CH-3-4 Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations – Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 Chapter 3 Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. You are manager of a district that has just hired several recent university and college graduates. Most of these people are starting their first full-time job, though most of them have held part-time and summer positions in the past. They have general knowledge of their particular skill area (accounting, engineering, marketing, etc.) but know relatively little about specific business practices and developments. Explain how you would nurture the self-concepts in these new hires to strengthen their performance and maintain their psychological wellbeing. Also explain how you might reconcile the tendency for self-enhancement while preventing the new employees from forming a negative self-evaluation. Answer: This question asks students to apply the core information about self-concept to this specific situation. The answer can be approached systematically by reviewing each of the three characteristics and four processes: Complexity --Wellbeing and likely performance can be enhanced by encouraging employees to develop diverse strengths. within the organization, manager might help employees to become better technically as well as nurture their leadership talents. Managers should also encourage employees to develop personal strengths outside of work, such as sports and volunteering, and to recognize/reward these outside interests. Consistency -- Managers can support self-concept by discovering the employee’s personality, values, and competencies, and then guiding them into careers that are consistent with those personal attributes. They can also help employees to understand “who they are”, so they personally recognize when a role (at work or outside work) is incompatible with their personal attributes and with other aspects of self. Clarity -- Clarity tends to develop through experience and maturity. However, managers can help this dimension of self-concept by developing the employee’s self-confidence when dilemmas arise and by giving them experience and feedback in various roles. For example, if the employee opposes or strongly encourages something in a meeting, the manager can later thank the employee for standing up for his/her beliefs. similarly, the manager can offer supportive feedback when an employee recognizes that a particular role or situation is incompatible with his/her strengths or character. Self-enhancement -- This is perhaps the most difficult self-concept process to manage because people tend to have more favorable image of themselves than is the case. The most important task for a manager would be to ensure that the employee engages in some self-enhancement (which then relates to a positive self-evaluation). At the same time, managers (and coworkers) are challenged by employees who have substantially inflated self-concept (i. e. too much self-enhancement). The latter part of this question refers to this issue. the best advice might be the evidence on feedback that is discussed in Chapter 5. Specifically, people prefer to receive negative feedback from non social sources. If self-enhancement is too strong, then the employee should experience more accurate information about themselves, but it should arrive through non social sources and privately. This “reality check” will sting, but less so than if delivered by the boss or publicly displayed. Self-verification -- this process refers to the motivation to receive feedback that is consistent with our self-concept and to maintain that self-concept. Managers can play a role in this process by (a), monitoring how well coworkers recognize the employee in terms of his/her self-concept, and (b) coaching and giving the employee opportunities to develop and demonstrate his or her self-concept strengths. Self-evaluation -- This is likely the most widely discussed self-concept process in managing employees. Essentially, managers need to help employees to develop a strong, positive self-concept around specific selves. This occurs by recognizing and rewarding employees for their positive performance and other behaviors and by supporting them when they experience negative shocks to their self-concept. Positive organizational behavior practices (such as strengths-based or appreciative coaching) apply here. When employees experience significant failures in one of their significant selves (e. g. , failing a professional entrance exam; losing a promotion opportunity), the manager can offer emotional support and coach them to develop strengths in one or more of their other selves. Indeed, managers can help avoid these majors shocks by nurturing a complex self-concept in employees (as discussed above). Social self (social identity) -- Managers can develop employee performance and wellbeing by steering employees toward peers with desirable characteristics and away from those who can undermine the employee’s self-concept. specifically, employees work better around peers who appreciate and support the employee’s talents, accept their self-views, and have a positive, performance-oriented (yet balanced) orientation toward their work and careers. As employees define themselves with teams and work units where these values and norms operate, they will guide the employee’s behavior and performance. To nurture the self-concepts of new hires, I'd emphasize clear communication of expectations, provide regular constructive feedback, and offer opportunities for skill development and growth. Encouraging a supportive team environment where they feel valued and respected can also boost confidence and morale. To reconcile self-enhancement tendencies, I'd foster a culture of humility and continuous learning, highlighting the importance of acknowledging strengths while remaining open to feedback and improvement, thus preventing negative self-evaluation. 2. Do you define yourself in terms of the university you attend? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for your university or college? Answer: This question offers open discussion of social identity as well as several topics throughout this organizational behavior book. Usually, the status of the college plays an important role. Another factor is the difficulty of entry (which also relates to status). A third factor that student will usually mention is the “brand” of the college. Many students will identify with a college that is a highly practical school with close ties to industry. The implications of social identity with the college are varied. One outcome is how often students mention the college. Another is how they defend the college when it might be criticized by people from other schools. Attendance at social and sporting events related to the college possibly is a fourth outcome. Defining oneself solely in terms of the university one attends can have both positive and negative implications. On one hand, attending a prestigious or well-respected university may confer a sense of pride, accomplishment, and belonging. It can also provide access to valuable resources, networks, and opportunities for personal and professional growth. Additionally, being associated with a reputable institution may enhance one's credibility and reputation in certain circles. On the other hand, defining oneself primarily by the university attended can lead to undue pressure, comparison, and a sense of inadequacy if the institution's reputation or perceived prestige does not align with societal expectations or personal aspirations. It may also overshadow other aspects of one's identity, such as individual talents, achievements, values, and experiences. For universities or colleges, the implications of students defining themselves in terms of their institution's reputation can influence various aspects of campus culture, student well-being, and institutional priorities. Institutions with strong brands may attract high-achieving students, faculty, and funding opportunities, enhancing their academic reputation and competitiveness. However, there is also a responsibility to cultivate a supportive and inclusive environment that values diversity, fosters personal growth, and promotes holistic well-being beyond academic achievement or institutional affiliation. Furthermore, universities have a role in encouraging students to explore their identities beyond academic labels and to embrace their unique strengths, passions, and contributions to society. This can involve promoting a culture of self-discovery, resilience, and community engagement that empowers students to define success on their own terms and to pursue paths that align with their values and aspirations, regardless of institutional prestige. 3. Imagine a situation of conflict between you and your boss. Discuss how understanding the elements of self concept, its complexity, consistency, and clarity may be useful in such a situation. Answer: Self concept complexity, consistency and clarity influence a person’s well being, behavior and performance. In a situation of conflict with the boss, a self concept complexity (the number of distinct roles or identities that one perceives about self) will help you isolate the situation and look at it more objectively as it affects only a part of you. Consistency is when most of the self perceived roles require similar personality traits, therefore, a higher self concept consistency will give you the confidence to handle the situation based on your experience in the other roles that you perform. Clarity is the degree to which you have a clear, confidently defined and stable self concept and this usually comes with age and experience. A self concept clarity can help you to maturely handle this situation, with patience and trust that sooner or later you will be able to manage and resolve the conflict. 