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Chapter8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications Questions For Review 8-1. How does the job characteristics model motivate employees? Answer: The job characteristics model is the Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be described through five core job dimensions: skill variety – requirements for different tasks in the job; task identity – completion of a whole piece of work; task significance – the job’s impact on others; autonomy – level of discretion in decision making; and feedback – amount of direct and clear information on performance. The way elements in a job are organized (job design) impacts motivation, satisfaction, and performance. 8-2. What are the major ways that jobs can be redesigned? Answer: Job rotation – the periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another; Relational job design – constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work. 8-3. What are the motivational benefits of the specific alternative work arrangements? Answer: a. Flextime: Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core. b. Job sharing: The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job. c. Telecommuting: Employees do their work at home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office. The advantages are that each offers alternative work options so flexibility can be built into an employee’s schedule. They all often reduce absenteeism and turnover for a company. Flextime is not applicable to every job. It reduces traffic congestion, increases autonomy, increases productivity, etc. Job sharing allows a company to use more than one person for a job and increases flexibility. The drawback is locating compatible workers. Telecommuting allows companies to select from a larger labor pool and increases productivity, reduces turnover, improves morale, and reduces office-space costs. The downside is the lack of direct supervision of employees by managers. Also, feelings of worker isolation can be a problem. 8-4. How can employee involvement measures motivate employees? Answer: Employee involvement programs are participative processes that use the input of employees to increase their commitment to the organization’s success. They can increase motivation by increasing worker autonomy and control over their work lives and involvement in organizations through programs like participative management and representative participation, like work councils and quality circles (a group that regularly meets to discuss their quality programs and take corrective actions). 8-5. How can the different types of variable-pay programs increase employee motivation? Answer: Variable pay is a portion of an employee’s pay that is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. Piece rate is when workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. Its weakness is it’s not feasible for many jobs. Merit-based pay is based on performance appraisal ratings. Weaknesses include: the validity of the system based on annual appraisals; the pay pool can be small; and unions strongly resist them. Bonuses reward recent performance. Its weakness: employees’ pay is more vulnerable to cuts. 8-6. How can flexible benefits motivate employees? Answer: Flexible benefits allow employees to tailor their benefit program to meet their personal need by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options. Consistent with expectancy theory, flexible benefits individualize rewards by allowing each employee to select the benefits that fit his or her current needs. 8-7. What are the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards? Answer: Intrinsic rewards stimulate intrinsic motivation through personal attention given to employee approval and appreciation for a job well done. This is growing in popularity and usage. Experiential Exercise Occupations and the Job Characteristics Model Break the class into groups of three to five. 8-8. As a group, consider each of the five job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback). Then, write down jobs that have high levels of each characteristic (if you can think of jobs that have high levels of multiple characteristics, note those as well). Do you think the jobs you identified are high or low paying? Why? Answer: Group Formation: Divide the class into groups of three to five members each. Job Characteristics: 1. Skill Variety: Jobs that involve a wide range of skills and abilities. • Examples: Surgeon, Software Developer, Chef. • These jobs typically require a diverse set of skills and expertise. • They are often high paying due to the specialized nature of the skills involved. 2. Task Identity: Jobs where employees can see the outcome of their work from start to finish. • Examples: Furniture Maker, Graphic Designer, Automotive Engineer. • These jobs allow employees to complete entire projects or tasks, providing a sense of accomplishment. • Pay can vary, but they may be high paying if the tasks are complex and require specialized skills. 3. Task Significance: Jobs that have a significant impact on others or society. • Examples: Nurse, Teacher, Environmental Scientist. • These jobs directly contribute to the well-being of others or address important societal issues. • Pay can vary, but they may be high paying if they require specialized training and expertise. 4. Autonomy: Jobs where employees have freedom and control over their work. • Examples: Freelance Writer, Entrepreneur, Research Scientist. • These jobs allow individuals to make decisions independently and manage their own workload. • Pay can vary widely depending on the success and profitability of the ventures, but they have the potential to be high paying. 5. Feedback: Jobs where employees receive clear and timely information about their performance. • Examples: Sales Representative, Call Center Agent, Sports Coach. • These jobs provide regular feedback on performance, allowing employees to improve and adjust their work. • Pay can vary, but they may be high paying if performance is directly tied to financial incentives or bonuses. Pay Scale Analysis: Discuss the potential pay scale for each category of jobs identified based on the characteristics: • High Paying Jobs: Those that require specialized skills, expertise, or have a significant impact on others or society tend to be high paying. Examples include surgeons, software developers, nurses, and entrepreneurs. • Moderate Paying Jobs: Jobs with a moderate level of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback may have moderate pay. Examples include graphic designers, teachers, freelance writers, and sales representatives. • Low Paying Jobs: Jobs that have limited skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback may be lower paying. Examples include some entry-level positions or jobs in industries with lower demand or competition. Encourage discussion within the groups to analyze the relationship between job characteristics and pay scales, considering factors such as demand, market value of skills, and societal importance of the job roles. 