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CHAPTER6 Perception and Individual Decision Making Questions for Review 6-1. What are the factors that influence our perception? Answer: Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. Perception is important in the study of OB because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Factors in the perceiver such as attitudes and motives; factors in the situations such as time, work, or social setting; and factors in the target such as proximity, sounds, or motion are all factors that can influence our perception. 6-2. What is attribution theory? Answer: Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination depends largely on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. An implication for managers is that errors or biases distort attribution. For example, while making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend to overestimate the influence of personal factors or internal factors and underestimate the influence of external factors. 6-3. What is the link between perception and decision making? Answer: Individuals must make decisions at work. Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem– a discrepancy that exists between the current state of affairs and a desired state. The perception of problems differs between people. The awareness of whether a problem exists and subsequently whether a decision needs to be made is a perceptual issue. Perceptual distortions also affect decision making. 6-4. How is the rational model of decision making different from bounded rationality and intuition? Answer: The optimizing decision maker is rational. He/she makes consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints. The Rational Model includes six steps, listed in Exhibit 6-3. •Step 1: Define the problem. •Step 2: Identify the decision criteria. •Step 3: Allocate weights to the criteria. •Step 4: Develop the alternatives. •Step 5: Evaluate the alternatives. •Step 6: Select the best alternative. The rational model that differs in that bounded rationality is the “real world” model that seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives. Intuition is a non-conscious process created from distilled experience that results in quick decisions. It relies on holistic associations and is affectively charged. 6-5. How do individual differences and organizational constraints influence decision making? Answer: Individual differences can result in deviations in decision making. A person’s personality can influence his/her decision making. Achievement striving people may fall prey to a hindsight bias. Gender may also impact decisions such as the concept of rumination, whereby women in general reflect at length about possible decisions. Organizational constraints can include: a. Performance Evaluation – managerial evaluation criteria influence actions. b. Reward Systems – managers will make the decision with the greatest personal payoff for them. c. Formal Regulations – limit the alternative choices of decision makers. d. System-Imposed Time Constraints – restrict ability to gather or evaluate information. e. Historical Precedents – past decisions influence current decisions. Cultural differences also impact decision making based on traditions, customs, religion, etc. 6-6. What are the three ethical decision criteria, and how do they differ? Answer: The three ethical decision criteria: 1. Utilitarianism—decisions are made solely on the basis of their outcomes or consequences. 2. Focus on rights—calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights. This criterion protects whistleblowers when they reveal an organization’s unethical practices to the press or government agencies, using their right to free speech. 3. A third criterion is to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Union members typically favor this view. Each criterion has advantages and liabilities. A focus on utilitarianism promotes efficiency and productivity, but it can sideline the rights of some individuals, particularly those with minority representation. The use of rights protects individuals from injury and is consistent with freedom and privacy, but it can create a legalistic environment that hinders productivity and efficiency. A focus on justice protects the interests of the underrepresented and less powerful, but it can encourage a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovation, and productivity. 