4. Several years ago, senior executives at energy company CanOil wanted to acquire an exploration company (HBOG) that was owned by another energy company, AmOil. Rather than face a hostile takeover and unfavorable tax implications, CanOil’s two top executives met with the CEO of AmOil to discuss a friendly exchange of stock to carry out the transaction. AmOil’s chief executive was previously unaware of CanOil’s plans, and as the meeting began, the AmOil executive warned that he was there merely to listen. The CanOil executives were confident that AmOil wanted to sell HBOG because energy legislation at the time made HBOG a poor investment for AmOil. AmOil’s CEO remained silent for most of the meeting, which CanOil executives interpreted as an implied agreement to proceed to buy AmOil stock on the market. But when CanOil launched the stock purchase a month later, AmOil’s CEO was both surprised and outraged. He thought he had given the CanOil executives the cold shoulder, remaining silent to show his disinterest in the deal. The misunderstanding nearly bankrupted CanOil because AmOil reacted by protecting its stock. What perceptual problem(s) likely occurred that led to this misunderstanding? Answer: This incident describes true events in Dome Petroleum’s acquisition of Conoco, Inc. subsidiary Hudson Bay Oil and Gas (HBOG). (See: J. Lyon, The Rise and Fall of the House that Jack Built (Toronto: McMillan, 1983)). HBOG’s high acquisition price (due to Conoco’s resistance strategy) along with other debts, increasing interest rates, and falling oil prices put Dome on the brink of bankruptcy. The company was later acquired by Amoco. This incident is a classic example of false-consensus effect. The CanOil executives interpreted the AmOil CEO’s silence as tacit agreement with the plan, likely because they wanted to believe AmOil would support the stock swap strategy. Not only was this plan critical to the CanOil’s executives’ personal goals; it was also a high risk strategy that relied on questionable accounting procedures. These conditions likely further added to the CanOil executives’ perceptual bias that the AmOil CEO was on side. 5. What mental models do you have about attending a college or university lecture? Are these mental models helpful? Could any of these mental models hold you back from achieving the full benefit of the lecture? Answer: Students may raise a variety of issues based on their individual experiences and perceptions. Encourage students to focus on their mental images and their assumptions and expectations of what a class in progress looks like e. g. how people arrive, arrange themselves in the room, ask and answer questions, behavior of the instructor etc. Our mental models help us make sense of our environment, however, they may prevent us from seeing opportunities. For example, if our mental model of a lecture is for students to passively observe and make notes only, then the opportunity to engage in discussion and more active forms of learning which could increase understanding and retention of the material may be lost. Mental models about attending a college or university lecture can vary depending on individual experiences and perceptions. Here are some common mental models associated with attending lectures, along with their potential implications: 1. Passive Receiver: This mental model views attending lectures as primarily a passive activity, where the responsibility for learning lies solely with the lecturer. While this approach may be convenient, it can limit engagement and depth of understanding, as it relies heavily on information transmission rather than active participation and critical thinking. 2. Note-Taking Focus: Some individuals prioritize taking copious notes during lectures as their primary mode of engagement. While note-taking can aid in retention and review, focusing solely on capturing information may detract from active listening and conceptual understanding. It's important to strike a balance between note-taking and engaging with the lecture content in real-time. 3. Task Completion: Viewing lectures as a task to be completed can lead to a checklist mentality, where the goal is simply to attend and mark attendance rather than actively engaging with the material. This mental model may hinder deep learning and critical thinking, as the focus is on meeting minimum requirements rather than seeking understanding and mastery. 4. Selective Attention: Some individuals may have a mental model of selectively paying attention only to portions of the lecture that they deem relevant or interesting. While this approach may help manage cognitive load, it can result in missing key concepts or connections that are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. 5. Passive Absorption of Information: This mental model assumes that attending lectures is sufficient for learning, without the need for additional effort or engagement outside of class. While lectures can provide valuable insights and explanations, active participation, reflection, and practice are essential for deeper learning and mastery of the material. 6. Skepticism or Disengagement: Individuals with a skeptical or disengaged mental model may approach lectures with low expectations or preconceived notions about the relevance or quality of the content. This mindset can hinder openness to new ideas and perspectives, limiting opportunities for intellectual growth and discovery. While some of these mental models may provide a sense of familiarity or comfort, they can also pose barriers to achieving the full benefit of the lecture. For example: ● Passive receiver and task completion mental models may hinder active engagement and critical thinking, limiting opportunities for deep learning and conceptual understanding. ● Note-taking focus may lead to surface-level processing of information, prioritizing quantity over quality of engagement. ● Selective attention may result in overlooking important concepts or connections, leading to gaps in understanding. ● Skepticism or disengagement may prevent individuals from fully engaging with the material and exploring new ideas or perspectives. To maximize the benefits of attending lectures, it's helpful to cultivate mental models that prioritize active engagement, curiosity, open-mindedness, and a growth mindset. This may involve adopting strategies such as active listening, asking questions, seeking clarification, connecting new information to prior knowledge, and engaging in reflective thinking and application outside of class. By challenging limiting mental models and embracing a more proactive and open approach to learning, individuals can enhance their learning experiences and derive greater value from lectures. 6. During a diversity management session, a manager suggests that stereotypes are a necessary part of working with others. “I have to make assumptions about what’s in the other person’s head, and stereotypes help me do that,” she explains. “It’s better to rely on stereotypes than to enter a working relationship with someone from another culture without any idea of what they believe in!” Discuss the merits of and problems with the manager’s statement. Answer: This question raises the fundamental dilemma that stereotyping is both a necessary and a troublesome activity in the perceptual process. On the one hand, the manager is correct that stereotyping helps us to fill in missing information, such as the non-observable characteristics of a person that only become apparent after a long time. Also, stereotyping helps us to organize information more efficiently by placing people into predetermined categories. Although most stereotypes have some truth to them, there is also plenty of error and distortion which could lead to employment discrimination. It is unlikely that someone perfectly fits the stereotype category, so we tend to assign traits that are untrue. Stereotyping makes it difficult for people to alter their beliefs about a person regarding traits that conflict with the stereotype. 7. Describe how a manager or coach could use the process of self-fulfilling prophecy to enhance an individual’s performance. Answer: Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations about another person causes that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. When the boss/coach believes in others, individuals can achieve increased levels of performance. In other words, the boss/coach can influence reality. Steps include: a) Form a positive expectation about the individual’s future behavior and performance and increase individual self-efficacy by displaying confidence in his/her skills and ability. b) Develop a learning orientation i. e. appreciate the value of the individual’s learning, not just completing tasks. c) Apply leadership behaviors including skill development, emotional support, feedback, challenging goals, etc. as appropriate to the situation. 8. Self-awareness is increasingly recognized as an important ingredient for effective leadership. Suppose that you are responsible for creating a leadership development program in a government organization. What activities or processes would you introduce to help participants in this program constructively develop a better self awareness of their personality, values, and personal biases? Answer: This is an important question because it lays the foundation for leadership development as well as improving perceptions about ourselves and others. The quick answer here is for leadership trainees to receive more feedback about themselves. This can occur through novel experiences which then provide feedback to the participant about his or her behavior and performance. One such example is an assessment centre, where observers monitor participant behaviors during exercises and later provide confidential feedback to those participants. A related activity is 36-degree feedback, where trainees receive systematically compiled feedback from peers, subordinates, and bosses in a form that offers clarity about strengths and areas for improvement. 9. Almost everyone in a college or university business program has developed some degree of a global mindset. What events or activities in your life have helped nurture the global mindset you have developed so far? What actions can you take now, while still attending school, to further develop your global mindset? Answer: This question provides an opportunity for the class to reflect on and discuss their personal experiences that they believe have developed their global mindset. Probably the most common response will be the various countries where students have visited or lived. Some students might discuss an immersion experience, where they actively worked in another culture and tried to adopt some of the local practices (such as food, dress, talking style). Some students might describe the nature of their work within this country that required frequent interaction or communication with coworkers, suppliers, and others located in other countries and cultures. some might note dilemmas they faced in their multicultural teams. global mindset also refers to processing a large volume of novel information from other cultures, so a few students might refer to their experiences of information overload or how they dealt with being in a strange place with no clear guidelines on how to act. CASE STUDY: HY DAIRIES, INC. Case Synopsis Syd Gilman, the vice-president of marketing at Hy Dairies, Inc. , is pleased with the performance of Rochelle Beauport, the brand manager for gourmet ice cream. In his meeting with Beauport, Gilman makes a few comments about the favorable sales results, then proceeds to tell Beauport that she would be transferred to the recently-vacated position of market research coordinator. Gilman views this as an important career opportunity, although only a lateral transfer. Beauport perceives that she has been sidelined. She is neither aware of Gilman’s true perceptions nor his past career experiences. However, a similar experience with