Preview Extract
This document contains Chapters 7 to 12 Chapter 7: Conflict and Conflict Management Chapter Outline War as a Concept Defining and Measuring War Classifying Warfare Persistence vs. Obsolescence Armed Conflict: Causes and Objectives Levels-of-Analysis Approach Global Trends in Armed Conflict Incidence Type Intensity Other Patterns and Trends The Changing Context of War “Old” Wars: Origins and Logic “New” Wars: Origins and Logic Asymmetrical Warfare: Terrorism Definition and Scope Causes of Terrorism Sources of Terrorism Tools of Conflict Management Collective Security Peacekeeping Peace Enforcement Mediation Critical Thinking Questions Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Recognize varying definitions and classifications of war, as well as causes and objectives of war at the individual, societal, and systemic levels of analysis 2. Comprehend aggregate patterns and prevailing trends in the incidence, type, intensity, and qualitative nature of armed conflict 3. Appraise the impact of identity, globalization, and transnationalism on war and armed conflict, particularly with respect to intrastate conflicts and global terrorism 4. Consider the significance and prospects of, as well as differences between, various forms of third-party conflict management prevalent in global politics today Chapter Glossary Aggression In global politics, aggression is reflected in the tensions between states that produce arms races, militarized interstate disputes, and war. While there is no universally accepted definition of aggression in international law, an unprovoked military attack by one state on another is a commonly understood act of aggression. Asymmetric warfare A strategy of conflict employed by a weaker actor in contending with a stronger one, in an attempt to “level the playing field.” Terrorism is the most often cited example of asymmetric warfare, given the disparities in power and capabilities that often exist between states and non–state actors. Unconventional weapons, such as biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons, are also appealing instruments of asymmetric warfare. “Clash of civilizations” Samuel P. Huntington’s thesis (1993, 1996) that the source of future conflict will be along “civilizational” (e.g., cultural) lines, with conflicts emerging at the “fault lines” or interfaces of the most contentious of the world’s major civilizational units. Concert of Europe The balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914). Its founding powers included Austria, Prussia, the Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom, the “Quadruple Alliance” responsible for the downfall of the First French Empire. The chief function of the Concert of Europe was maintaining stability and averting major wars between and among the great powers of the Continent, while also policing skirmishes and disputes along its periphery. Defensive realism An explanation of war and armed conflict in international relations rooted in the realist appreciation of states, power, and anarchy. Defensive realists contend that war is a by-product of the anarchical nature of the international system; states and their leaders typically do not choose war, but the mutual and sometimes incompatible quest for security by states inherently produces armed conflict. Diaspora The movement, migration, or scattering of people away from an established homeland. Diversionary theory of war Identifies a war that a country’s leader instigates in order to distract its population from their own domestic strife. “End of history” In the study of global politics, the “end of history” refers to Francis Fukuyama’s thesis (1989, 1992) that the end of the Cold War marked the complete and total triumph of liberalism and therefore the end of “history” (defined by the 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Hegel as the dialectical struggles produced by the existence of contending ideologies). “Jihad v. McWorld” A thesis advanced by political theorist Benjamin Barber (1992, 1996) claiming that global politics is increasingly defined by the tensions between the homogenizing tendencies of globalization (the “McWorld” culture) and the fragmented backlash of tribalism (the “Jihad” culture). Mediation In global politics, a method of conflict management and resolution in which a third party seeks to generate a settlement that is acceptable to the original parties in an armed conflict or dispute. Militarism The belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests. Multidimensional peacekeeping A method of peacekeeping when soldiers, military officers, police, and civilian personnel from many countries monitor and observe peace processes that emerge in post-conflict situations and assist conflicting parties to implement the peace agreement they have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including promoting human security, confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. “New” wars Low-intensity but protracted armed conflicts often taking place within the boundaries of a state, between contending identity groups and irregular forces associated with them, and waged in such a way that distinctions between civil and military authority and combatants and noncombatants lack relevance. Offensive realism An explanation of war and armed conflict in international relations rooted in the realist appreciation of states, power, and anarchy. Offensive realists contend that war is a result of the inherently aggressive tendencies of states and their leaders, who capitalize on the condition of anarchy and purposefully choose war as a tool of advancing their interests and amassing greater power. “Old” wars Derived from Clausewitzian thought and reflected in the wars of the 19th and early 20th centuries. “Old” wars refer to wars fought by and through the state and its organized, professional standing armies in pursuit of the national interest. Key distinctions typifying the “modern” state (disaggregated civil and military authority, distinctions between combatants and noncombatants, etc.) shaped the conduct of such wars. “Particularistic identity politics” A narrow, zero-sum conception of political identity that tends to generate fragmentation and intercommunal violence along national, ethnic, religious, or linguistic lines. Such identity politics are often employed by elites in such fragmented societies to consolidate