6-7. What are the parts of the three-stage model of creativity? Answer: Exhibit 6-5 shows the three-stage model of creativity. The core of the model is creative behavior (problem formulation, information gathering, idea generation, and idea evaluation), which has both causes and effects. Experiential Exercise Good Liars and Bad Liars Break the class into groups of three (this exercise can be adjusted for groups of four). Have each student write down four statements about themselves—three should be truths, and one should be a lie. The lie should not be obvious; each student’s objective is to sell the lie as a truth along with the actual truths. Going around the circle, each student states the truths and the lie. The group may ask a maximum of two follow-up questions for each statement. Then the group votes on each of the statements: truth or lie? The student can finally reveal the lie after everyone has voted. After everyone in the circle has taken a turn, the group answers the following questions: 6-8. How many of the lies were detected? Were they easy or difficult to detect? Answer: Based on the instructions provided, let's assume there are 12 students in the class (which can be divided into 4 groups of 3). Each student writes down 3 truths and 1 lie about themselves. So, in total, there would be 12 lies circulating among the groups. To answer questions 6-8: To determine this, we need to see how many lies were correctly identified by the group during the activity. Let's say, out of the 12 lies, 6 were detected by the groups. This would depend on the skill of the students in presenting their lies and the keenness of the group members in detecting inconsistencies or clues. If most of the lies were detected, it might suggest that they were relatively easy to uncover. Conversely, if few were detected, it could indicate that they were harder to discern. So, in this hypothetical scenario, 6 out of the 12 lies were detected. As for whether they were easy or difficult to detect, it's hard to say without more specific feedback from the participants. 6-9. What made you think a statement was a lie: was it the probability of the statement itself, or the delivery by the student? Answer: In assessing whether a statement is a lie during this activity, the group's decision-making process could be influenced by various factors, including the probability of the statement itself and the delivery by the student. Here's how each factor might contribute: 1. Probability of the Statement: If a statement seems highly improbable or unlikely based on common knowledge or the context of the activity, it might immediately raise suspicion. For example, if a student claims to have traveled to the moon, the group might consider this highly improbable unless they have reason to believe otherwise. 2. Delivery by the Student: The way a student presents their statements can also impact the group's perception. A confident and convincing delivery might make it harder for the group to discern the lie, even if the statement itself seems improbable. Conversely, nervousness or inconsistencies in the student's delivery might lead the group to suspect that the statement is a lie. 3. Follow-up Questions: The group's ability to ask follow-up questions allows them to gather additional information and probe for inconsistencies. How the student responds to these questions can provide further insight into the truthfulness of their statements. If a student struggles to provide coherent answers or seems evasive, it could raise doubts about the veracity of their statements. 4. Intuition and Group Dynamics: Sometimes, it comes down to gut feeling or intuition within the group. Even if a statement seems plausible and the student delivers it confidently, something about it might feel off to certain group members. Additionally, group dynamics and discussion can influence individual perceptions of the statements. Overall, the group's assessment of whether a statement is a lie is likely to be influenced by a combination of these factors, including the probability of the statement itself and the delivery by the student. 6-10. Do you think it is possible to be a good liar? What factors would a good liar have to control in order to pass off a lie as truth? Answer: It's certainly possible for someone to be skilled at deception and therefore be considered a "good liar." However, it's important to note that being a good liar isn't necessarily a positive trait, as honesty and integrity are generally valued in social interactions. That said, individuals who are adept at lying often possess certain characteristics and skills that enable them to effectively deceive others. Here are some factors that a good liar might have to control in order to pass off a lie as truth: 1. Confidence: Confidence is key when telling a lie. A good liar must appear calm, composed, and self-assured to convince others of the truthfulness of their statement. Confidence can help to mask nervousness or anxiety that might otherwise give away the deception. 2. Body Language: Non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, and posture can inadvertently reveal deception. A skilled liar must be able to control their body language to avoid giving away any signs of dishonesty. This might involve maintaining consistent eye contact, controlling facial expressions, and using open and relaxed body language. 3. Consistency: A good liar must ensure that their lie is consistent with other information they have provided and with known facts. Inconsistencies or contradictions can quickly undermine the credibility of the lie. 4. Detail and Plausibility: A convincing lie often includes specific details and appears plausible within the context of the situation. Good liars may embellish their stories with convincing details and provide explanations that seem reasonable and logical. 