a previous employer leaves her with the impression that Gilman doesn’t want women and visible minorities to get ahead in this organization. Suggested Answers to Case Questions 1. Apply your knowledge of stereotyping and social identity theory to explain what went wrong here. Answer: Many students will jump on the idea that this case involve stereotyping, specifically that Syd Gilman has stereotyped Rochelle Beauport. In fact, there is no apparent evidence of this stereotyping. From all accounts, Gilman is sincere in assigning Beauport to the marketing research coordinator job. He seems to be providing -- or believes that he is providing a good career opportunity for further advancement. If stereotyping exists in this case, it is that Rochelle Beauport is stereotyping Syd Gilman as a typical sexist and racist white male. Social identity theory applies to this case in that Rochelle Beauport has a explicit sense of her social identity as a women and visible minority in a management position. This likely occurs because these are distinctive features for someone in management, as indicated by her statement that she was “one of the top women and few minorities in brand management” at Hy Dairies. This strong social identity may have contributed to her perceptual interpretation of her boss, Syd Gilman, namely that she grouped him in with other men in management positions. In other words, Beauport may have engaged in categorization, homogenization, and differentiation. The issue likely stems from stereotyping, where assumptions were made based on age and experience, disregarding individual skills and potential contributions. Social identity theory suggests that group membership influences perceptions and behavior, leading to biases against newcomers. In this case, overlooking the graduates' abilities and focusing solely on their lack of experience hindered their integration and performance. 2. What other perceptual error is apparent in this case study? Answer: False-consensus effect. There is evidence of false-consensus effect. Syd Gilman overestimated the extent to which Beauport had beliefs and characteristics similar to his own. Specifically, he assumed Washington would welcome a transfer to the position of marketing research coordinator, and incorrectly interpreted Beauport’s nonverbal behavior as evidence supporting his assumption. Some students might refer to self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) as a relevant perceptual concept in this case. However, SFP occurs when the supervisor’s expectations influence the employee in a way that eventually becomes consistent with the supervisor’s initial expectations. Gilman’s initial expectations seem to be positive about Beauport, yet the eventual behavior is that she is thinking of quitting. NOTE: Concepts from other chapters are relevant to this case. These include equity theory (Chapter 5) and exitvoice-loyalty-neglect (Chapter 4). Another perceptual error evident here is the fundamental attribution error, as the manager attributed the new hires' performance solely to their lack of experience, overlooking situational factors and individual capabilities. 3. What can organizations do to minimize misperceptions in these types of situations? Answer: The clearest answer to this question is to improve mutual understanding. Syd Gilman needs to understand and be more sensitive to Rochelle Beauport’s past, and vice versa. Beauport might discover that Gilman was once the marketing research coordinator and had profited from the experience. Gilman could find out that Beauport had experienced blatant gender discrimination with her previous employer and that staff jobs (such as marketing research coordinator) are not always valued. This recommendation relates to the Johari Window, in which both parties need to increase the “open” window area. In addition to gaining mutual understanding, both parties should become aware of the perceptual process and the opportunities for perceptual errors in that process. By being knowledgeable of social identity theory distortions, for example, Beauport might evaluate Gilman for carefully rather than automatically label him within a category. similarly, Gilman might be more sensitive to this incident of false-consensus effect. Finally, both parties might communicate with others to compare perceptions and gain additional information about the event and the other person. Beauport could talk to other employees. They might clarify her misconception that the marketing research coordinator job is a "sideline" position. Or she might muster enough courage to ask Gilman (without anger) why she should be transferred. Gilman could talk to other managers about the transfer to find out how others may react differently. WEB EXERCISE: DIVERSITY AND STEREOTYPING ON DISPLAY IN CORPORATE WEBSITES Purpose This exercise is designed to help you diagnose evidence of diversity and stereotyping in corporate websites. Materials Students need to complete their research for this activity prior to class, including selecting one or more medium-large sized public or private organizations and retrieving sample images of people from the organization’s website. Instructions The instructor may have students work alone or in groups for this activity. Students will select one or more medium large sized public or private organizations. Students will closely examine images in the selected company’s website in terms of how women, visible minorities, people with disabilities, Aboriginal peoples, and older employees and clients are portrayed. Specifically, students should be prepared to discuss and provide details in class regarding: 1. The percentage of images showing (i. e. visual representation of) women, visible minorities, people with disabilities, native (Aboriginal) peoples, and older employees and clients. Students should also be sensitive to the size and placement of these images in the website or documents therein. 2. The roles in which women, visible minorities, people with disabilities, native (Aboriginal) peoples, and older employees and clients are depicted. For example, are women shown more in traditional or non-traditional occupations and roles in these websites? 3. Pick one or more of the best examples of diversity on display and one stereotypic image you can find from the website to show in class, either in printed form, or as a weblink that can be displayed in class. Comments or Instructors This exercise is an excellent way to bring out the issue of a “gendered” organization, in which men and women serve different roles and, usually, women are shown in inferior roles. The exercise similarly investigates perceptual (and cultural) bias with respect to employment equity groups, age, and other factors. Companies have become more sensitive to these issues in recent years, however, other organizations continue to display traditional representations of women and under representation of people in other groups. Where companies provide a balanced display of people in various groups, it would be useful to discuss the reasons why these organizations have provided this representation. For example, students might notice how the organization receives public recognition for its diversity initiatives. This exercise was initially inspired by a study that looked at gender representation in annual reports of Dutch companies in 1996. Although a decade and a half old, and in a different culture than most students (the Netherlands vs United States, for example), these results of that study might provide a useful comparison with student findings in this class. Notice from these results (shown below), that men dominate the photos in 1996 Dutch annual reports. Furthermore, when women are shown, they are much more likely to be depicted in the company of one or more men. The study also found that women were more likely to be shown wearing casual clothing in a non-job location as a customer. Source: Y. Benschop and H. E. Meihuizen, “Keeping Up Gendered Appearances: Representations of Gender in Financial Annual Reports,” Accounting, Organizations and Society, 27 (2002), 611-636. TEAM EXERCISE: PERSONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING A GLOBAL MINDSET Purpose This exercise is designed to help students understand and discover ways to improve their global mindset. Materials None Instructions Step 1: Students are organized into teams, in which the following questions will be discussed. Teams will prepare a list of global mindset–enhancing activities organized around two categories: (1) organizationally generated activities and (2) personal development activities. • Organizationally generated activities: What organizational practices—interventions or conditions created deliberately by the organization—have you experienced or know that others have experienced that develop a person’s global mindset? Be specific in your description of each activity and, where possible, identify the element(s) of global mindset that improve through that activity. • Personal development activities: Suppose someone asked you what personal steps they could take to develop a global mindset. What would you recommend? Think about ways that you have personally developed your (or have good knowledge of someone else who has developed their) global mindset. Your suggestions should say what specific elements of global mindset are improved through each activity. Step 2: The class debriefs, where teams are asked to de- scribe specific personal or organizational activity to others in the class. Look for common themes, as well as challenges people might face while trying to develop a global mindset. Comments for Instructors This team exercise provides an opportunity for students to share personal experiences that they believe have helped them develop a global mindset. The exercise also construct strategies for others to consider in developing their global mindset. Although this activity works best in classes where students have extensive work experience (e. g. an MBA course), it can be meaningful with fruitful results even in a first year college class. In the latter situation, instructors need to help students to consider everyday experiences as well as experiences in their summer and part-time jobs that relate to each element of global mindset. Instructors may want to suggest at the outset that students consider each of the global mindset elements described in the chapter when thinking about how to develop a global mindset. These elements include: (1) an awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices in the world; (2) the capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures; (3) the ability to process complex information about novel environments; and (4) the ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking. For example, by thinking specifically about “the ability to process complex information about novel environments,” students might discover everyday