power through zealous appeals to one identity group and derogation of the “other.” Peace enforcement The use of military means in a semi-coercive posture by an international organization such as the United Nations to introduce and enforce peace in an ongoing conflict setting. Peace enforcement operations relax some of the restrictions on peacekeeping, allowing for more expansive rules of engagement and for deployment without full consent of the warring parties. Peacekeeping The use of military means in a non-coercive posture by an international organization such as the United Nations to prevent a recurrence of military hostilities, usually by acting as a buffer between combatants in a suspended conflict. The international force is neutral between the combatants and must have been invited to be present by the combatants. Preemption A strategy of warfare predicated on the legitimacy and desirability of using military force against a security threat prior to that threat fully materializing in the form of an attack against one’s own state or interests. This differs by degree from preventative war, in which military force is employed to eliminate potential threats. Primordial identities A term that refers to the view advanced by some political and social theorists that a given identity may be deeply embedded or “hardwired” in a person’s consciousness. Such identities override other possible sources of identity and other possible influences on an individual’s perceptions of social and political phenomena—which can produce extreme intolerance and violence toward members of other identity groups. Relative deprivation The experience of recognizing one’s own absolute deprivation in relation to affluence and material abundance enjoyed by others. Relative deprivation is enhanced in scenarios in which information about disparities in wealth and standards of living becomes more widely available to those who are relatively worse off. Remittances A transfer of money by an expatriate to persons in his or her home country. Rules of engagement (ROE) Rules defining acceptable conduct by members of the armed forces engaged in a theater of conflict during operations or in the course of their duties. Typically the rules of engagement are clearly stipulated by political leaders and military commanders to military personnel, and are formulated to advance strategic goals while ensuring compliance with the laws of war. Security dilemma Given anarchy, the tendency of states and other actors to undertake actions to enhance their own security in a “self-help” system tends to threaten other states or actors who are uncertain of the original state’s intentions. This is a dilemma in that the original action, intended to make the state or actor more secure, has the opposite effect. Security dilemmas are a frequent cause of arms races and wars, and reveal the extent to which misperceptions and the lack of information about state’s actions and intentions are destabilizing factors in global politics. Self-defense A countermeasure that involves defending oneself, one’s property, or the well-being of another from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions, but the interpretation varies widely. State-building The process of creating both a government and the legal structures of a country and the political identification of the inhabitants of the country with the state and their sense of loyalty to it. Statecraft The use of military, economic, diplomatic, and ideational tools by state-persons in the pursuit of clearly defined foreign policy objectives and national interests. State-sponsored terrorism Describes terrorism sponsored by nation-states. As with terrorism, the precise definition, and the identification of particular examples, is subjects of heated political dispute. In general, state-sponsored terrorism is associated with providing material support and/or sanctuary to terrorist or paramilitary organizations. “Third wave” of terrorism A thesis advanced by some scholars of terrorism (Sageman, 2008) that contends that the most recent wave of transnational terrorism is being advanced by “homegrown” Islamic radicals living in, and citizens of, Western countries and loosely inspired by al Qaeda. Transnationalism Social, political, economic, and cultural activities and processes that transcend and permeate the borders and sovereign authority of states. Transnational terrorism Terrorism carried out either across national borders or by groups that operate in more than one country. Chapter Overview and Sample Lecture Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. War as a Concept (Objective 1) A. Defining and Measuring War B. Classifying Warfare C. Persistence vs. Obsolescence II. Armed Conflict: Causes and Objectives (Objectives 2, 3) A. Levels-of-Analysis Approach 1. Individual-Level Causes of War 2. State-Level Causes of War a. Statecraft b. Militarism c. Diversion 3. System-Level Causes of War a. The Distribution of Power b. The Anarchical Nature of the System c. System-Level Resource and Economic Factors III. Global Trends in Armed Conflict (Objec¬tive 3) A. Incidence 1. Time (Historical Trajectory) 2. Space (Regional Dispersion) B. Type 1. Interstate and Intrastate C. Intensity 1. Deaths and Casualties D. Other Patterns and Trends IV. The Changing Context of War (Objec¬tives 3, 4) A. “Old” Wars: Origins and Logic B. “New” Wars: Origins and Logic 1. Globalization as Catalyst 2. The Crisis of the State 3. The Crisis of Identity 4. Waging and Sustaining “New” Wars V. Asymmetrical Warfare: Terrorism (Objec¬tive 4) A. Definition and Scope 1. Seeking a Definition 2. Frequency and Extent B. Causes of Terrorism C. Sources of Terrorism 1. State-Sponsored Terrorism 2. Transnational Terrorist Groups VI. Tools of Conflict Management (Objec¬tive 4) A. Collective Security B. Peacekeeping 1. Limited Force 2. Impartiality 3. Reliance on Consent C. Peace Enforcement 1. Rules of Engagement 2. Resource Requirements 3. Limited Consent and Impartiality 4. Legal Authority D. Mediation 1. Mediation Must Involve Third Parties 2. Mediation Is Nonviolent 3. Mediators Are (Technically) Impartial VII. Chapter Summary Chapter 8: International Law and Transitional Justice Chapter Outline Fundamentals of International Law The Primitive Nature of International Law The Growth of International Law The Practice of International Law The International Legal System