8-9. Next, write down jobs that have low levels of each characteristic (and if you can think of jobs that have low levels of multiple characteristics, note those as well.) Do you think the jobs you identified are high or low paying? Why? Answer: Continue with the groups formed earlier, maintaining three to five members in each group. Low Levels of Job Characteristics: 1. Low Skill Variety: Jobs that involve repetitive tasks with minimal variation in skills required. • Examples: Assembly Line Worker, Data Entry Clerk, Telemarketer. • These jobs often involve performing the same tasks repeatedly, requiring limited skill development. • Pay tends to be lower as the skills required are often basic and easily trainable. 2. Low Task Identity: Jobs where employees work on small parts of larger tasks, without seeing the complete outcome. • Examples: Factory Worker (working on one part of an assembly line), Call Center Operator, Food Prep Worker in a fast-food chain. • These jobs involve performing tasks that are a small component of a larger process, providing little sense of completion. • Pay may be lower as the tasks are often repetitive and lack autonomy. 3. Low Task Significance: Jobs that have minimal impact on others or society. • Examples: Shelf Stocker, Warehouse Packer, Office Clerk. • These jobs involve tasks that may not directly contribute to the well-being of others or society. • Pay tends to be lower as the tasks are often routine and do not require specialized skills or significant responsibility. 4. Low Autonomy: Jobs where employees have limited freedom and control over their work. • Examples: Cashier, Customer Service Representative (with strict scripts), Data Entry Clerk. • These jobs involve following strict procedures or instructions without much room for decision-making. • Pay may be lower as the roles typically involve lower levels of responsibility and decision-making. 5. Low Feedback: Jobs where employees receive limited or delayed information about their performance. • Examples: Janitorial Staff, General Laborer, Agricultural Worker. • These jobs may lack regular feedback mechanisms, making it difficult for employees to gauge their performance. • Pay tends to be lower as there is less emphasis on individual performance and improvement. Pay Scale Analysis: Discuss the potential pay scale for each category of jobs identified based on the low levels of job characteristics: • Low Paying Jobs: Roles that involve repetitive tasks, minimal skill development, limited autonomy, and low significance to society often result in lower pay. Examples include assembly line workers, data entry clerks, and janitorial staff. • Moderate Paying Jobs: Some roles with low levels of job characteristics may still offer moderate pay depending on factors such as demand, location, and industry. Examples include call center operators and customer service representatives. • Factors Influencing Pay: Emphasize that pay scales are influenced by various factors beyond just job characteristics, including market demand, cost of living, and industry standards. Additionally, discuss how job satisfaction and fulfillment can also impact individuals' perceptions of job value beyond monetary compensation. Encourage group discussion to explore the relationship between job characteristics and pay scales, as well as the potential implications for individuals seeking employment or career advancement. 8-10. For those jobs you identified as having low levels of job characteristics, come up with some strategies to increase them. Be specific in your recommendations. Discuss these with the class. Answer: Certainly! Here are some strategies to increase job characteristics for roles identified as having low levels: Group Formation: Continue with the same groups formed earlier, maintaining three to five members in each group. Strategies to Increase Job Characteristics: 1. Low Skill Variety: • Cross-Training: Implement cross-training programs to expose employees to different tasks and skills within their role. This can increase variety and enhance employee engagement. • Job Rotation: Rotate employees across different tasks or departments periodically to broaden their skill set and provide variety in their work. • Skills Development Workshops: Offer workshops or training sessions to help employees acquire new skills relevant to their role, increasing the variety of tasks they can perform. 2. Low Task Identity: • Task Integration: Restructure job roles to incorporate multiple tasks into cohesive projects with clear start and end points, allowing employees to see the outcome of their work. • Team Projects: Encourage collaborative projects where team members work together on larger tasks, providing a sense of collective achievement. • Client Interaction: Facilitate direct interaction with clients or end-users to help employees understand how their contributions fit into the larger context and see the impact of their work. 3. Low Task Significance: • Purpose Alignment: Clearly communicate the organization's mission and how each role contributes to achieving it, emphasizing the significance of individual tasks. • Feedback Mechanisms: Implement feedback systems that recognize and highlight the importance of employees' contributions, reinforcing the significance of their work. • Community Engagement: Provide opportunities for employees to participate in community service or volunteer projects related to the organization's mission, enhancing their sense of purpose and significance. 4. Low Autonomy: • Empowerment Programs: Establish empowerment initiatives that delegate decision-making authority to employees, giving them more control over their work processes. • Flexible Work Arrangements: Offer flexible work schedules or remote work options to allow employees greater control over when and where they perform their tasks. • Goal Setting: Collaboratively set clear goals and objectives with employees, empowering them to take ownership of their work and make decisions aligned with organizational objectives. 5. Low Feedback: • Regular Performance Reviews: Conduct regular performance reviews with constructive feedback to help employees understand their strengths and areas for improvement. • Peer Feedback Systems: Implement peer feedback systems where colleagues provide feedback and recognition to each other, supplementing formal evaluations. • Real-time Feedback Tools: Introduce real-time feedback tools or apps that allow employees to receive immediate feedback on their performance, enabling them to make timely adjustments. Discussion with the Class: Encourage each group to present their strategies to the class, discussing the potential benefits and challenges of implementing them. Facilitate a discussion on how increasing job characteristics can enhance employee satisfaction, motivation, and overall organizational performance. Encourage students to share their thoughts on which strategies they believe would be most effective in different contexts and why. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Ethical Dilemma Inmates for Hire We’ve all heard about how companies are using overseas workers to reduce labor costs, but the real cost savings for some jobs may lie with prison workers. Federal Prison Industries (FPI, also called UNICOR) is a company that is owned by the government but employs prison inmates. Like some overseas sweatshop workers, prisoners are paid exceptionally low, at 23 cents to $1.15 an hour, receive no benefits for their work, and do not work in a participative management environment. The motivation for them to work hard is instead completely intrinsic: to learn trade skills and the value of work while they are incarcerated, in hopes that they will be more employable upon their release. Although the organization is unable to supply workers to the private sector, federal agencies are required to purchase goods produced by its workers whenever FPI’s bids are competitive. Steven Eisen, chief financial officer of Tennier Industries, came face-to-face with FPI when his company lost a $45 million contract to manufacture clothing for the U.S. Defense Department. One hundred of Tennier’s workers were laid off as a result. He argues it is wrong to give jobs to prison inmates at the expense of law-abiding citizens who may be struggling to find employment. “Our government screams, howls, and yells how the rest of the world is using prisoners or slave labor to manufacture items, and here we take the items right out of the mouths of people who need it,” says Eisen. Proponents of the program say it is beneficial to inmates, pointing to data from the Bureau of Prisons showing that inmates who work for FPI are 24 percent less likely to be incarcerated again and 14 percent more likely to be employed when released. Traci Billingsley, speaking for the Bureau of Prisons, states, “FPI supplies only a small fraction of the government’s goods and services. FPI also helps support American jobs as it often partners with private American companies as a supplier.” Source: Based on D. Cardwell, “Competing with Prison Labor,” The New York Times (March 15, 2012) pp. 1, 4. Questions: 8-11. Do you think it is fair for companies to have to compete against prison inmates for government work? Why or why not? Answer: The ethical dilemma presented here revolves around whether it's fair for companies to compete against prison inmates for government work. Let's analyze both sides of the argument: Yes, it's fair: 1. Benefit to Inmates: Providing job opportunities for inmates through programs like FPI can be seen as a form of rehabilitation. It gives them the chance to learn trade skills and the value of work, potentially reducing their likelihood of reoffending upon release. 2. Reduced Recidivism: Statistics show that inmates who work for FPI are less likely to be incarcerated again and more likely to be employed upon release. This suggests that such programs contribute positively to society by reducing crime rates and promoting reintegration into the workforce. 3. Support for American Jobs: FPI often partners with private American companies as suppliers, which can help support jobs within the country. By utilizing prison labor, the government may be able to provide goods and services at competitive prices while still supporting domestic businesses. No, it's not fair: 1. Unfair Competition: Companies like Tennier Industries argue that it's unfair to compete against prison inmates for government contracts. They believe that giving jobs to inmates at significantly lower wages undermines the job market for law-abiding citizens who may be struggling to find employment. 2. Exploitation Concerns: Critics argue that paying inmates exceptionally low wages, without benefits or a participative management environment, amounts to exploitation. It raises questions about the ethics of profiting from cheap prison labor, especially when inmates have limited options and bargaining power. 3. Impact on Workers: Companies that lose contracts to FPI may have to lay off workers, leading to job losses and economic hardship for employees and their families. This can exacerbate existing inequalities and contribute to social tensions. Conclusion: The fairness of companies competing against prison inmates for government work is a complex issue with valid arguments on both sides. While programs like FPI aim to provide rehabilitation opportunities for inmates and support domestic businesses, concerns about unfair competition, exploitation, and the impact on law-abiding citizens' employment opportunities cannot be ignored. Any resolution to this dilemma should prioritize the well-being of all stakeholders involved, including inmates, workers, businesses, and society as a whole. Further discussions and considerations regarding the ethics, regulations, and societal implications of such programs are necessary to address these concerns effectively. 8-12. Michigan Representative Bill Huizenga says, “If China did this—having their prisoners work at subpar wages in prisons—we would be screaming bloody murder.” Do you agree or disagree with his statement? Why? Answer: Representative Bill Huizenga's statement draws attention to a significant ethical dilemma surrounding the use of prison labor in the United States. His analogy of comparing the situation to China's use of prison labor is thought-provoking and raises valid concerns about the exploitation of incarcerated individuals. Here's an analysis of whether I agree or disagree with Huizenga's statement: Agree: 1. Human Rights Concerns: The use of prison labor at extremely low wages raises serious human rights concerns. It resembles a form of exploitation where individuals, due to their incarceration, are forced to work for wages far below the legal minimum. 2. Economic Fairness: Huizenga's comparison to China highlights the hypocrisy in condemning other countries for using prison labor while engaging in similar practices domestically. It raises questions about the fairness of competing in the global marketplace when the labor practices are ethically questionable. 3. Impact on Law-Abiding Workers: As seen in the example of Tennier Industries, the use of prison labor can directly impact law-abiding citizens by displacing jobs and contributing to unemployment. This can exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities and create resentment among the workforce. 