experiences such as a time when they were placed in a new situation (a new course, a new job activity) and had to “make sense” of that situation while making decisions. For “the capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures,” students might refer to local experiences where other students or co-workers were from different cultures. For organizational activities, students might refer to cultural diversity events (e. g. employees bring in meals from their home country), and formal team development discussions about working with a virtual team where some members are located in other parts of the world. For more senior classes (especially MBA classes), organizational practices will likely be more richly described, including visits to foreign sites or visits by coworkers or clients from other cultures to the local company site. SELF-ASSESSMENT: HOW MUCH DOES WORK DEFINE YOUR SELF-CONCEPT? Purpose Work is an important part of our lives, but some people view it as secondary to other life interests whereas others view work as central to their identity as individuals. This scale estimates the extent to which students view work as a central or not-so-central life interest. Instructions Students are asked to read each of the statements below and decide how accurate each one is in describing their focus in life. Then they use the scoring key in Appendix B at the end of this book to calculate their results. Students are reminded that there are no right or wrong answers to these questions. Also, this self-assessment should be completed alone so that students can rate themselves honestly without concerns of social comparison. Class discussion will focus on the meaning of this scale and its relevance to self-concept and perceptions. Feedback for the Work Centrality Scale The work centrality scale measures the extent that work is an important part of the individual’s self-concept. People with high work centrality define themselves mainly by their work roles and view nonwork roles as much less significant. Consequently, people with a high work centrality score likely have lower complexity in their self-concept. This can be a concern because if something goes wrong with their work role, their nonwork roles are not of sufficient value to maintain a positive self-evaluation. At the same time, work dominates our work lives, so those with very low scores would be more of the exception than the rule in most societies. Scores range from 6 to 36 with higher scores indicating higher work centrality. The norms in the following table are based on a large sample of employees in North America (average score was 20. 7). However, work centrality norms vary from one group to the next. For example, the average score in a sample of nurses was around 17 (translated to the scale range used here). Work Centrality Norms Work Centrality Score Interpretation 29 to 36 High work centrality 24 to 28 Above average work centrality 18 to 23 Average work centrality 13 to 17 Below average work centrality 6 to 12 Low work centrality Chapter 4 Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS NOTE: When writing this chapter, we accidentally forgot to include the critical thinking questions. Please accept our apologies for this rare oversight. In place of the missing questions in the textbook, we have created a student handout, provided on the next page. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. A recent study reported that university instructors are frequently required to engage in emotional labor. Identify the situations in which emotional labor is required for this job. In your opinion, is emotional labor more troublesome for college instructors or for telephone operators working at an emergency service? Answer: University instructors often engage in emotional labor when dealing with student concerns, such as providing support during challenging academic situations, consoling students facing personal issues, or managing conflicts within the classroom. Additionally, they may need to maintain a professional demeanor despite facing disrespectful or disruptive behavior from students. This emotional labor is essential for creating a supportive and conducive learning environment. Comparatively, telephone operators at an emergency service also encounter emotional labor, but in a different context. They must remain calm and composed while handling distressing and potentially life-threatening situations. This requires not only managing their own emotions but also providing reassurance and guidance to callers in crisis. The stakes are high, as the consequences of mishandling emotional situations could be dire. In terms of which job faces more troublesome emotional labor, it's subjective and depends on individual preferences, coping mechanisms, and personal characteristics. College instructors may find emotional labor challenging due to the continuous interaction with students and the responsibility of shaping young minds. On the other hand, emergency service operators face intense and unpredictable emotional demands, which can lead to burnout and compassion fatigue. Both roles require significant emotional resilience and support systems to navigate the demands effectively. 2. “Emotional intelligence is more important than cognitive intelligence in influencing an individual’s success. ” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your perspective. Answer: While both emotional intelligence (EI) and cognitive intelligence (CI) contribute to an individual's success, I would argue that neither is inherently more important than the other; rather, they complement each other. Cognitive intelligence encompasses traditional measures of intelligence like problem-solving abilities and analytical skills, which are undoubtedly crucial in many professions. However, emotional intelligence, which involves understanding and managing one's own emotions and those of others, plays a vital role in interpersonal relationships, leadership effectiveness, and overall well-being. In today's highly interconnected and collaborative workplaces, emotional intelligence often distinguishes exceptional leaders and team members. Individuals with high EI can navigate complex social dynamics, resolve conflicts constructively, and inspire others to achieve common goals. Moreover, EI fosters empathy, which is essential for understanding diverse perspectives and building inclusive environments. Nevertheless, cognitive intelligence remains indispensable, especially in fields requiring technical expertise or advanced analytical capabilities. Success often requires a balance between cognitive and emotional intelligence, leveraging both to adapt to diverse challenges and thrive in various contexts. Ultimately, while emotional intelligence can enhance interpersonal relationships and leadership effectiveness, cognitive intelligence provides the analytical foundation necessary for problem-solving and innovation. Therefore, both are integral components of an individual's success, each contributing unique strengths to professional and personal endeavors. 3. Recall a traumatic event, such as the falling of the Twin Towers in NYC (9/11 attacks), or the bombing of several hotels and restaurants in Mumbai, or the children killed recently in an American school. Based on what you have learned in this chapter, discuss what has happened to you in terms of your cognitive reasoning, your emotional reactions, and your ability to logically deal with these stressful situations. Answer: Experiencing a traumatic event such as the 9/11 attacks can profoundly impact cognitive reasoning, emotional reactions, and the ability to deal with stress. Initially, cognitive reasoning may become overwhelmed as the mind struggles to comprehend the magnitude and implications of the event. Rational thought processes may be temporarily disrupted as the brain attempts to process the shock and trauma. Emotionally, reactions can range from intense fear and sadness to anger and confusion. Witnessing or hearing about such tragedies can evoke feelings of vulnerability and a loss of safety, leading to heightened levels of anxiety and distress. These emotional responses can be overwhelming and may persist long after the event itself. Dealing with such stressful situations logically becomes challenging amidst the emotional turmoil. Coping mechanisms may vary from seeking social support to engaging in avoidance behaviors as individuals attempt to manage the psychological fallout. However, over time, with proper support and coping strategies, cognitive reasoning and emotional regulation can gradually improve, allowing for a more balanced and resilient response to future stressors. In essence, traumatic events like the 9/11 attacks can disrupt cognitive functioning, elicit intense emotional reactions, and challenge one's ability to cope logically. However, with time, support, and effective coping strategies, individuals can gradually regain equilibrium and resilience in the face of adversity. 4. It has almost become a mandatory practice for companies to ensure that employees have fun at work. Many workplaces now have fully-stocked lounges, games rooms, funky painted walls, and regular social events. A few even have a slide to travel down to the next floor. However, some experts warn that imposing fun at work can have negative consequences. “Once the idea of fun is formally institutionalized from above, it can lead to employees becoming resentful,” warns one critic. “They feel patronized and condescended, and it breeds anger and frustration. ” Apply the attitude model to explain how fun activities might improve customer satisfaction, as well as how they might result in poorer customer satisfaction. Answer: The attitude model suggests that attitudes are influenced by three components: cognitive (beliefs and thoughts), affective (emotions and feelings), and behavioral (actions and intentions). Fun activities at work can positively influence these components and improve customer satisfaction by fostering positive attitudes among employees. Cognitively, fun activities can enhance beliefs about the workplace environment, leading employees to perceive it as enjoyable and supportive. Affective responses to fun activities can generate positive emotions such as happiness and enthusiasm, which can spill over into interactions with customers, creating a more positive atmosphere. Behaviorally, employees who are engaged and satisfied are more likely to provide better service, leading to improved customer satisfaction. However, when fun activities are imposed and perceived as insincere or forced, they can evoke negative attitudes among employees. Cognitively, employees may view these activities as superficial and insincere, leading to cynicism and skepticism about the company's motives. Affective responses may turn negative, with employees feeling patronized or belittled, leading to resentment and frustration. Behaviorally, employees who feel resentful or frustrated are less likely to engage positively with customers, potentially resulting in poorer customer satisfaction. In summary, while fun activities at work have the potential to improve customer satisfaction by fostering positive attitudes among employees, they can also backfire if perceived as insincere or forced, leading to negative attitudes and potentially poorer customer satisfaction. 