The Philosophical Roots of Law How International Law Is Made Adherence to the Law Adjudication of the Law Applying International Law and Justice Law and Justice in a Multicultural World States, War, and International Law Applying International Law and Justice to Individuals The Pragmatic Application of Law and Justice The Future of International Law and Justice Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Recognize the fundamental ways in which international law differs from national (domestic) law 2. Understand the philosophical roots, historical evolution, and major sources of international law and the international legal system 3. Grasp some of the major international legal norms, customs, and practices, including diplomatic immunity, head of state immunity, pacta sunt servanda, jus gentium, and legal personhood 4. Assess the major issues involving compliance with and enforcement of international law 5. Be familiar with the functioning and authority of major international and regional courts and other methods of adjudication 6. Identify and evaluate the underlying sources of and continuing debates concerning international humanitarian law (e.g., the “laws of war”) Chapter Glossary Adjudication Referral of an ongoing dispute to an impartial third-party tribunal (either a board of arbitrators or a standing court) for the rendering of a binding legal decision. Amorality The philosophical viewpoint that morality cannot and/or should not be a guide for human actions and decisions. Codify To write down a law in formal language. Competent authority In the just war tradition, the premise that the “right” to wage war can only be extended from a legitimate source of authority with the moral and legal standing to issue such an order. Compulsory jurisdiction In international law, the premise that states or other parties are or would be compelled to submit in full to the legal authority of a standing international court. Crimes against humanity Actions that constitute an assault on human dignity or grave humiliation or degradation of one or more human beings—which can include murder, extermination, torture, rape, and other inhumane acts—and are not isolated events, but rather a systematic practice condoned by a government or de facto political authority. Diplomatic Immunity The notion, long embedded in international norms and practice that holds that official diplomatic emissaries of a sovereign state are to be largely immune from prosecution under the laws and procedures of the foreign country to which they are dispatched. Discrimination In the just war tradition, the premise that the conduct of war must be directed solely toward enemy combatants, and not toward noncombatants who should be immune from attack, injury, or reprisal. Due process The legal principle that the state must respect in full the rights of the individual within the legal system, allowing judges to define matters of fundamental fairness and justice. European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) A supranational court, originally established by the European Convention on Human Rights in 1959 to adjudicate complaints concerning the violation of human rights. The ECHR’s authority has been formally recognized by the Council of Europe. European Court of Justice (ECJ) A supranational court that serves as the “high court” in the European Union and is responsible for the enforcement of European Union “community law” and ensuring its application across and within all 27 current EU member states. Functional relations Sometimes referred to as “low politics,” a term that designates more routine and less politically fraught activities in global politics such as trade, diplomatic interactions, and communications. International law and global governance has expanded further in functional relations due to the relative willingness of states to concede more sovereignty relative to these areas of activity. Head-of-state immunity The notion, derived from a strict interpretation of state sovereignty, that a person’s conduct as head of state or high-ranking political official renders that person “above the law” and not culpable for any criminal activity carried out in the dispatch of his or her responsibilities. Ideological/theological school of law A set of related ideas in secular or religious thought, usually founded on identifiable thinkers and their works, that provides a coherent legal framework. International Court of Justice (ICJ) A standing international court established after World War II that serves as the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. International Criminal Court (ICC) The first permanent global tribunal established to try individuals for war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity, and crimes of aggression. International law The body of principles, customs, and rules regulating interactions among and between states, international organizations, individuals, and in more limited cases, multinational organizations. Jus ad bellum Loosely translated from the Latin as “just right to wage war,” the primary decision-law of just war theory which is intended to provide the minimal moral and legal criteria necessary to justify a resort to war. Jus in bello Loosely translated from the Latin as “justice in war,” the component of just war theory which is intended to provide the minimal moral and legal criteria necessary to govern proper conduct in war. Jus post bellum Loosely translated from the Latin as “justice after war,” the third and least developed component of just war theory which is intended to provide the minimal moral and legal criteria necessary to define and assess just outcomes after war. Just cause A prominent criterion of the jus ad bellum decision-law of just war theory that holds that the reason for going to war must reflect or equate with some plausible translation of justice – such as the need to protect innocent lives from imminent danger—and cannot be solely or primarily based in retribution. Last resort The basic (and highly restrictive) underlying premise of just war theory and in particular jus ad bellum, which holds that military force can and should only be employed after all other peaceful alternatives have been exhausted. Legal personhood Being any party possessing both rights and responsibilities under the law, within a given legal system. Legal personhood in international law has traditionally