4. Lack of Alternative Choices: Incarcerated individuals often lack meaningful choices in their employment options, and the conditions of their labor may not meet fair labor standards. This raises questions about the voluntariness of their participation in such programs. Disagree: 1. Rehabilitation Benefits: Despite the ethical concerns, proponents argue that programs like FPI offer valuable vocational training and work experience to inmates, which can aid in their rehabilitation and reintegration into society upon release. This aspect emphasizes the potential positive outcomes of such programs. 2. Recidivism Reduction: Data showing lower rates of recidivism among inmates who participate in work programs suggests that there may be societal benefits in terms of reducing crime rates and the associated costs of incarceration. 3. Economic Support: FPI's partnerships with private American companies can provide economic support and contribute to job creation. By supplying goods and services, FPI may indirectly support American jobs and contribute to the economy. Overall, while Huizenga's statement effectively highlights the ethical concerns surrounding the use of prison labor, there are also arguments in favor of such programs, particularly in terms of rehabilitation and economic benefits. However, stringent oversight and reforms may be necessary to ensure that the rights and dignity of incarcerated individuals are upheld and that fair labor practices are maintained. 8-13. Do you think prisoner employees should have any benefits other workers have? Why or why not? Answer: The question of whether prisoner employees should receive benefits comparable to other workers is complex and involves weighing various ethical, legal, and practical considerations. Arguments for providing benefits to prisoner employees: 1. Human Dignity: Providing benefits to prisoner employees acknowledges their inherent human dignity and recognizes their labor as valuable. Denying benefits may perpetuate a perception of prisoners as less deserving of basic rights and privileges. 2. Rehabilitation and Reintegration: Offering benefits can support the goal of rehabilitation and successful reintegration into society upon release. Access to benefits such as healthcare, retirement savings, and vocational training can contribute to inmates' well-being and increase their chances of becoming productive members of society post-release. 3. Fairness and Equity: Treating all workers equally in terms of benefits promotes fairness and equity. It avoids creating a two-tiered system where some workers are entitled to benefits while others are not, solely based on their status as prisoners. Arguments against providing benefits to prisoner employees: 1. Legal Constraints: Legal frameworks and regulations may limit the types of benefits that can be provided to prisoner employees. Some laws and policies may explicitly prohibit or restrict certain benefits for incarcerated individuals. 2. Cost Considerations: Providing benefits to prisoner employees could impose significant financial burdens on government agencies or private companies operating prison labor programs. This may raise concerns about the allocation of limited resources and the overall cost-effectiveness of such programs. 3. Moral Hazard: There may be concerns that providing benefits could create moral hazard by diminishing incentives for prisoners to seek gainful employment upon release or to engage in rehabilitative activities. It could be argued that the prospect of benefits might become a disincentive for prisoners to seek employment in the regular workforce after their release. Ultimately, the decision regarding whether prisoner employees should receive benefits similar to other workers depends on balancing these competing considerations and addressing the unique context of prison labor programs. Any policy changes in this regard should be guided by principles of fairness, rehabilitation, and respect for human dignity, while also taking into account practical constraints and legal requirements. Case Incident 1 Motivation for Leisure “When I have time, I don’t have money. When I have money, I don’t have time,” says Glenn Kelman, chief executive officer of Redfin. He’s not alone. While many workers find themselves faced with 60-, 70-, or 80-hour weeks (and sometimes more), others who are unemployed can find themselves with too much time on their hands. Take Dennis Lee, a sales associate working in Chicago whose girlfriend is unemployed. She has time to spare, but he says her unemployment makes it “financially impossible for me to support the both of us, even if we just go on a small trip, like, to Wisconsin and get a small hotel and stay for a couple of days.” Those who are employed and who may have the financial means to take a vacation often leave those vacation days on the table. The average U.S. worker gets 2.6 weeks of vacation a year, yet only 43 percent take that time. Although the reasons U.S. employees may not be motivated to take their vacation time vary from a sense of job insecurity to heavy employer workload demands, some companies now let employees trade vacation days for cash, essentially selling the vacation hours they do not intend to use. Other employers cap the amount of vacation time that can be accrued. The challenge of taking leisure time does not seem to be a problem for many European countries. Take the French, who get 30 days of vacation and say they take all of them. In fact, if you work in the European Union and get sick on vacation, the European Court of Justice says you are entitled to take a make-up vacation. Sources: P. Coy, “The Leisure Gap,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, (July 23–-29, 2012), pp. 8–-10; A. B. Krueger and A. I. Mueller, “Time Use, Emotional Well-Being, and Unemployment: Evidence from Longitudinal Data,” American Economic Review (May 2012), pp. 594–-599; and L. Kwoh, “More Firms Offer Option to Swap Cash for Time,” The Wall Street Journal (September 26, 2012), pp. B6. Questions 8-14. What is the average number of vacation days per year in your country? Are they taken as leave or are they forgone? Answer: The average number of vacation days per year varies from country to country. In the United States, the average number of vacation days typically ranges from 10 to 15 days per year, although this can vary depending on the industry and individual employer policies. However, despite having vacation days available, a significant portion of U.S. workers do not take all of their allotted vacation time. This phenomenon is highlighted in the provided text, where only 43 percent of U.S. workers reportedly take their vacation time. The reasons for not taking vacation time in the U.S. can vary, including concerns about job insecurity, heavy workloads, and cultural norms that prioritize work over leisure. Some companies in the U.S. have introduced policies that allow employees to trade vacation days for cash or cap the amount of vacation time that can be accrued. In contrast, some European countries, such as France, have more generous vacation policies, with workers typically receiving around 25 to 30 days of vacation per year. Additionally, cultural attitudes towards leisure time may differ, with a greater emphasis placed on work-life balance in some European countries compared to the U.S. To provide specific information on the average number of vacation days per year in your country and whether they are taken as leave or forgone, it would be necessary to consult recent government statistics or labor market research specific to your region. 