5. Job satisfaction leads to increased job performance. This statement has supplanted earlier thought on how job performance doesn’t necessarily depend on job satisfaction. What has caused the shift in thought over the years, and do you agree with this assessment? Answer: The shift in thought regarding the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance can be attributed to a growing body of empirical research and evolving theories in organizational psychology. Early theories, such as Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, suggested that job satisfaction and job performance were distinct constructs, with satisfaction stemming from motivators like recognition and growth opportunities, while performance was influenced by factors such as job design and supervision. However, subsequent research has demonstrated a strong correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. Studies have shown that satisfied employees are more likely to be engaged, committed, and motivated, leading to higher levels of productivity, quality of work, and willingness to go above and beyond their job requirements. Moreover, theories like the Job Characteristics Model emphasize the role of intrinsic job satisfaction in facilitating meaningful work experiences and enhancing performance. I agree with the assessment that job satisfaction is linked to increased job performance. Satisfied employees are more likely to be invested in their work, exhibit higher levels of organizational citizenship behaviors, and contribute positively to team dynamics. Organizations that prioritize employee satisfaction tend to reap the benefits of improved performance, higher levels of innovation, and lower turnover rates. However, it's essential to recognize that the relationship between job satisfaction and performance can be influenced by various factors, including individual differences, organizational culture, and situational context. 6. In this chapter, we highlighted work-related stressors such as harassment and incivility, workload, and lack of task control. Of course, there are many non-work-related stressors that increasingly come into the discussion. Please discuss these and discuss their impact on the work environment. Answer: Non-work-related stressors can significantly impact the work environment by affecting employees' overall well-being and performance. These stressors may include financial concerns, family issues, health problems, and personal conflicts. Financial stress, for example, can distract employees and lead to decreased productivity and engagement at work. Similarly, family issues or caregiving responsibilities can create emotional strain, impacting concentration and job satisfaction. Health problems, whether physical or mental, can also have a profound effect on the work environment. Chronic illnesses or mental health disorders can result in absenteeism, presenteeism, and decreased morale among coworkers. Additionally, personal conflicts or relationship issues can spill over into the workplace, leading to tension, decreased teamwork, and disruptions in communication. Organizations must recognize the interconnectedness of work and personal life and provide support mechanisms to help employees navigate non-work-related stressors. Offering flexible work arrangements, employee assistance programs, and resources for financial planning and mental health support can help mitigate the impact of these stressors on the work environment. Moreover, fostering a culture of empathy, understanding, and open communication can create a supportive atmosphere where employees feel comfortable seeking help and addressing personal challenges without fear of judgment or reprisal. By acknowledging and addressing non-work-related stressors, organizations can promote employee well-being, engagement, and overall productivity in the workplace. 7. Two college graduates recently joined the same major newspaper as journalists. Both work long hours and have tight deadlines for completing their stories. They are under constant pressure to scout out new leads and be the first to report new controversies. One journalist is increasingly fatigued and despondent and has taken several days of sick leave. The other is getting the work done and seems to enjoy the challenges. Use your knowledge of stress to explain why these two journalists are reacting differently to their jobs. Answer: The differences in how the two journalists are reacting to their jobs can be attributed to individual differences in stress perception, coping mechanisms, and resilience. The journalist experiencing fatigue and despondency may have a lower threshold for stress or lack effective coping strategies to manage the demands of the job. Constant pressure to meet tight deadlines and the need to stay ahead in the competitive field of journalism can exacerbate feelings of overwhelm and burnout. On the other hand, the journalist who seems to enjoy the challenges may possess higher levels of resilience and better coping skills. They may perceive the demands of the job as stimulating rather than overwhelming, finding motivation and satisfaction in meeting deadlines and uncovering new stories. Their positive outlook and ability to manage stress effectively enable them to thrive in a high-pressure environment without experiencing significant distress or fatigue. Moreover, individual factors such as personality traits, social support networks, and prior experiences with stress can also influence how individuals respond to work-related pressure. While one journalist may find the demands energizing and fulfilling, another may struggle to cope, leading to differences in their reactions and ultimately their ability to sustain performance and well-being in the long term. 8. A senior official of a labor union stated: “All stress management does is help people cope with poor management. [Employers] should really be into stress reduction. ” Discuss the accuracy of this statement. Answer: While stress management techniques can indeed help individuals cope with the effects of poor management practices, the statement oversimplifies the issue. Stress reduction initiatives should ideally address both individual coping mechanisms and organizational factors contributing to stress. Effective stress management entails not only providing employees with tools to mitigate stress but also addressing underlying systemic issues within the workplace. Poor management practices, such as excessive workload, lack of support, and unclear expectations, can indeed contribute to elevated stress levels among employees. In such cases, stress management techniques may offer temporary relief but may not address the root causes of stress. Employers should prioritize stress reduction by implementing organizational changes aimed at reducing work-related stressors and promoting a healthier work environment. However, solely focusing on stress reduction without addressing individual coping strategies may overlook the importance of building resilience and empowering employees to manage stress effectively. A comprehensive approach to stress management involves a combination of organizational interventions, such as workload management and supportive leadership, alongside individual strategies like mindfulness and relaxation techniques. In conclusion, while the statement highlights the need for employers to address workplace stress, it's essential to recognize that stress management and stress reduction are complementary approaches. By addressing both individual and organizational factors contributing to stress, employers can create a healthier and more sustainable work environment for their employees. SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. A recent study reported that university instructors are frequently required to engage in emotional labor. Identify the situations in which emotional labor is required for this job. In your opinion, is emotional labor more troublesome for college instructors or for telephone operators working at an emergency service? Answer: This question really has two parts to it. In the first part, students can be asked to identify situations where instructors use emotional labor, and what display rules are considered appropriate. Some situations are as follows: A student asks for an assignment extension one too many times. The instructor must maintain a calm demeanor, yet display firmness in his/her reply. The instructor has been teaching for six hours straight, yet must maintain an image of fresh enthusiasm throughout that final hour. A student asks a profoundly silly question without realizing it. The instructor must maintain a sense of interest and show respect for the students query. In the second part of this question, students can be asked to compare these emotional labor incidents with those of emergency operators. In spite of the difficult tasks that instructors may think they experience in emotional labor, most students will say it pales against the work of emergency operators. Students should be asked to explain why these emergency workers must engage in more emotional labor than professors. Generally, students will note how emergency operators face more extreme emotional events that test their ability to remain calm and to console others. They also experience more extreme frustration given the life threatening nature of the situation for their clients. Generally, the discussion should review the three factors that provides challenges to emotional labor: (a) frequent interaction with other people; (b) need to display a variety of emotions (to some extent for emergency operators); and (c) the organization and job requires strict display rules. NOTE: For a study of emotional labor among emergency operators, see: K. Tracy and S. J. Tracy, “Rudeness at 911,” Human Communication Research, 25 (December 1998), pp. 225-51. University instructors engage in emotional labor in various situations, such as providing support to students facing academic challenges, consoling those dealing with personal issues, and managing conflicts within the classroom. Additionally, they often need to maintain a professional demeanor when faced with disrespectful or disruptive behavior from students. Emotional labor is also required when delivering feedback, motivating students, and fostering a positive learning environment. Comparing emotional labor between college instructors and emergency service telephone operators is complex. While both professions involve managing emotions, the nature and intensity of emotional demands differ. College instructors may face prolonged emotional labor due to continuous interaction with students, potentially leading to burnout. On the other hand, emergency service operators encounter intense and immediate emotional demands, dealing with distressing and life-threatening situations. Both roles require emotional resilience, but the type and frequency of emotional labor may vary, making it challenging to determine which is more troublesome. 