5. Empathy and Understanding: Understanding the perspective of the person being deceived can help a liar tailor their story to be more believable. A good liar may anticipate the questions or concerns of others and address them preemptively in their deception. 6. Emotional Control: Emotions can betray deception, so a skilled liar must be able to control their emotional responses. This might involve suppressing emotions such as guilt, fear, or nervousness that could give away the lie. 7. Practice and Experience: Like any skill, lying effectively often requires practice and experience. Good liars may have honed their deception skills over time through repeated use and refinement of their techniques. While these factors can contribute to someone being a good liar, it's important to remember that honesty and integrity are fundamental values in personal and professional relationships. Ultimately, being truthful and trustworthy is far more valuable than being skilled at deception. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Ethical Dilemma Max’s Burger: The Dollar Value of Ethics In July 2011, Nassar Group, a well-diversified conglomerate operating in Dubai, bought the rights to manage Max’s Burger network of franchised outlets in Dubai. Max’s Burger is an emerging American fast-food chain with franchised outlets across the globe. The move was a personal project of Houssam Nassar, the Group’s managing director—and a businessman with an excellent reputation. Dubai’s fast-food market is overwhelmed with franchised restaurants. Meat quality at Max’s Burger, however, was lower than the standards set by franchisors. This was all about to change, because Nassar did not intend to jeopardize his reputation and image. Accordingly, as the new operator of Max’s Burger outlets, he issued a directive instructing the warehouse manager to decline any frozen meat shipment that did not comply with the franchisor’s set standards. A few weeks after Nassar Group took over the management of Max’s Burger, a frozen meat shipment was delivered to the Max’s Burger main warehouse. Upon measuring the temperature of the meat, the warehouse manager found that it was few degrees outside acceptable limits. In terms of governmental regulations, a couple of degrees’ difference in temperature would present no risk to customers’ health; however, such a difference could have a minimal effect on the taste and texture of the meat. Prior to the change of management, and for many years before, the warehouse manager had no second thoughts about accepting such a shipment: no food poisoning claim was ever filed against Max’s Burger, and taste inconsistencies never bothered anyone enough to complain. Also, the company supplying the meat to Max’s Burger is owned by a relative of the warehouse manager. With the new directive in place, however, the warehouse manager was unsure about his decision. Even though he knew that Nassar would have no way of finding out that the received meat was noncompliant, he wasn’t as sure about his decision this time around. Sources: “The Dollar Value of Ethics!”, Charbel Aoun, Instructor and AVP for Human Resources, Lebanese American University, Beirut - Lebanon. The case was adapted to provide materials for class discussions. The author does not intend to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of a situation. To protect confidentiality, the author may have disguised certain names and other identifying information, without jeopardizing the fundamentals of the case. Questions 6-11. Does the decision to accept or refuse the frozen meat shipment call for ethical or legal considerations? Why? Answer: The purpose of this question is to open the discussion as to the differences between legal and ethical considerations. While it is not, as per governmental regulations, illegal to accept this specific meat shipment (as a couple of degrees’ difference would not present any health risks), it is certainly unethical to do so. 6-12. Identify the stakeholders who will be influenced by the decision to accept or refuse the frozen meat shipment? Answer: A number of stakeholders can be identified, in no specific sequence: the local government, the customers, the franchisor (Owner of Max’s Burger brad), Mr. Houssam Nasser, Nasser Group as a whole, Max’s Burger employees in Dubai, etc. 6-13. What type of decision-making framework would you advise the warehouse manager to adopt in order to help him reach an optimal decision? How will your suggestion help? Answer: Since the decision has a known and limited number of identifiable options (a- accept the shipment, b- refuse the shipment) it is conceivable to use the “Rational Decision-Making Model. The decision criteria can easily be identified, things such as legal considerations, impact on customers’ perception of quality, impact on relations with franchisor, etc. With the stakeholders identified in question 2, it will be feasible to assess the impact of each decision on the stakeholders and select the option with the best outcome. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Case Incident 1 Too Much of a Good Thing Have you created an e-portfolio for job applications? If you attend the University of Massachusetts, the University of South Florida, Stanford, Marquette, or Westminster College, where e-portfolios are expected, you probably have developed one. E-portfolios—digitized dossiers of presentations, projects, writing samples, and other work—are used by over 50 percent of students looking for jobs or internships. Putting together an e-portfolio is “a learning experience, linked to a career opportunity,” said Associate Professor Tim Shea, who oversees a business school’s mandatorye-portfolio program. Proponents contend that e-portfolios don’t replace résumés, they enhance them. “You can write on a résumé that you did an internship somewhere, but if I can see the projects that you worked on, it gives me a more rounded view of the candidate,” said Greg Haller, president of the westerns. region for Verizon Wireless. Student Inga Zakradze agrees, saying the e-portfolio gives “a better feel for me as a well-rounded student.” And in a recent Association of American Colleges and Universities survey, 83 percent of respondents believed an e-portfolio would be useful. With all this affirmation, you might think an e-portfolios critical to obtaining a job, but that would be a misperception. Other than Haller, opinions seem divided: schools like students to make e-portfolios, but employers don’t want them. One of the reasons is technological—HR screening software doesn’t allow for links to websites where-portfolios would be stored. Portfolio hubs Path brite and the Port folium have tried to get around this problem, but they have yet to obtain a single corporate contract. Another reason is information overload—managers don’t have time to read through, say, your travel log from a semester at sea. Third, many companies don’t believe e-portfolios are value-added. “They are typically not a factor in our screening process,” said Enterprise talent acquisition VP Marie Artim. Stuart Silverman, a university dean, acknowledged the possibility. “Whether or not the prospective employer looked data it, or weighed it, who knows.” Proponents of e-portfolios, primarily from the education sector, believe there is value in them beyond job seeking. Kerri Shaffer Carter, a university director of e-portfolios, says,“ We don’t draw a sharp distinction between the portfolio as a learning process and the portfolio as an employment tool, since the self-awareness that comes out of that process ultimately prepares the student for the workplace.” Just don’t expect all that hard work to land you a job. Sources: “Global Digital Positioning Systems: E-Portfolios in a Digital Age,” 2015 Forum on Digital Learning and E-Portfolios, January 24, 2015, Association of American Colleges and Universities, https://www.aacu.org meetings/annual meeting/AM15 eport folio forum; M. Korn, “Giant Resumes Fail to Impress,” The Wall Street Journal, February 6, 2014, B7; G. Lorenzo and J. Ittel son, “An Overview of E-Portfolios,” Educause Learning Initiative, July 2005, https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eli3001.pdf, accessed May 7, 2015. 6-14. How might the misperception about the importance of having an e-portfolio have begun? Answer: In schools like University of Massachusetts where e-portfolios are widely used and prepared by a large percentage of the student body, e-portfolios are probably perceived to be a critical element both for presenting a student and for evaluating an individual. This perception may be so wide-spread that it comes as a surprise that outside that environment, the perception is not so widely shared. 6-15. What are the reasons you would decide to use an e-portfolio? nswer: There are several reasons why someone might choose to use an e-portfolio: 1. Showcase Work: An e-portfolio provides a platform to showcase a wide range of work, including presentations, projects, writing samples, and other achievements. This allows individuals to demonstrate their skills and accomplishments in a dynamic and visually appealing format. 2. Demonstrate Skills and Abilities: Unlike a traditional resume, which is limited in space and scope, an e-portfolio offers the opportunity to provide more detailed evidence of skills and abilities. This can include examples of completed projects, case studies, or multimedia presentations that highlight specific competencies. 3. Enhance Personal Brand: An e-portfolio allows individuals to present themselves in a unique and personalized way, helping to establish a strong personal brand. By curating and organizing their work effectively, individuals can convey their professional identity and values to potential employers or collaborators. 4. Provide Context: An e-portfolio can provide context for the experiences listed on a resume, helping employers to better understand the depth and breadth of a candidate's background. For example, including reflections or explanations alongside work samples can help to clarify the significance of each piece and how it relates to the individual's overall goals and qualifications. 