8-15. Why do you think U.S. workers often do not take all of their allotted vacation time, even if they may lose the benefit? Are these personal choices, or are they driven more by society, or by organizational culture? Answer: The tendency of U.S. workers to not take all of their allotted vacation time can be attributed to a combination of personal choices, societal factors, and organizational culture: 1. Workaholic Culture: The United States has a culture that often glorifies overwork and prioritizes career success over leisure time. Many workers feel pressure to demonstrate commitment and dedication by working long hours and foregoing vacation time. This cultural norm can lead individuals to perceive taking vacation as a sign of laziness or lack of dedication. 2. Job Insecurity: In today's competitive job market, some workers may fear that taking vacation time could negatively impact their job security or advancement opportunities. They may worry that being away from the office could result in missed opportunities or the perception that they are not committed to their job. 3. Heavy Workload: High workloads and tight deadlines can make it challenging for employees to find suitable times to take vacation without negatively impacting their workload or colleagues. Some workers may feel that taking time off would only lead to increased stress upon their return due to the backlog of work awaiting them. 4. Limited Vacation Policies: While the average number of vacation days in the U.S. may vary by employer, some companies offer limited vacation policies or have cultures that discourage employees from taking time off. This could be due to concerns about productivity, staffing shortages, or simply a lack of emphasis on work-life balance within the organization. 5. Financial Constraints: For some workers, especially those in lower-wage positions or with limited benefits, taking unpaid vacation time may not be financially feasible. They may prioritize earning income over taking leisure time, especially if they are struggling to make ends meet or support their families. Overall, the tendency for U.S. workers to not take all of their vacation time is influenced by a complex interplay of personal, societal, and organizational factors. While some individuals may make the choice to prioritize work over leisure, societal expectations and organizational cultures that emphasize productivity and dedication to work also play significant roles in shaping behavior around vacation time.. 8-16. If many unemployed are spending around 2 hours/day looking for work as some research indicates, how would you evaluate the impact of unemployment on work motivation? How would you spend your days if unemployed? Answer: The impact of unemployment on work motivation can vary greatly depending on individual circumstances and personal resilience. However, it's clear that prolonged unemployment can have significant effects on an individual's motivation, self-esteem, and overall well-being. 1. Diminished Self-Esteem: Unemployment can lead to feelings of inadequacy, rejection, and decreased self-worth, particularly if the job search process is prolonged or unsuccessful. This can erode motivation to continue seeking employment and may contribute to a sense of hopelessness or despair. 2. Financial Stress: Financial strain is a common consequence of unemployment, which can exacerbate feelings of anxiety and diminish motivation. The need to secure income to meet basic needs such as housing, food, and healthcare may become a primary focus, overshadowing efforts to pursue long-term career goals or personal interests. 3. Loss of Routine and Structure: Employment provides a sense of routine, purpose, and structure to daily life. Without the framework of a job, individuals may struggle to establish and maintain a daily routine, leading to a lack of direction and motivation. This can contribute to feelings of aimlessness and disengagement. 4. Social Isolation: The workplace often serves as a social hub where individuals interact with colleagues, build relationships, and derive a sense of belonging. Unemployment can lead to social isolation and feelings of loneliness, which can further dampen motivation and exacerbate mental health challenges. 5. Adaptation and Coping Strategies: Despite these challenges, many individuals demonstrate resilience and employ adaptive coping strategies to navigate unemployment. This may include actively engaging in job search activities, seeking out social support networks, pursuing educational opportunities or skill development, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. If unemployed, how one chooses to spend their days can vary depending on personal circumstances, interests, and resources. Some possible ways to spend time productively during unemployment include: 1. Job Searching: Dedicate time each day to actively search for job opportunities, tailor resumes and cover letters, network with professionals in your field, and attend job fairs or industry events. 2. Skill Development: Use the opportunity of unemployment to enhance skills or pursue certifications relevant to your desired career path. This could involve taking online courses, attending workshops, or volunteering in roles that offer skill-building opportunities. 3. Maintaining Routine: Establish a daily routine that incorporates activities such as exercise, hobbies, self-care practices, and social interactions to promote well-being and structure. 4. Networking: Connect with peers, mentors, former colleagues, and industry professionals to expand your professional network, gather insights about job opportunities, and seek advice or support. 