been restricted to states, but has been expanded in recent decades to encompass individuals, corporations, and other non–state actors. Military necessity A criterion of just war theory (jus in bello) that holds that, at all times in the conduct of war, only the minimum necessary amount of force sufficient to satisfy the overriding goal of advancing the military defeat of one’s adversary should be employed. Moral absolutism A philosophical viewpoint that contends that the ends alone cannot and should not justify the means, or that morality should be the absolute guide for human decisions and actions. Moral pragmatism The idea that there is a middle ground between amorality and moral absolutism that acts as a guide to human actions, particularly in regard to international law. Moral relativism A philosophical viewpoint that contends that ascertaining the morality of human actions or decisions requires careful appreciation of the context in which said actions or decisions take place, and the moral and ethical standards that entail within that particular context. Naturalist school of law Those who believe that the common features and traits of humanity—such as the rational faculties of the individual—necessitate and justify a common legal standard and set of rights and obligations that entail to all human beings. Noncompulsory jurisdiction A loose form of legal jurisdiction in which the authority of a court or other adjudicatory body is contingent on the consent of parties to which the body of law applies. Pacta sunt servanda Loosely translated from Latin as “treaties are to be served/carried out,” an important international norm that treaty agreements between states, and the provisions and obligations contained therein, should be considered to have binding legal force. Political asylum An international legal right to entry and sanctuary within a sovereign state afforded by Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to individuals forced to leave a country or political system in which they are experiencing persecution. Positivist school of law Those who believe that varying social and cultural contexts necessitate and justify a variable legal standard and set of rights and obligations that are determined by individual states and societies in ways that are consistent with the norms and values of the people living in those states and societies. Proportionality (of ends desired) In the just war tradition, the jus ad bellum criterion, which holds that a “just” war is one in which the expected benefits of waging a war must be viewed in proportion to the expected evils/negative consequences and outcomes—with the former exceeding the latter. Proportionality (of means) In the just war tradition, the jus in bello criterion, which holds that a “just” war is one in which the conduct of the war is governed by consideration of incidental injury and harm to noncombatants, with the benefits of such an act considered in relation (proportion) to such harm, and weighed accordingly Reasonable hope for success: a priori Also referred to as “probability of success,” the jus ad bellum criterion, which holds that war cannot and should not be waged for a fruitless or ill-defined cause, or where disproportionate means must be employed in order to achieve a measure of success. Right intention The jus ad bellum criterion, following from the existence of a “just cause,” which speaks to the motivation for war. Primarily assessed as whether the actor’s aim or objective in going to war is consistent with the just cause that actor has identified and articulated. Special Tribunal for Sierra Leone A hybrid judicial body established by the government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations with the authority to prosecute persons bearing responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law and/or Sierra Leonean law during the civil war in Sierra Leone. Transitional justice A wide range of judicial and nonjudicial processes and mechanisms associated with a society’s attempts to redress the legacies of massive human rights abuses and work toward accountability, justice, and reconciliation. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties An international treaty that entered into force in 1980 codifying the norm of pacta sunt servanda (“agreements must be kept”) and establishing the legal force of international treaties between states. War crimes Violations of the laws of war including the murder or mistreatment of prisoners of war; wanton destruction of cities, towns, villages, or other civilian areas; the murder or mistreatment of civilians; and the forced deportation of civilian residents of an occupied territory to internment camps. Chapter Overview and Sample Lecture Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. Fundamentals of International Law and Justice (Objectives 1, 2) A. The Primitive Nature of International Law B. The Growth of International Law C. The Practice of International Law II. The International Legal System (Objectives 2, 3) A. The Philosophical Roots of Law B. How International Law Is Made C. Adherence to the Law 1. Compliance with the Law 2. Enforcement of the Law D. Adjudication of the Law 1. International Courts 2. Jurisdiction of International Courts 3. Effectiveness of International Courts a. The International Court of Justice b. Regional Courts III. Applying International Law and Justice (Objectives 3, 4, 5) A. Law and Justice in a Multicultural World 1. Law and Cultural Perspectives 2. Standards of Law for States and Individuals B. States, War, and International Law 1. Jus ad bellum 2. Jus in bello C. Applying International Law and Justice to Individuals 1. Post-World War II Tribunals 2. Ad Hoc War Crimes Tribunals 3. The International Criminal Court D. The Pragmatic Application of Law and Justice IV. The Future of International Law and Justice (Objective 6) VI. Chapter Summary Chapter 9: Global Political Economy—Protecting Wealth in the Dominant System Chapter Outline Theories of Global Political Economy Economic Nationalism Internationalism Critical Radicalism The World Economy: Globalization and Interdependence Trade International Investment Monetary Relations The Dominant Global Economic Institutions Economic Relations among the Dominant Trade Cooperation and Development: The WTO Monetary Cooperation in Support of Development: The IMF Development Cooperation: The World Bank