5. Engage and Impress Employers: E-portfolios can be visually engaging and interactive, making them more memorable and impactful than a traditional resume. This can help candidates stand out from the crowd and leave a lasting impression on potential employers. Overall, the decision to use an e-portfolio is driven by the desire to present oneself effectively, demonstrate skills and abilities, and engage and impress potential employers or collaborators. 6-16. What do you think would be the best way to deliver an e-portfolio to a prospective employer? Answer: The best way to deliver an e-portfolio to a prospective employer would depend on various factors, including the preferences of the employer and the format of the e-portfolio itself. Here are some possible approaches: 1. Online Portfolio Platforms: Utilize online portfolio platforms such as LinkedIn, Be hance, or personal websites to host and share the e-portfolio. These platforms often allow for easy sharing of links, making it convenient for employers to access the portfolio. 2. PDF or Document Format: Convert the e-portfolio into a PDF or document format and attach it to an email along with a cover letter and resume. This ensures that the portfolio maintains its formatting and is easily accessible for the employer to review. 3. Physical Portfolio: In cases where a physical portfolio may be appropriate, such as for creative industries like graphic design or photography, print out the e-portfolio and present it in a professional binder or folder during an interview or networking event. 4. Customized Presentation: Tailor the delivery method based on the specific preferences of the employer. Some employers may prefer to receive e-portfolios through certain channels, such as through their company's applicant tracking system or via a designated email address. 5. Integration with Application Materials: Include a link to the e-portfolio in the resume or cover letter, or mention it explicitly in the application materials. This ensures that the employer is aware of the portfolio and has the opportunity to review it alongside other application materials. 6. Follow-Up Communication: After submitting the application, follow up with the employer to ensure they have received and had the opportunity to review the e-portfolio. This demonstrates proactive communication and reinforces the value of the portfolio as part of the application. Ultimately, the goal is to make the e-portfolio easily accessible and present it in a professional and engaging manner that aligns with the expectations and preferences of the prospective employer. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Case Incident 2 The Youngest Billionaire Picture this: the billionaire owner and founder stands in the conference room trying on bras while the CEO stands behind her, adjusting the straps. The floor is littered with underwear. The owner takes off one bra and puts on another. Five executives in the conference room barely blink. Welcome to Sara Blakely’s company, Spanx. In just a few years, Spanx has become to slimming underwear what Jello is to gelatin and Kleenex is to facial tissue – so dominant is the brand that its name is synonymous with the category. At 42, Blakely is not the youngest billionaire in the world. However, she is the youngest female self-made billionaire. Like many stories of entrepreneurial success, hers is part gritty determination, part inspiration, and part circumstance. The grit was easy to see early on. As a child growing up in Clearwater Beach, Florida, she lured friends into doing her chores by setting up a competition. At 16, Blakely was so intent on success that she listened to self-help guru Wayne Dyer’s recordings incessantly. Friends refused to ride in her car. “No! She’s going to make us listen to that motivational crap!” Blakely recalls they said. After twice failing to get into law school, Blakely started her first business in 1990, running a kids’ club at the Clearwater Beach Hilton. It worked until the Hilton’s general manager found out. Later, while working full-time in sales, Blakely began learning how to start a business. Her inspiration for Spanx came while she was cold-calling customers as a sales manager for an office supply company. She hated pantyhose. “It’s Florida, it’s hot, I’m carrying copy machines,” she noted. At the Georgia Tech library, Blakely researched every pantyhose patent ever filed. She wrote her patent application by following a textbook she read in Barnes & Noble. Then she worked on marketing, manufacturing, and financing, treating each as its own project. After numerous rejections, she finally found mill owners in North Carolina willing to finance the manufacturing. "At the end of the day, the guy ended up just wanting to help me," Blakely said. "He didn't even believe in the idea." For a time, Blakely relied on stores like Neiman Marcus to set up her table and on word-of-mouth to get the news out to the public. Her big break came when she sent samples to Oprah Winfrey’s stylist. Harpo Productions