5. Exploring New Opportunities: Consider exploring alternative career paths, freelancing or consulting opportunities, entrepreneurship, or furthering education through graduate studies or vocational training programs. Ultimately, the impact of unemployment on work motivation is multifaceted and influenced by a combination of psychological, social, and economic factors. Effective coping strategies, support networks, and proactive engagement in activities that promote personal growth and well-being can help mitigate the negative effects of unemployment and maintain motivation during challenging times. Case Incident 2 Pay Raises Everyday How do you feel when you get a raise? Happy? Rewarded? Motivated to work harder for that next raise? The hope of an increase in pay, followed by a raise, can increase employee motivation. However, the effect may not last. In fact, the “warm fuzzies” from a raise last less than a month ,according to a recent study. If raises are distributed annually, performance motivation can dip for many months in between evaluations. Some organizations have tried to keep the motivation going by increasing the frequency of raises. Currently, only about 5 percent of organizations give raises more than annually, but some larger employers like discount website retailer Zulily, Inc., assess pay quarterly. Zulily CEO Darrell Cavens would like to do so even more frequently. “If it wasn’t a big burden, you’d almost want to work on it on a weekly basis,” he said. That’s because raises increase employee focus, happiness, engagement, and retention. CEO Jeffrey Housen bold of online photo publisher Shutterfly, Inc., also advocates frequent pay assessments, but for a different reason. The company gives bonuses four times a year to supplement its biannual raise structures part of a review of employee concerns. “You can resolve problems early versus letting them fester,” he said. Another reason is to increase feedback. Phone app designer Solstice Mobile gives promotions and salary increases six times a year; with this structure, Kelly O’ Reagan climbed from $10/hour to $47.50/hour in 4 years. The company’s CEO, John Schwan, said that young workers are especially motivated by the near-constant feedback. O’ Reagan said, “Seeing that increase was like, ‘Wow, this is quite different than what I had ever dreamed of.’” You might be wondering how organizations can keep the dollar increases to employees flowing. Organizations are wondering, too. One tactic is to start employees at a low pay rate. Ensilon, a marketing services company, has coupled low starting salaries with twice-yearly salary reviews. Initial job candidates are skeptical, but most of the new hires earn at least 20 percent more after 2 years than they would with a typical annual raise structure. No one is saying frequent pay raises are cheap, or easy to administrate. Pay itself is a complex issue, and maintaining pay equity adds another level of difficulty. Frequent pay reviews are motivating, but only for the people receiving them—for the others, it’s a struggle to stay engaged. If a person has a track record of raises and then pay levels off, it can feel like a loss of identity as a strong performer rather than a natural consequence of achieving a higher level of pay. The frustration can lead to lower performance and increased turnover for high performers. CEO Schwan acknowledged, “It’s definitely a risk.” Sources: R. Feintzeig, “When the Annual Raise Isn’t Enough,” The Wall Street Journal, July 16, 2014,B1, B5; J. C. Marr and S. Thau, “Falling from Great (and Not-So-Great) Heights: How Initial Status Position Influences Performance after Status Loss,” Academy of Management Journal 57, no. 1 (2014):223–48; and “Pay Equity & Discrimination,” IWPR, http://www.iwpr.org/initiatives/pay-equity-anddiscrimination. Questions 8-17. How can HR administer a complex pay structure that rewards pay increases on a regular basis? Answer: Administering a complex pay structure that rewards pay increases on a regular basis requires careful planning, communication, and implementation by the Human Resources (HR) department. Here are several steps HR can take to effectively manage such a system: 1. Clear Compensation Policy: HR should develop a clear and transparent compensation policy outlining the criteria and process for determining pay increases. This policy should be communicated to employees to ensure understanding and transparency. 2. Performance Evaluation: Implement a robust performance evaluation system that assesses employee performance against predetermined goals and competencies. Regular performance evaluations provide the basis for determining pay increases and ensure that rewards are linked to individual contributions. 3. Merit-Based Increases: Establish a merit-based pay system where pay increases are tied to performance outcomes. Employees who demonstrate exceptional performance, achieve key objectives, and contribute significantly to the organization's success should be rewarded with higher pay increases. 4. Market Analysis: Conduct regular market analysis to ensure that the organization's pay structure remains competitive within the industry and region. Benchmarking salaries against comparable roles in the market helps HR determine appropriate pay increases to attract and retain top talent. 5. Budget Allocation: Allocate budgetary resources to accommodate pay increases within the organization's financial constraints. HR should work closely with finance and senior management to ensure that sufficient funds are available to support pay raises while maintaining fiscal responsibility. 6. Communication and Transparency: Communicate pay increase policies, criteria, and outcomes clearly and transparently to employees. Ensure that employees understand the factors influencing pay decisions and have access to resources for addressing any questions or concerns. 7. Training and Development: Provide training and development opportunities to help employees enhance their skills, knowledge, and competencies. Investing in employee development not only improves performance but also increases eligibility for pay increases. 8. Regular Reviews and Adjustments: Conduct regular reviews of the pay structure to assess its effectiveness and make necessary adjustments based on changing business needs, market conditions, and organizational goals. Continuous monitoring ensures that the pay structure remains aligned with the organization's objectives. 9. Compliance with Regulations: Ensure compliance with relevant labor laws, regulations, and industry standards when administering pay increases. HR should stay updated on legislative changes and ensure that pay practices adhere to legal requirements. 10. Employee Feedback: Solicit feedback from employees regarding the effectiveness and fairness of the pay structure. Incorporating employee perspectives can help HR identify areas for improvement and make adjustments to enhance employee satisfaction and engagement. By following these steps, HR can effectively administer a complex pay structure that rewards pay increases on a regular basis, aligning compensation practices with organizational objectives and employee performance. 8-18. Why are younger employees are more likely to be motivated by very regular pay increases than older workers? Answer: Younger workers respond especially well to recognition and associated rewards; they are motivated by the near-constant feedback and rewards that exceed their expectations. 