Group Cooperation among the Dominant Regional and Bilateral Economic Cooperation The Western Hemisphere Asia and the Pacific Other Regions Bilateral Trade Agreements Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Understand three new theoretical perspectives and how they yield quite different views of the global political economy and of the ways to improve the system 2. Understand the genesis of the primary global economic institutions 3. Understand the positive and negative effects of these institutions 4. Examine how economic structures condition the types of policies and relationships that governments and institutions can develop in the global political economy 5. Begin to assess the impact that these institutions have on the distribution and preservation of wealth in the global political economy Chapter Glossary Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) A regional trade organization founded in 1989 that now includes 21 countries. Bilateral trade agreement (BTA) A free trade agreement between two countries or between a regional trade agreement and any other non-member country. Bretton Woods System of monetary management that established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world’s major industrial states in the mid-twentieth century. Capitalism An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods, competition, and profit incentives. Conditionality The policy of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and some other international financial agencies to attach conditions to their loans and grants. Critical radicalism Theory that views economic structure as a primary factor shaping political relationships and the power they engender. Critical radicals contend that the world is divided between have and have-not countries and that the haves (the EDCs) work to keep the have-nots (the LDCs) weak and poor in order to exploit them. Current dollars The value of the dollar in the year for which it is reported. Dependency theory The belief that the industrialized North has created a neocolonial relationship with the South in which the less developed countries are dependent on and disadvantaged by their economic relations with the capitalist industrial countries. Development capital Equity funding for the expansion of established and profitable firms, which is generally less risky and more rewarding than funding new ventures. Doha Round The ninth and latest round of trade negotiations to reduce barriers to global commerce. Economic nationalism The realpolitik theory that the state should use its economic strength to further national interests. Economically developed countries (EDCs) Countries with high levels of economic development. Exchange rates The values of two currencies relative to each other—for example, how many yen equal a dollar or how many yuan equal a euro. Foreign direct investment (FDI) Buying stock, real estate, and other assets in another country with the aim of gaining a controlling interest in foreign economic enterprises. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) A series of multilateral trade negotiations that reduced tariffs after World War 2 and continued into the early 1990s. Became the WTO in 1993. Global North Another name used for the EDCs, most of whom are located in the northern hemisphere. Global South Another name for the LDCs, most of whom are located in the southern hemisphere. Gross domestic product (GDP) A measure of income within a country that excludes foreign earnings. Gross national product (GNP) A measure of the sum of all goods and services produced by a country’s nationals, whether they are in the country or abroad. Group of Eight (G-8) The seven economically largest free market countries: Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States, plus Russia. Imperialism A term synonymous with colonization, recalling the empire building of the European powers in the 19th century. The empires were built by conquering and subjugating Southern countries. International Monetary Fund (IMF) The world’s primary organization devoted to maintaining monetary stability by helping countries to fund balance-of-payment deficits. Internationalism Also called liberal internationalism, this theoretical approach holds that entities should and can conduct international economic relations cooperatively. Less developed countries (LDCs) Countries, located mainly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, with economies that rely heavily on the production of agriculture and raw materials and whose per capita GDP and standard of living are substantially below Western standards. Manufactured goods Items that required substantial processing or assembly to become usable. Marxist theory The philosophy of Karl Marx that the economic (material) order determines political and social relationships. Merchandise trade The import and export of tangible manufactured goods and raw materials. Monetary relations The entire scope of international money issues, such as exchange rates, interest rates, loan policies, balance of payments, and regulating institutions (for example, the International Monetary Fund.) Multinational corporations (MNCs) Private enterprises that have production subsidiaries or branches in more than one country. Neocolonialism The notion that EDCs continue to control and exploit LDCs through indirect means, such as economic dominance and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) An economic agreement among Canada, Mexico, and the United States that went into effect on January 1, 1994. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) An organization that has existed since 1948 (and since 1960 under its present name) to facilitate the exchange of information and otherwise to promote cooperation among the economically developed countries. Primary products Agricultural products and raw materials, such as minerals. Purchasing power parity (PPP) A measure of the relative purchasing power of different currencies. It is measured by the price of the same goods in different countries, translated by the exchange rate of that country’s currency against a base currency, usually the U.S. dollar. Real (or constant) dollars Dollars that have been adjusted for inflation. Regional trade agreement (RTA) A broad term which the World Trade Organization uses to define bilateral and cross-regional agreements as well as multilateral regional ones. Services trade Trade based on the purchase (import) from the sale (export) to another country of intangibles. Examples include architectural fees; insurance premiums; royalties on movies, books, patents, and other intellectual properties; shipping services; advertising fees; and educational programs. Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act Named for Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley, this act 1930 act raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels. Southern Common Market (Mercosur) A regional organization that emphasizes trade relations, established in 1995 among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, with Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Venezuela as associate members. Special drawing rights (SDRs) Reserves held by the International Monetary Fund that the central banks of member countries can draw on to help manage the values of their currencies. SDR value is based on a market basket of currencies. Uruguay Round The eighth round of GATT negotiations to reduce tariffs and nontariff barriers (NTBs) to trade. World Bank Group Four associated agencies that grant loans to LDCs for economic development and other financial needs. World systems theory The view that the world is something of an economic society brought about by the spread of capitalism and characterized by a hierarchy of countries and regions. World Trade Organization (WTO) The organization that replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as the body that implements. Chapter Overview and Sample Lecture Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. Theories of Global Political Economy (Objective 1) A. Economic Nationalism B. Internationalism C. Critical Radicalism II. The World Economy: Globalization and Interdependence (Objectives 2, 3, 4) A. Trade 1. Expanding Trade 2. Factors Promoting Expanded Trade B. International Investment 1. Foreign Direct and Portfolio Investment 2. International Investment and Multinational Corporations C. Monetary Relations III. The Dominant Global Economic Institutions (Objectives 2, 3) A. Economic Relations among the Dominant 1. Changes in the North’s Economic Climate 2. Changes in the North’s Political Climate B. Trade Cooperation and Development: The WTO 1. WTO Structure and Role 2. Revising the GATT: The Doha Round C. Monetary Cooperation in Support of Development: The IMF 1. The Role of the IMF 2. Criticisms of the IMF a. Conditionality 3. Defense of the IMF D. Development Cooperation: The World Bank Group 1. World Bank Operations 2. Controversy about the World Bank Group E. Cooperation among the Dominant 1. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 2. The Group of Eight (G-8) IV. Regional and Bilateral Economic Cooperation (Objectives 4, 5) A. The Western Hemisphere 1. The North American Free Trade Agreement 2. The Free Trade Area of the Americas 3. Mercosur B. Asia and the Pacific C. Other Regions D. Bilateral Trade Agreements V. Chapter Summary Chapter 10: Global Political Economy—A Search for Equity in the Dependent System Chapter Outline The World Economy: Diverse Circumstances North–South Patterns Evaluating the North–South Gap Dependency in the Global Economy North-South Economic Relations The United Nations and Global Political Economy South-South Economic Relations Applied Economic Policy Using Economic Means to Achieve Economic Ends Using Economic Means to Achieve Political Ends Global Economic Development Futures Internationalism: Benefits for All? Economic Nationalism: A Competitive Future A Critical Radical Postscript Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Understand the economic circumstances that define the developing world 2. Recognize the relationships between the North and the South 3. Appreciate the relationships among the Southern states and the diversity of development challenges 4. Comprehend the tools of economy policy 5. Assess different visions of our global economic future Chapter Glossary Cartel An international agreement among producers of a commodity that attempts to control the production and pricing of that commodity. Commodity agreements International agreements to stabilize commodity prices in the interest of producers and consumers. Decolonization The undoing of colonialism, this mostly focused on dismantling the European colonial empires built in the 19th century. Debt crisis When a national government cannot pay the debt it owes and seeks, as a result, some form of assistance. Dumping Any type of predatory pricing, especially in the context of international trade. Former Soviet republics (FSRs) These are 15 independent states that seceded from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in its dissolution in December 1991. They include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) A program designed to promote economic growth in the developing world by providing preferential entry for products from designated beneficiary countries and territories. Globalization The increasing global relationships of culture, people, and economic activity. Group of 77 (G-77) The group of 77 countries of the South that cosponsored the Joint Declaration of Developing Countries in 1963 calling for greater equity in North-South trade. This group has now come to include about 133 members and represents the interests of the less developed countries of the South. International Conference on Financing for Development (ICFD) A UN-sponsored conference on development programs for the South that met in Monterrey, Mexico, during March 2002. Least developed countries (LLDCs) Those countries in the poorest of economic circumstances. Maquiladora A Mexican name for manufacturing operations in a free trade zone, where factories import material and equipment on a duty-free and tariff-free basis for assembly, processing, or manufacturing and then re-export the products. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) In 2000, 189 nations made a promise to free people from extreme poverty and multiple deprivations. This pledge became the eight Millennium Development Goals to be achieved by 2015. Millennium Summit A meeting among many world leaders at the UN headquarters in New York City in 2000 to discuss the role of the UN at the turn of the 21st century. World leaders ratified the United Nations Millennium Declaration. Neocolonialism The notion that EDCs continue to control and exploit LDCs through indirect means, such as economic dominance and co-opting the local elite. New International Economic Order (NIEO) A term that refers to the goals and demands of the South for basic reforms in the global economic system. Newly industrializing countries (NICs) Less developed countries whose economies and whose trade now include significant amounts of manufactured products. Nontariff barriers (NTBs) A nonmonetary restriction on trade, such as quotas, technical specifications, or unnecessarily lengthy quarantine and inspection procedures. Official development assistance (ODA) Often referred to as foreign aid, ODA refers to concessional financial flows from the EDCs to the LDCs. It can take the form of grants or loans with interest rates below normal market rates. Protectionism Using tariffs or nontariff barriers, to protect a domestic economic sector from competition from imported goods or services. Subsidies Assistance paid to a business or economic sector. Most subsidies are made by the government to producers to prevent the decline of a particular industry. Tariff A tax, usually based on a percentage of value, that importers must pay on items purchased abroad. UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) A UN organization established in 1964 and currently consisting of all UN members, which holds quadrennial meetings aimed at promoting international trade and economic development. UN Development Programme (UNDP) An agency of the UN established in 1965 to provide technical assistance to stimulate economic and social development in the economically less developed countries. Chapters Overview and Sample Lecture Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. The World Economy: Diverse Circumstances (Objec¬tive 1) A. North–South Patterns 1. North–South Economic Patterns 2. North–South Societal Patterns B. Evaluating the North–South Gap 1. Mixed Data on Development 2. Uneven Patterns of Development II. Dependency in the Global Economy (Objectives 1, 2, 3) A. North-South Economic Relations B. The United Nations and Global Political Economy 1. The UN and Global Economic Regulation 2. The UN and Development 3. The South’s Reform Agenda 4. The North’s Response to the South’s Reform Agenda 5. New Developments in North–South Competition C. South-South Economic Relations III. Applied Economic Policy (Objective 4) A. Using Economic Means to Achieve Economic Ends 1. Trade and Investment Barriers a. Tariff Barriers b. Nontariff Barriers c. Monetary Barriers d. Investment Barriers e. Dumping f. Cartels B. Using Economic Means to Achieve Political Ends IV. Global Economic Development Futures (Objective 5) A. Internationalism: Benefits for All? 1. Economic Advantages a. General Prosperity b. The Cost of Protectionism c. Promotion of Competition 2. Noneconomic Advantages a. Global Cooperation b. Decreased Violence c. Promoting Democracy B. Economic Nationalism: A Competitive Future 1. Economic Advantages a. Protecting the Domestic Economy b. Diversification c. Compensating for Existing Distortions d. Putting Domestic Needs First 2. Noneconomic Advantages a. National Sovereignty b. National Security c. Policy Tool d. Social and Environmental Protection C. A Critical Radical Postscript V. Chapter Summary Chapter 11: Human Rights: A Tool for Preserving and Enhancing Human Dignity Chapter Outline The Nature of Human Rights The Emergence of Rights Language The Modern Human Rights Movement Human Rights in International Law Critiques of Human Rights Theory and Practice Current Issues in Human Rights Human Rights Problems Barriers to Progress on Human Rights Human Rights Progress Human Rights Advocacy Measuring and Monitoring Human Rights Student-Led Human Rights Campaigns Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Identify the core human rights principles outlined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2. Understand various theoretical perspectives on why human rights standards emerge, how governments and other institutions employ them, and what challenges exist in their full implementation 3. Recognize the complex international legal system that has evolved alongside the modern human rights movement since the end of World War II 4. Identify the major violations of human rights that currently challenge the international community and evaluate the efforts to alleviate and prevent those abuses from continuing 5. Grasp the nature and scope of human rights advocacy from local campaigns on college campuses to global solidarity movements led by the world’s leading nongovernmental organizations in the field of human rights Chapter Glossary Chapter VII Part of the Charter of the United Nations which deals with action with respect to threats to peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989) A human rights treaty setting out the civil, political, economic, social, health, and cultural rights of children. Cultural relativism The principle that an individual human’s beliefs and activities are understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture. Customary law In international law, this refers to the Law of Nations or the legal norms that have developed through the customary exchanges between states over time, whether based on diplomacy or aggression. The Enlightenment A cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe and America whose purpose was to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted science and intellectual interchange and opposed superstition, intolerance, and abuses in church and state. First generation rights Based on the principles of individualism and noninterference, these are “negative” rights based on the Anglo-American principles of liberty. Developed under a strong mistrust of government, they have evolved into “civil” or “political” rights. Gay Lesbian Bisexual and Transgender (GLBT) In use since the 1990s, the term is intended to emphasize diversity of sexuality and gender identity–based cultures and is sometimes used to refer to anyone who is non-heterosexual instead of exclusively to people who are homosexual, bisexual, or transgender. Human rights Inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because he or she is a human being. Conceived as universal and egalitarian, these rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. Human Development Index (HDI) A composite statistic used to rank countries by level of human