called to say that Winfrey would name Spanx her favorite product of the year and warned Blakely to get her website ready. She didn’t have a website. Billions of dollars in sales later, Blakely has no plans to slow down. Spanx is sold in 54 countries, and Blakely wants to double international sales in three years. She says: "The biggest risk in life is not risking. Every risk you take in life is in direct proportion to the reward. If I'm afraid of something, it's the next thing I have to go do. That's just the way I've been." Sources: Based on J. Mulkerrins, “All Spanx to Sara,” Daily Mail (April 6, 2013), downloaded May 7, 2013, from www.dailymail.co.uk/home/; C. O’Connor, “American Booty,” Forbes (March 26, 2012), pp. 172–178; and R. Tulshyan, “Spanx's Sara Blakely: Turning $5,000 into $1 Billion with Panties,” CNN.com (December 5, 2012), downloaded on May 7, 2013, from http://edition.cnn.com/. 6-17. How much of Blakely’s success is due to her personality and effort and how much to serendipity (being in the right place at the right time)? Does attribution theory help you answer this question? Why or why not? Answer:Many students will suggest that Blakely’s success is a result of both her personality and effort, and being in the right place at the right time. Some students may place a greater emphasis on the former. Whether attribution theory helps the student answer this question is a personal opinion; however, most will probably agree that it does. 6-18. What evidence is there in the case to suggest that Blakeley is not risk averse? Answer: Blakeley is clearly willing to take risks as a result of her self-determination and self-belief. Risk aversion is actually a matter of degree. While someone may appear to be a risk taker to others, that person probably thinks he or she is not really taking a calculated risk rather than a serious one. In Blakeley’s own words, the biggest risk in life is not taking a risk. To her, the greater the risk, the greater the potential reward. 6-19. Use the three-stage model of creativity to analyze Blakely’s decision making. What can you learn from her story that might help you be more creative in the future? Answer: The three-stage model of creativity involves three stages: causes (creative potential and creative environment); creative behavior; and creative outcomes (innovation). What students learn from Blakely will vary by student, but many will focus on factors such as persistence, identifying opportunities, and creativity. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. My Management Lab Go to mymanagementlab.com for Auto-graded writing questions as well as the following Assisted-graded writing questions: 6-20. In relation to Case Incident 1, how do you think more employers’ dim view of e-portfolios can be changed? Answer: To change more employers' dim view of e-portfolios, several strategies could be considered: 1. Education and Awareness Campaigns: Implement educational initiatives to raise awareness among employers about the benefits and value of e-portfolios. This could involve disseminating information about successful case studies where e-portfolios have proven beneficial in recruitment processes. 2. Demonstrate Tangible Benefits: Provide concrete evidence to employers demonstrating the tangible benefits of e-portfolios in hiring processes. This might include showcasing examples of how e-portfolios have helped identify talented candidates, streamline recruitment processes, or enhance employer branding. 3. Integration with ATS and HR Systems: Advocate for the integration of e-portfolios with applicant tracking systems (ATS) and other HR software platforms. By ensuring compatibility with existing HR infrastructure, e-portfolios can become more accessible and integrated into standard recruitment practices. 4. Training and Development: Offer training programs and resources for HR professionals and hiring managers to help them understand how to effectively evaluate e-portfolios as part of the recruitment process. This might include guidance on how to assess the relevance and quality of portfolio content. 5. Industry Collaboration: Foster collaboration between educational institutions, employers, and industry associations to develop standards and best practices for e-portfolios in recruitment. By working together, stakeholders can develop consensus on how e-portfolios should be used and evaluated in different industries and sectors. 6. Highlight Additional Benefits: Emphasize the broader benefits of e-portfolios beyond recruitment, such as their role in promoting lifelong learning, fostering self-reflection and self-awareness, and supporting career development. By showcasing these additional benefits, employers may become more receptive to incorporating e-portfolios into their hiring processes. 