8-19. In some countries a national minimum wage or a “living wage” have been set by government. What are the drawbacks of such an approach to dealing with low pay? Answer: The national minimum wage (NMW) and the living wage are basically guidelines for fixing a minimum pay. However, in many cases, the terms have been used to set the NMW as the total pay, even though it was intended to outline only the minimum and not the recommended pay. The living wage is higher, at least 10 percent over the NMW, and varies according to the location of work. My Management Lab Go to mymanagementlab.com for Auto-graded writing questions as well as the following Assisted-graded writing questions: 8-20. In regard to Case Incident 1, what cultural differences in collectivism/ individualism might help predict motivation for the amount of vacation employees want to accrue and will take annually? Answer: In considering Case Incident 1, cultural differences in collectivism and individualism play a significant role in predicting employees' motivation for the amount of vacation they want to accrue and take annually. Collectivist cultures, such as those prevalent in many Asian countries, emphasize group harmony, loyalty to the organization, and a strong sense of duty towards the collective. In these cultures, individuals may prioritize the needs of the group over personal leisure time. Taking extended vacations could be perceived as disruptive to the team or organization, potentially leading to feelings of guilt or obligation. Consequently, employees in collectivist cultures may be motivated to accrue and take fewer vacation days in order to maintain harmony within the group and demonstrate commitment to their work. Conversely, individualistic cultures, commonly found in many Western countries, prioritize personal autonomy, self-expression, and work-life balance. In such cultures, taking vacations is often viewed as essential for mental well-being, productivity, and overall job satisfaction. Individuals are more inclined to prioritize their personal needs and leisure time over strict adherence to work responsibilities. Therefore, employees in individualistic cultures may be more motivated to accrue and take a larger number of vacation days to achieve a healthier work-life balance and rejuvenate themselves for better performance at work. Understanding these cultural differences in collectivism and individualism can help organizations tailor their vacation policies and management approaches to accommodate the preferences and motivations of their diverse workforce. By recognizing and respecting employees' cultural backgrounds, organizations can foster a positive work environment that promotes employee well-being, engagement, and productivity. 8-21. How would you design a bonus/reward program to avoid the problems mentioned in Case Incident 2? Answer: To design a bonus/reward program that addresses the problems mentioned in Case Incident 2, which revolve around employee dissatisfaction and potential unethical behavior due to the competitive nature of the program, consider the following strategies: 1. Team-Based Rewards: Shift the focus from individual performance to team performance by implementing team-based reward systems. This encourages collaboration and discourages cutthroat competition among employees. Rewards could be based on the overall success of the team in achieving collective goals rather than individual accomplishments. 2. Transparent Criteria: Establish clear and transparent criteria for earning bonuses or rewards. Ensure that employees understand how bonuses are calculated and what specific metrics or achievements contribute to eligibility. Transparency reduces ambiguity and minimizes feelings of unfairness. 3. Long-Term Goals: Incorporate long-term goals into the reward program to discourage short-sighted behavior. Instead of focusing solely on quarterly or yearly results, consider implementing bonuses tied to achieving sustainable growth, customer satisfaction, or innovation over an extended period. 4. Qualitative Metrics: Supplement quantitative performance metrics with qualitative measures that reflect values and behaviors aligned with the company's culture. Recognize employees who demonstrate integrity, teamwork, leadership, and ethical decision-making, alongside achieving performance targets. 5. Employee Involvement: Involve employees in the design and evaluation of the reward program. Solicit feedback and suggestions to ensure that the program resonates with employees' values and motivators. This fosters a sense of ownership and increases buy-in from the workforce. 6. Peer Recognition: Implement peer-to-peer recognition programs where employees can nominate their colleagues for outstanding contributions. Peer recognition reinforces positive behavior, promotes a supportive work environment, and mitigates the negative effects of cutthroat competition. 7. Training and Development Opportunities: Offer training and development opportunities as part of the reward program. Investing in employees' professional growth demonstrates a commitment to their long-term success and enhances job satisfaction beyond monetary incentives. 8. Ethical Guidelines and Oversight: Establish clear ethical guidelines and provide ongoing oversight to ensure compliance with company policies and values. Communicate the consequences of unethical behavior and provide channels for employees to report concerns without fear of retaliation. By incorporating these strategies, organizations can design a bonus/reward program that fosters a positive work culture, promotes collaboration, and minimizes the negative consequences associated with excessive competition and unethical behavior. 8-22. My Management Lab Only – comprehensive writing assignment for this chapter. Answer: Introduction: Motivation is a fundamental aspect of human behavior and plays a crucial role in various domains, including education, work, and personal development. Understanding the concepts of motivation and applying them effectively can lead to improved performance, engagement, and overall well-being. This comprehensive writing assignment explores the key concepts of motivation and their practical applications in different contexts. 1. Overview of Motivation: • Define motivation and its significance in driving behavior. • Discuss the major theories of motivation, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and Self-Determination Theory (SDT). • Explore the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on behavior. 2. Motivational Factors in the Workplace: • Identify the factors that influence employee motivation in the workplace, such as job satisfaction, recognition, autonomy, and opportunities for growth. • Discuss the role of leadership in motivating employees and creating a positive work environment. • Examine the importance of aligning organizational goals with individual motivations to enhance employee engagement and productivity. 