2. “Emotional intelligence is more important than cognitive intelligence in influencing an individual’s success. ” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your perspective. Answer: Many students may argue that to be successful, an individual requires high IQ (cognitive intelligence). Although cognitive intelligence is important, many organizations are recognizing that EI (emotional intelligence) is a critical competency for the performance of most jobs. To effectively work in dynamic, team-oriented environments, employees require the ability to manage, understand, assimilate and express emotions effectively. At the same time, some popular experts on emotional intelligence may have overstated the importance of this concept. They initially concluded that EI is much more important than cognitive intelligence, but critique from other experts led to more moderate statements today. The relative importance of EI and IQ will continue to be debated, but they are both highly important. A key point as well is that EI and IQ are important in different ways. For instance, EI may be less important than IQ in individual decision making, whereas EQ may be more important than IQ for tasks requiring interpersonal activities. I disagree with the statement that emotional intelligence is more important than cognitive intelligence in influencing an individual's success. Both cognitive and emotional intelligence play crucial roles in determining an individual's success, but their significance may vary depending on the context and the nature of the task or profession. Cognitive intelligence, encompassing analytical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and domain-specific knowledge, is indispensable in many fields, especially those requiring technical expertise or complex decision-making. Without cognitive intelligence, individuals may struggle to comprehend and solve problems efficiently, hindering their performance and advancement. However, emotional intelligence, involving self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills, is equally important, particularly in interpersonal interactions, leadership roles, and collaborative environments. Emotional intelligence enables individuals to navigate social complexities, build strong relationships, and inspire trust and cooperation, all of which are critical for success in many professions. In conclusion, both cognitive and emotional intelligence contribute synergistically to an individual's success, with their relative importance varying depending on the context. While cognitive intelligence provides the analytical foundation necessary for problem-solving and innovation, emotional intelligence enhances interpersonal relationships, leadership effectiveness, and overall well-being. Therefore, a balanced development of both cognitive and emotional intelligence is essential for achieving success in diverse personal and professional endeavors. 3. Recall a traumatic event, such as the falling of the Twin Towers in NYC (9/11 attacks), or the bombing of several hotels and restaurants in Mumbai, or the children killed recently in an American school. Based on what you have learned in this chapter, discuss what has happened to you in terms of your cognitive reasoning, your emotional reactions, and your ability to logically deal with these stressful situations. Answer: It is clear that our emotions shape attitudes (both inside organizations and outside of them). It is also clear that attitudes influence work-related behaviors. We cannot dismiss the attitudes we have formed outside of our organizations, as they can carry over into our work-related domains very easily. The question prompts you to recall how you “felt” when you observed (likely on television or the internet) horrific events. Since cognition precedes emotion, one can only imagine that the cognitively horrific images caused emotional reactions that lacked “words” or even narratives that defined what those images conveyed. That is why people often react with phrases such as “I’m speechless,” or “words cannot express what I feel…” Indeed, the R-mode (emotional side) of the brain takes over and the L-mode (cognitive) recedes in highly stressful events. That is why people often cannot even “talk” about what they have just observed. Because people differ in their ability to psychologically translate these phenomena, personality differences may allow them to cognitively reason through, and come to a conclusion more swiftly than others may be able to. 4. It has almost become a mandatory practice for companies to ensure that employees have fun at work. Many workplaces now have fully-stocked lounges, games rooms, funky painted walls, and regular social events. A few even have a slide to travel down to the next floor. However, some experts warn that imposing fun at work can have negative consequences. “Once the idea of fun is formally institutionalized from above, it can lead to employees becoming resentful,” warns one critic. “They feel patronized and condescended, and it breeds anger and frustration. ” Apply the attitude model to explain how fun activities might improve customer satisfaction, as well as how they might result in poorer customer satisfaction. Answer: There are two aspects to this question: (a) how “fun” workplace events at work generate positive or negative emotions and attitudes, and (b) how job satisfaction affects customer service. (A) “Fun” workplace events and employee attitudes: Companies introduce “fun” events so employees will experience positive emotions and associate those emotions with the work experience. Emotions and attitudes literature explains that the more we experience positive-valent emotions at work relative to negative-valent events, the more employees will form a positive attitude toward the work and/or company. Job satisfaction might be considered a general attitude toward the job and work environment because it is an evaluation of that work and its context. The problem with “fun” events is that they presume employees will experience positive emotions. Usually they do, but there are also plenty of instances where events intended to create positive emotions actually generated negative emotional experiences in some or most employees. The activity might be irritating (maybe a waste of time), embarrassing (causes awkward social incidents), or any number of other negative emotions. (B) How job satisfaction affects customer satisfaction: The service profit chain model explains that job satisfaction affects customer service. Specifically, job satisfaction influences employee retention, motivation, and behavior. These employee outcomes affect service quality, which then influence customer satisfaction and perceptions of value, customer referrals, and ultimately the company’s profitability and growth. Therefore, “fun” workplace events can improve customer satisfaction, but only if those events positive emotions in employees and employees associate those positive emotions to the workplace. 5. Job satisfaction leads to increased job performance. This statement has supplanted earlier thought on how job performance doesn’t necessarily depend on job satisfaction. What has caused the shift in thought over the years, and do you agree with this assessment? Answer: For the past 30 years or so, the debate has raged in the OB literature as to what causes what. Do happy employees perform better or do high performing employees cause increased job satisfaction? What likely is new is that in the earlier line of thought (job sat improves job performance), the fact is that rewards were not included in that analysis. We know understand that rewards (whether intrinsic or extrinsic) lead to job performance, and not the other way around. Performance is predicated on rewards, but the major issue today is how do we define performance in this globally-distributed world of work? Once that has been achieved, reward systems can be more easily developed and administered. Once that has occurred, we can more easily define performance, and thus the link between job satisfaction and performance can be more closely monitored. 6. In this chapter, we highlighted work-related stressors such as harassment and incivility, workload, and lack of task control. Of course, there are many non-work-related stressors that increasingly come into the discussion. Please discuss these and discuss their impact on the work environment. Answer: The impact of non-work-related stressors is significant. We believe organizations now engage in more “wellness related” programs to deal with such stressors on a daily basis. For example, the care giving to an infant or a senior parent is now part and parcel of wellness programs across the globe. We know that care giving takes its toll on care givers, in terms of diseases, psychological consequences, accidents, aggressive behaviors and job burnout. The second author on the book noticed that in her consulting work with GE, that one of the business units had a “bet on” to see who would “stroke out first” due to the stress of the job. That was not a joke, indeed it was due to work overload. 