7. Address Technological Limitations: Work with e-portfolio providers and technology companies to address any technological limitations or barriers that may be hindering the adoption of e-portfolios by employers. This might involve improving compatibility with existing software systems, enhancing security features, or developing user-friendly interfaces. Overall, changing employers' perceptions of e-portfolios will require a multifaceted approach that addresses both their concerns and the potential benefits of adopting e-portfolios in recruitment practices. By educating, demonstrating value, and addressing practical considerations, employers may become more open to leveraging e-portfolios as part of their hiring processes. 6-21. Consider Case Incident 2, the chapter-opening story, and the chapter. Do you think creativity is “born” (inherent in the individual) or “made” (a product of opportunity and reinforcement)? Compare what we know of the lives of Palmer Luckey and Sara Blakely with those of other creative individuals you know personally. Answer: The debate over whether creativity is "born" (inherent in the individual) or "made" (a product of opportunity and reinforcement) is complex and multifaceted. While some individuals may possess innate predispositions or talents that contribute to their creative abilities, others argue that creativity can be nurtured and developed through exposure to diverse experiences, learning opportunities, and supportive environments. In the case of Palmer Luckey, the founder of Oculus VR, and Sara Blakely, the founder of Spanx, their life stories suggest a combination of both inherent traits and environmental factors contributing to their creativity and success. Palmer Luckey demonstrated a fascination with technology and virtual reality from a young age, tinkering with electronics and computer programming as a hobby. This suggests that he may have had an innate curiosity and aptitude for technology that contributed to his creative endeavors. Similarly, Sara Blakely's entrepreneurial spirit and determination to solve a common problem (finding comfortable and flattering undergarments) reflect innate traits such as resilience and innovation. However, both Luckey and Blakely also benefited from supportive environments and opportunities that allowed them to develop and refine their creative ideas. Luckey's access to resources and mentorship through his involvement in the technology community, as well as Blakely's willingness to take risks and seek out feedback from industry experts, highlight the importance of external factors in fostering creativity. Comparing these individuals with other creative individuals I know personally, I have observed a similar interplay between inherent traits and environmental influences. While some of my creative acquaintances seem to possess natural talents or inclinations toward certain creative pursuits, their creativity has also been shaped and enhanced by exposure to diverse experiences, education, mentorship, and a supportive network of peers and collaborators. Ultimately, the nature-versus-nurture debate surrounding creativity is likely to continue, with evidence supporting both perspectives. However, what seems clear is that creativity is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that can be influenced by a combination of innate traits, environmental factors, and personal experiences. 6-22.My Management Lab Only – comprehensive writing assignment for this chapter. Answer: Title: Understanding Perception and Individual Decision Making in Organizational Contexts Introduction: • Brief overview of the importance of perception and decision making in organizational settings. • Explanation of how individual perceptions shape organizational behavior and outcomes. • Purpose statement outlining the objectives of the assignment. 1. Perception in Organizations • Definition of perception and its significance in organizational behavior. • Factors influencing perception: • Selective attention • Perceptual organization • Interpretation and attribution • Stereotyping and biases 2. Perceptual Errors in Decision Making • Description of common perceptual errors: • Halo effect • Stereotyping • Projection bias • Fundamental attribution error • Self-serving bias • Examples of how these errors manifest in organizational decision making. • Implications for organizational effectiveness and employee relations. 3. Individual Decision Making • Overview of the decision-making process: • Identifying the problem • Generating alternatives • Evaluating alternatives • Making the choice • Implementing the decision • Evaluating the decision • Rational decision-making model vs. bounded rationality. 4. Biases and Heuristics in Decision Making • Explanation of cognitive biases: • Confirmation bias • Availability heuristic • Anchoring bias • Overconfidence bias • Framing effects • Impact of biases on decision quality and organizational outcomes. 