3. Motivation in Education: • Explore motivational strategies for educators to promote student engagement and learning outcomes. • Discuss the importance of fostering intrinsic motivation in students through meaningful tasks, autonomy, and mastery experiences. • Examine the impact of extrinsic motivators, such as grades and rewards, on student motivation and learning behavior. 4. Goal Setting and Motivation: • Explain the principles of goal setting theory and its implications for motivation. • Discuss the SMART criteria for setting effective goals and the importance of feedback in goal attainment. • Explore how individuals can maintain motivation and overcome obstacles when pursuing long-term goals. 5. Applications of Motivation in Daily Life: • Provide examples of how motivation influences behavior and decision-making in various life domains, such as health, relationships, and personal development. • Discuss strategies for self-motivation and overcoming procrastination. • Explore the role of motivation in achieving work-life balance and overall well-being. 6. Cultural Considerations in Motivation: • Examine cultural differences in motivational preferences and values, such as collectivism versus individualism. • Discuss how cultural factors influence motivation in the workplace and educational settings. • Explore strategies for addressing cultural diversity and promoting inclusive motivational practices. Conclusion: Motivation is a multifaceted concept that impacts all aspects of human behavior and performance. By understanding the underlying theories and applying motivational strategies effectively, individuals can enhance their own motivation and create environments that foster motivation in others. Whether in the workplace, education, or daily life, motivation plays a central role in achieving personal and professional success. Instructor’s Choice Applying the Concepts For decades, the primary teaching philosophy in higher education has been pedagogy, described as the assumptions underlying teaching children. It is based on the concept of the teachers telling the students information they must absorb, then observing the student’s performance on tests or assignments to determine a grade. The goal for this method is to assign grades on a normal frequency distribution, around 75 as the mean, the traditional bell curve. If the assumptions of higher education change to andragogy, assumptions underlying adult education are adopted, then the course content is based on telling the students why they need to learn and what their benefit is, and then students are motivated to learn because of the reward achieved from the learning process. The results of these two approaches differ. In the case of the first, students are motivated to memorize information for regurgitation on an objective test, which merely shows the use of short-term memory. In the second, the student realizes the importance of acquiring the knowledge, and then activities in the course can permit students to learn through practice and application, which tends to be incorporated into long-term memory. Ask students in the class how they would structure a course and its content to incorporate the andragogical approach in a college class. Instead of traditional lectures in class, what would students suggest as learning activities that would be challenging but effective in acquiring knowledge of skills in the course? Instructor Discussion Select a course that currently depends heavily on traditional higher education practices including lectures, tests, and written assignments. Do not identify the specific course or instructor. Perhaps a course such as foundation history meets these criteria. As students look at the request in the exercise, they may suggest some innovative ways that the learning process could be enhanced to make it more of an incentive to acquire skills and knowledge. You might survey the Internet for best practices in the course topic, to see what others have done with innovative ways to create learning. You might also find that the goal of these courses is to ensure all students acquire the competencies of the course so that, with proper incentives built into the course, it will result in students’ grades being skewed higher. A grade distribution on a bell curve goes out the window as more activity focuses on ensuring all students are successful. Exploring OB Topics on the Web
1. Paying up is hard to do! Should the organization choose a skill-based pay plan or pay-for-performance? Start by comparing the two, then making a recommendation as to why one would be preferable over the other. Go tohttp://www.educationworld.com/a_issues/issues/issues374a.shtml to learn more about the choice for teachers. If you were to make a recommendation as to which strategy would be the most effective, which would you choose? Why? (Hint: It will have to be linked to a motivational theory). Write a one-page reaction paper discussing your views. 2. From quality circles to TQM, getting employees involved is not a simple venture. Go to http://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelvenables/2013/04/20/how-lego-makes-the-safe-quality-diverse-and-irresistible-toys-we-all-want-part-two/ to learn about how one company, Lego, has successfully encouraged employees to work together toward common goals. Write a short summary outlining what has helped Lego, and what other companies can learn from its experience. 3. What do worker’s want? Money? Probably. But other things, too. Go to http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-11-11/too-many-businesses-don-t-know-what-women-wantto read an assessment of what women want. Write your own assessment of what motivational theories are at play in this article—just a paragraph or two. Bring your assessment and the article to class for a group discussion. 4. Self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-respect, and self-actualization. Learn more about these terms and how employers can foster these concepts in their employees at http://humanresources.about.com/library/weekly/aa081301a.htm. Write a journal entry or short paper about when you experienced an environment that encouraged you to develop your potential. For example, it could be when you were involved in an arts program, a writing clinic, a club, a sports team, a class, etc. What motivated you when you felt discouraged or simply tired and did not want to go that day? Who was the “coach” who encouraged you, and how important of a role did that person have in your success? What did you learn about yourself in the process? Do these skills transfer to other areas of your life? Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior Timothy A. Judge Stephen P. Robbins 9781292146300, 9780133507645, 9780136124016