7. Two college graduates recently joined the same major newspaper as journalists. Both work long hours and have tight deadlines for completing their stories. They are under constant pressure to scout out new leads and be the first to report new controversies. One journalist is increasingly fatigued and despondent and has taken several days of sick leave. The other is getting the work done and seems to enjoy the challenges. Use your knowledge of stress to explain why these two journalists are reacting differently to their jobs. Answer: This incident describes two journalists with similar stressors experiencing different levels of stress and stress consequences. This illustrates the distinction between stressors and stress. It may also highlight the importance of individual differences in stress. One possible reason why these two journalists are experiencing different stress levels is that they might perceive the situation differently. The low stress journalist might have higher self-esteem and confidence that he/she can complete the work. (A) second explanation might be that the journalists have different threshold levels of resistance to a stressor. Both are recent graduates and we don’t know if they are a similar age. However, the high stress journalist might have less resistance because he/she has recently experienced other stressors, such as death of a family member. Finally, the different stress levels might be explained by the different strategies used to manage the stress. The high stress journalist might be using ineffective coping strategies (or hasn’t been applying stress management practices at all), whereas the low stress journalist is using stress management practices that work well here. 8. A senior official of a labor union stated: “All stress management does is help people cope with poor management. [Employers] should really be into stress reduction. ” Discuss the accuracy of this statement. Answer: The union official is only partially correct, in that poor management undoubtedly contributes to the stress level of employees. However, poor management is not the only cause, nor is stress always work- related. Sometimes, the stress involves time-based, strain-based, or role-base conflicts. Also, two individuals faced with the same stressors may not react in the same way, or experience the same level of stress. This is because individual differences in coping strategies, resiliency, and social support networks are important determining factors. Educating employees about stress management techniques also helps them cope with stress from many other sources, and not just those created by poor managers. The union official’s suggestion that management should try to reduce stress has merit. For example, instituting work-life balance initiatives, reducing harassment, and offering employee assistance programs have been shown to reduce stress levels for employees. CASE STUDY: ROUGH SEAS ON THE LINK650 Case Synopsis Shaun O’Neill describes to his former professor his experience on the LINK650, a drilling rig in the North Sea. O’Neill had taken two years off from school to work on the rig. He started the job with strong loyalty, but left with no loyalty and very low job dissatisfaction. The work was more difficult than expected, and the supervisors treated employees badly. Employees received little information about the rig’s future and were exposed to unnecessary safety risks. The employees unionized after one mate died in an accident. O’Neill eventually quit his job. Suggested Answers to Discussion Questions 1. Identify the various ways that employees expressed their job dissatisfaction on the LINK650. Answer: Employees expressed their dissatisfaction through: Voluntary turnover. Some people quit because they were dissatisfied with working conditions. Other people quit because they couldn’t tolerate the supervisors. Reduced work effort. Some employees tried to find ways to get as little work done as possible. Absenteeism. Several employees developed fake back problems, known as the “rigger’s backache. ” Unionization. Employees signed labor union cards when safety problems resulted in the death of one crew member. 2. Shaun O’Neill’s commitment to the LINK organization dwindled over his two years of employment. Discuss the factors that affected his organizational commitment. Answer: This case provides a rich example of the factors influencing organizational commitment. O’Neill’s loyalty (as well as the loyalty of other employees on the LINK650) fell dramatically over the two years for several reasons. Trust. Employees did not trust the company or its supervisors. The company tried to overthrow a labor union that employees had formed to resolve safety problems. The company also put pressure on supervisors to push employees to work harder. Employees did not trust the supervisors because of their harsh behavior and unfair practices. Job security. Job security was very low, because supervisors routinely fired people for seemingly minor infractions. The rig’s uncertain future also created job insecurity. Organizational comprehension. The case describes how employees were left in the dark about problems on the rig. Employee involvement. Employees were not involved in decisions on the LINK650. They did not feel involved in the rig’s future, and they did not feel that management had much respect for them. CLASS EXERCISE: STRENGTHS-BASED COACHING Purpose To help students practice a form of interpersonal development built on the dynamics of positive emotions. Materials None Background Several chapters in this book introduce and apply the emerging philosophy of positive organizational behavior, which suggests that focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being. An application of positive OB is strengths-based or appreciative coaching, in which the coach focuses on the person’s strengths rather than weaknesses, and helps to realize his or her potential. As part of any coaching process, the coach listens to the employee’s story and uses questions and suggestions to help that person redefine his/her self-concept and perceptions of the environment. Listening and probing for information (rather than telling the person a solution or direction) is a key process of effective coaching. The instructions below identify specific information and issues that the coach and coachee will discuss. Instructions Step 1: Form teams of four people. One team can have six people if the class does not have multiples of four. For odd numbered class sizes, one person may be an observer. Divide into pairs in which one person is coach and the other coachee. Ideally for this exercise, the coach and coachee should have LITTLE knowledge of each other. Step 2: Coachees will to describe something about themselves in which they excel and for which they like to be recognized. This competency might be work related, but not necessarily. It would be a personal achievement or ability that is close to their self-concept (how they define themselves). The coach mostly listens, but also prompts more details from the coachee using “probe” questions (“Tell me more about that”; “What did you do next?”; “Could you explain that further, please?”; “What else can you remember about that event?”). As the coachee’s story develops, the coach will guide the coachee to identify ways to leverage this strength. For example, the pair would explore situational barriers to practicing the coachee’s strength as well as aspects of this strength that requires further development. The strength may also be discussed as a foundation for the coachee to develop strengths in other related ways. The session should end with some discussion of the coachee’s goals and action plans. The first coaching session can be any length of time specified by the instructor, but 15-25 minutes is typical for each coaching session. Step 3: After completing the first coaching session, regroup so that each pair has different partners than in the first pair (i. e. If pairs are A-B and C-D in session 1, then pairs are A-C and B-D in session 2). The coaches become coachees to their new partner in session 2. Step 4: The class will debrief regarding the emotional experience of discussing personal strengths, the role of self concept in emotions and attitudes, the role of managers and co-workers in building positive emotions in people, and the value and limitations of strengths-based coaching. Comments for Instructors This exercise offers two wonderful experiences in organizational behavior. First, it teaches students about stem-and probe interviewing, which is an important practice in coaching employees, gathering information, and conducting non-directive interviews. The objective is to draw out more information from the interviewee than normally occurs, by using a variety of “probes. ” These probes may include back-channel feedback (“uh-uh”, “I see”, “tell me more”, etc.). Silence is also an effective way to receive more information from the interviewee. Second, this exercise demonstrates the power of positive organizational behavior, which is embedded in appreciative coaching or strengths-based coaching. Specifically, as students interview each other about their positive experiences, they tend to experience more positive emotions, which often produces more cheeriness and or at least pleasantries around the room. We have found this effect develop soon after the exercise begins, particularly in evening classes where students have already had a full day of work or classes. This book does not provide details of appreciative coaching, so the instructor may want to provide offer the following information prior to the exercise. The following is based on information in Sara L. Orem, Jacqueline Binkert, and Ann L. Clancy, Appreciative Coaching (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007); and Marcus Buckingham and C. Coffman, First, Break All the Rules (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999). Appreciative Coaching Process Appreciative or strengths-based coaching follows the four stages of appreciative inquiry, which is described in the Organizational Change chapter of this book. The coach works with the coachee through these stages. Discovery • Reframe employee’s future towards potential, not problems • Identify employee strengths from positive past experiences Dreaming • Clarify employee’s aspirations of the future • Link employee strengths to those aspirations Designing • Identify priorities and recognize steps already taken toward the dream • Increase personal control over external influences toward the dream Delivering (also called “Destiny”) • Celebrating milestones toward the dream Appreciative Coaching Questions Students often have difficulty thinking of specific “stem” questions to ask coachees that represent appreciative coaching. The following questions (from Orem et al, 2007) will provide some guidance: • Describe your three greatest accomplishments to date. • What made these accomplishments stand out for you? • What have you learned from past accomplishments to assist you in the future? • What are the five most positive things in your life? • Who are the key supportive people in your life, and what do they provide for you? • What energizes you? • What would you like to contribute to the world? • What are you most wanting to achieve in the next three years? TEAM EXERCISE: RANKING JOBS ON THEIR EMOTIONAL LABOR Purpose This exercise is designed to help students to understand the jobs in which people tend to experience higher or lower degrees of emotional labor. Instructions Step 1: Students are asked to individually rank order the extent that the jobs listed below require emotional labor. In other words, they assign a “1” to the job they believe requires the most effort, planning, and control to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. They would assign a “10” to the job they believe requires the least amount of emotional labor. Students mark their rankings in column 1. Step 2: The instructor will form teams of 4 or 5 members and each team will rank order the items based on consensus (not simply averaging the individual rankings). These results are placed in column 2. Step 3: The instructor will provide expert ranking information. This information should be written in column 3. Then, students calculate the differences in columns 4 and 5. Step 4: The class will compare the results and discuss the features of jobs with high emotional labor. Comments for Instructors This expert ranking provided below is based on a careful review of information in the U. S. Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) from the Occupational Outlook Handbook 2000-01. See web site: http://www. oalj. dol. gov/libdot. htm Although this expert ranking uses established information, it is not necessarily the most accurate source. One problem is that there can be significant differences in the experiences of people within the occupation. For example, some social workers might have very co-operative and relatively well-adjusted clients, whereas others must work intensively with more difficult people. Another issue is that the rankings are inferred from job descriptions. These descriptions include work requirements in a social setting, but they do not directly describe or estimate the degree of emotional labor required for the occupation. The expert results also provide a brief explanation of the ranking. Generally, teams make better decisions than do individuals working alone in this exercise. . This is reflected by a “Team Score” that is usually lower than the “Individual Score. ” The reason (which students learn in Chapter 8) is that team members bring more information to the decision than does the average individual However, some individuals score better than the group because they have expertise on this topic and their team does not rely completely on the suggestions of members who claims to be experts. The discussion following the exercise should focus on the reasons why students ranked some jobs higher than others on the level of emotional labor. Generally, emotional labor increases with: 1. The extent to which the job has required display rules. Emotional labor is higher where the job requires the job incumbent to display emotions while interacting with customers, suppliers, and others. 2. The frequency and length of interaction with other people. Emotional labor is higher where employees must display emotions frequent and for long periods of time. 3. The intensity of emotions required during this interaction. Emotional labor is higher where the job incumbent must display more extreme emotions. 4. The extent to which the display rules create emotional dissonance. Emotional labor is higher where incumbents must display emotions that are dissimilar or contrary to their true emotions at the time of the emotional display. Along with presenting the results of this exercise, the instructor may want to encourage students to discuss their personal experiences in any of these jobs. In classes with older students, I have found that students have numerous fascinating stories about how they had to cope with difficult interactions involving clients, patients, suppliers, and others. EXPERT RANKING ON EMOTIONAL LABOR (1=HIGHEST) Occupation Expert Ranking Explanation of Ranking Bartender 4 Bartenders “must be friendly and helpful with customers. ” In small establishments, bartenders must also deal with unruly customers, but this is typically handled by other employees in larger establishments. Some bartenders do not interact directly with customers. Some bartenders serve customers, but have limited interaction with them, so they have limited emotional labor duties. Cashier 8 Although cashiers work almost all of their time in front of customers, the interaction with each customer is typically brief, routine, and with limited conversation. Dental hygienist 7 People in this job work with patients, but the job description involves mainly performing tasks with limited interaction with patients (who are usually unable to speak during the work anyway!) However, emotional labor is required by maintaining a pleasant or neutral disposition throughout the visit. They also spend some time talking with patients about dental hygiene. Dental hygienists must also maintain a calm disposition when assisting the dentist during surgical work. Insurance adjuster 6 Although adjusters interact with claimants, a fair portion of their task involves collecting information about the event, reviewing police records, and comparing data with other claims. Interaction with claimants may require some emotional labor where the claim is a personal injury or loss of valuable goods. However, this interaction is relatively brief. Some emotional labor may also occur where claims need to be negotiated with the claimant. Lawyer 5 The emotional labor required of lawyers varies significantly with the type of work. Barristers (trial lawyers) must “be able to think quickly and speak with ease and authority. ” Other lawyers spend most of their time performing research or attending to the practice’s administrative tasks. Most lawyers spent some time with clients, which requires both authority and empathy from the lawyer during these interviews. Librarian 9 The librarian’s interaction with the public can vary with the specific position. Some have little direct interaction, relying instead on technology to manage most queries. Other librarians must help to answer customer questions, read to children, and work with public groups. However, “librarians spend a significant portion of time at their desks or in front of computer terminals. ” Most interaction tasks are for a short duration and have low intensity. Postal clerk 10 Postal clerks include people who work at retail counters and those who process letters and packages. The former are similar to cashiers (see above) in their emotional labor requirements. The latter have almost no interaction with the public, just with other postal employees. Thus, their emotional labor requirements would be no more than for any other job involving some interaction with co-workers. Registered nurse 2 Registered nurses vary from staff nurses in hospitals to public health nurses in schools. Most hospital nurses engage in considerable emotional labor and “need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. ” They must frequently exhibit emotions that they are “caring and sympathetic. ” They must also manage the emotions of patients and visitors. Social worker 1 Social workers have frequent interaction with clients, sometimes with heavy case loads. They “see clients who face a life-threatening disease or a social problem. ” Depending on the type of client, social workers must display emotions of control, empathy, and support. The job “can be emotionally draining. ” Television announcer 3 Television announcers must sound and look consistently pleasant on air, and display similar emotions during the many public events required for the job. “The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. ” This can create emotional dissonance where the announcer works under tight deadlines or interviews people with aggressive behavior. However, announcers also spend a large portion of their time away from an audience preparing on-air scripts. SELF-ASSESSMENT: ARE YOU IN TOUCH WITH YOUR EMOTIONS? Purpose This self-assessment is designed to help you understand the meaning and dimensions of emotional intelligence and to estimate your perceptions of your emotional intelligence. Overview Emotional intelligence has become an important concept and ability in the workplace. It is a skill that people develop throughout their lives to help them interact better with others, make better decisions, and manage the attitudes and behavior of other people. Although emotional intelligence is best measured as an ability test, this scale offers you an opportunity to estimate your perceptions and self-awareness of this ability in yourself. Instructions Students are asked to read each of the statements below and select the response that best describes them. Then they use the scoring key in Appendix B of this book to calculate your results. This self-assessment is completed alone so that students rate themselves honestly without concerns of social comparison. However, class discussion will focus on the meaning and dimensions of emotional intelligence, its application in the workplace, and the best ways to measure emotional intelligence. Feedback for the Emotional Intelligence Self-Assessment Scale Interpreting your Scores: This scale measures the four dimensions of emotional intelligence described in this book. The meaning of the four dimensions are as follows: Self-awareness of emotions. This is the ability to perceive and understand the meaning of your own emotions. Self-management of emotions. This is the ability to manage your own emotions. It includes generating or suppressing emotions and displaying behaviors that represent desired emotions in a particular situation. Awareness of others’ emotions. This is the ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people, including the practices of empathy an awareness of social phenomena such as organizational politics. Management of others’ emotions. This is the ability to manage other people’s emotions. It includes generating or suppressing emotions in other people, such as reducing their sadness and increasing their motivation. Scores on the four Emotional Intelligence Self-Assessment dimensions range from 4 to 20. The overall score ranges from 16 to 80. The table on the next page shows norms from a sample of 235 MBA students. Most of these respondents are from Australia, but about 15 percent are from MBA classes in Singapore. Also, many of the Australian students come from other parts of the world (Asia, Europe, South America, North America). Respondents range from about 25 to over 50 years old, with an average age of approximately 32 years old. Approximately 30 percent are female. Norms vary from one population to another, so the MBA student norms shown here might not be as relevant for people attending some courses. To illustrate how to read the norms in the table, look at the top 10 percentile for self-awareness. The score shown is 19, indicating that 10 percent of the 235 MBA students in this sample scored 19 or 20 and 90 percent scored below 19 on this dimension. Keep in mind that these results represent self-perceptions. Evaluations from others (such as through 360-degree feedback) may provide a more accurate estimate of emotional intelligence on some (not necessarily all) dimensions. Emotional Intelligence Self-Assessment Norms Percentile Selfawareness of emotions Management of own emotions Awareness of Management others’ of others’ emotions emotions TOTAL Average Score 16 14. 7 14. 7 14. 8 60. 4 Top 10 percentile 19 18 18 18 70 Top 25th percentile 18 17 16 16 66 Median (50 percentile) 16 15 15 15 61 Bottom 25th percentile 15 13 13 13 56 Bottom 10 percentile 14 11 11 12 51 Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality Steven McShane, Mary Von Glinow 9780077862589, 9781259280634, 9781259562792, 9780071077989