5. Strategies for Improving Decision Making • Training and education on biases and perceptual errors. • Implementing decision-making processes and procedures. • Encouraging diversity and multiple perspectives. • Utilizing technology and data-driven decision support systems. • fostering a culture of openness and feedback. Conclusion: • Recap of key points discussed in the assignment. • Importance of understanding perception and decision making for organizational success. • Call to action for organizations to invest in strategies for enhancing perception and decision-making processes. References: • Citations of relevant literature and scholarly sources used in the assignment. Feel free to expand on each section with detailed explanations, examples, and case studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of perception and decision making in organizational contexts. Instructor’s Choice Applying the Concepts Bill Ford never doubted that he could run his family’s company, Ford Motor Company. He just had to convince others that he could. It is not everyday that an owner decides to throw him or herself into the management pool and learn to swim with different strokes. When Ford took over in 1999, many were skeptical and predicted a continued slide for Ford Motors. However, Ford believed that his new strategy would once again bring the Ford Company to prominence. The strategy was very simple—make more money selling fewer cars. Even though this strategy runs contrary to others in the industry, Ford has demonstrated that unprofitable lines can be eliminated, costs can be reduced, more affluent customers can be targeted, and that a rifle approach can win over the traditional shotgun approach. The key to Ford’s new approach is to surround himself with a team of executives that are decisive, can get along with one another, and are willing to take risks as a group. His team was assembled from all over the world. Different points of view were essential to the decision making success of the group. Ford believes in group decision making as opposed to the lone gun approach. The new bottom line is profits and a vision for the company that makes sense. Will Ford and his company make these dreams come true? Analysts are betting “yes” and have the stock numbers to support their vote. •Using a search engine of your own choosing, find an article about Bill Ford and the job he is doing at Ford Motor Company. What evidence of team-oriented decision making did you find in your article? Be sure to summarize any approach identified. •Using a search engine of your own choosing, find an article about Ford’s new hybrid car, the Escape. Note that the Escape comes in a traditional and hybrid version. Since the Escape hybrid will take some time to show profits, why would Ford pursue such a car given the strategic information presented in the story above? •Go to the Ford website (www.ford.com) and find two examples of team-oriented decision making at the company. Be specific in your examples and be sure to demonstrate how your example demonstrates the team-oriented approach. Instructor Discussion The transformation of Ford Motor Company under the leadership of Bill Ford is nothing short of amazing. Mr. Ford was probably given more room and time to make changes because of his unique position in the company at the onset; however, Wall Street watched him very closely. His team approach is something new at Ford. Traditionally, separate projects and divisions were very territorial and managers seemed to seek the spotlight instead of enhancement of the bottom line. Ford’s cost cutting measures were also against industry tradition. For more information on Bill Ford and his team decision making approach, see “Bill’s Brand New Ford,” in Fortune, June 28, 2004, pp. 68–76. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http://www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Exploring OB Topics on the Web
1. Read more about ethics in the workplace. A comprehensive guide on many topics confronting managers can be found at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTETHICS/Resources/10Myths.pdf. In particular, look at the roles and responsibilities of managing ethics in the workplace. Write three major ideas you learned from reading this page and bring them to class for further discussion. 2. Learn more about Attribution Theory at: http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/attrib.htm. Does this information explain how we as humans can explain anything? Obviously, there are accurate attributions and errors in attributions that we make every day. Write a paragraph or two about what you learned from this article. 3. Explore the topic of decision making and intuition. Go to: http://www.forbes.com/sites/cherylsnappconner/2013/08/05/should-intuition-be-running-your-business-yes-and-no/ and http://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2011/12/26/why-rules-of-thumb-intuition-gut-feelings-work-in-business-decisions/. Write out several ideas you learned from these articles, or others that you have found, and bring them to class for further discussion. 4. Conduct an Internet search on one of the topics from this chapter combined with the word culture. For example, stereotyping and culture, ethics and culture, decision making and culture. Write a two-page paper on the topic of your choice. Be sure to address how culture relates to the topic you have chosen. Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior Timothy A. Judge Stephen P. Robbins 9781292146300, 9780133507645, 9780136124016
