advocates a new set of norms and behavior Types of Influence (con’t) Information control • Manipulating someone’s access to information in order to change their attitude or behavior e.g. withholding, filtering, re-arranging Types of Influence (con’t) Upward appeal • Calling upon higher authority or expertise or symbolically relying on those sources to support the influencer’s position Types of Influence (con’t) Slide 19 • Different forms ➡ Actually asking authority for a decision, sign of support ➡ Implying senior management support without formally involving them (e.g. referring to firm’s policies/values/goals) Persuasion • Using facts, logical arguments, emotional appeals to change attitudes • Persuader characteristics ➡ expertise, credibility, neutrality • Message content ➡ multiple viewpoints, few strong arguments, repeat points, emotional appeals, offer solutions, inoculation effect • Communication medium ➡ media-rich channels • Audience ➡ less persuaded when high self-esteem, intelligence, self-concept tied to opposing view Types of Influence (con’t) Slide 20 • Ingratiation – attempt to increase liking by or perceived similarity to, some targeted person e.g. agreeing with the boss’s proposal Exchange • Promise of benefits or resources in exchange for compliance • Integral influence tactic in: ➡ negotiation ➡ norm of reciprocity ➡ social networks Types of Influence (con’t) Impression management • Actively shaping our public image • Self-presentation --crafting or public image to shape perceptions Consequences of Influence Resistance • People oppose the behavior desired by the influencer • Refuse, argue, or delay to engage in the behavior Consequences of Influence Slide 21 Compliance • Motivated to implement influencer’s request, usually minimal effort • Requires external sources (e.g. rewards) to prompt the behavior Commitment • Strongest outcome of influence • Identify with the influencer’s request • Highly motivated without external incentives Consequences of Influence Hard influence tactics • Rely on position power – legitimate, reward and coercion • Tend to produce compliance or resistance and may undermine trust Consequences of Influence Slide 22 Soft influence tactics • Rely on personal sources of power (expert, referent) – more likely to build commitment to the influencer’s request Contingencies of 1. Influencer’s power base – e.g. people with expertise may be Influence Slide 23 successful using persuasion; people with strong legitimate power base may be successful using silent authority 2. Organizational position – whether person being influenced is higher, lower or at the same level in the organization e.g. employees may face consequences be being too assertive with their boss 3. Personal, organizational, and cultural values • Assertiveness more likely in those with strong power orientation • Persuasion more likely in firms with a learning orientation culture Contingencies of Influence “Soft” tactics generally more acceptable than “hard” tactics Appropriate influence tactic depends on: Organizational Politics Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the organization Organizational Politics Minimizing organization politics Slide 24 1. Scare resources -- ensure sufficient resources 2. Clear and simple decision rules • Ambiguity fuels political behavior • Common issue in organizational change -- need to communicate, train, involve to minimize ambiguity 3. Reinforcing behavior • Avoid rewards and leader role modeling that encourage political tactics Power and Influence in the Workplace Slide 25 Instructor Manual for Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality Steven McShane, Mary Von Glinow 9780077862589, 9781259280634, 9781259562792, 9780071077989