development. Human trafficking The illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, or a modern day form of slavery. Internally displaced persons (IDP) Someone who is forced to flee his or her home, but who remains within his or her country’s borders. International Bill of Human Rights An informal name given to one General Assembly resolution and two international treaties, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted in 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) with its two Optional Protocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) A multilateral treaty that the United Nations General assembly adopted on December 16, 1966, and in force from March 23, 1976. It commits its parties to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the rights to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights, and rights to due process and a fair trial. International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) A multilateral treaty which the United Nations General Assembly adopted on December 16, 1966, and in force from January 3, 1976. It commits its parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights to individuals, including labor rights, the right to health, the right to education, and the right to an adequate standard of living. Miranda Rights A U.S. criminal procedural rule that requires law enforcement to warn criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation), before they are interrogated, of their Fifth Amendment right against compelled self-incrimination. Multinational corporations (MNCs) Private enterprises that have production subsidiaries or branches in more than one country. Natural law A system of law that is purportedly determined by nature, and thus universal. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) International (transnational) organizations with private memberships. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) Established by a General Assembly Resolution in 1993 and mandated to promote and protect the enjoyment and full realization, by all people, of all rights established in the UN Charter and in international human rights laws and treaties. Prescriptive rights The essentials that a society and its government are arguably obligated to try to provide in order to assure that certain qualitative standards of life exist for everyone in the community. Proscriptive rights Obligations on a society and its government to try to provide a certain qualitative standard of life that, at a minimum, meets basic needs. Refugee A person who is outside his or her country of origin or habitual residence because he or she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because he or she is a member of a persecuted “social group.” Rendition In law, a surrender or handing over of persons or property, particularly from one jurisdiction to another. Responsibility to Protect (R2P) A global policy 2005 United Nations initiative doctrine, endorsed by the UN in 2005, which is based on the idea that sovereignty is not a privilege, but a sovereignty confers responsibilities on states and their leaders – first and foremost, to ensure the well-being of their citizenry. Second generation rights Based on the principles of social justice and public obligation; they tend to be “positive” rights, based on continental European conceptions of liberty as equality. The notion has evolved into what we now call “social” or “economic” rights. Sweatshops A negatively connoted term for any working environment that is unacceptably difficult or dangerous. Employees often work long hours for very low pay, regardless of laws mandating overtime pay or a minimum wage. Third generation rights Remaining largely unofficial, this broad spectrum of rights includes group and collective rights, rights to self-determination, rights to economic and social development, rights to a healthy environment, rights to natural resources, rights to communicate, rights to participation in cultural heritage, and rights to intergenerational equity and sustainability. UN Charter Signed on June 26, 1945, the Charter serves as the foundational treaty of the United Nations. Its articles bind all members. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Established December 14, 1950, by the UN General Assembly, the UNHCR is mandated to lead and coordinate action to protect refugees and resolve refugee problems worldwide. Its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) An intergovernmental body within the United Nations system responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe and for addressing situations of human rights violations and make recommendations on them. Universal Declaration of Human Rights Adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, it is the most fundamental internationally proclaimed statement of human rights in existence. Universal Periodic Review (UPR) A unique process that involves a review of the human rights records of all 192 UN member-states once every four years. Universalism A belief that human rights are derived from sources external to society, such as from a theological, ideological, or natural rights basis. Chapter Overview and Sample Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. The Nature of Human Rights (Objectives 1, 2) A. The Emergence of Rights Language B. The Modern Human Rights Movement C. Human Rights in International Law D. Critiques of Human Rights Theory and Practice II. Current Issues in Human Rights (Objectives 2, 3, 4) A. Human Rights Problems B. Barriers to Progress on Human Rights C. Human Rights Progress III. Human Rights Advocacy (Objective 5) A. Measuring and Monitoring Human Rights B. Student-Led Human Rights Campaigns IV. Chapter Summary Chapter 12: Global Political Ecology Chapter Outline The Ecological State of the World Sustainable Development Global Carrying Capacity: Population Problems and Progress Global Recognition of the Population Problem Approaches to Reducing the Birthrate The Impact of International Population Control Efforts Assessing Natural Resource Pressures Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Minerals Forests and Land Wildlife Freshwater The Seas and Fisheries Assessing Environmental Quality Ground Quality Water Quality Air Quality The Ozone Layer Global Climate Change Chapter Summary Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Understand different perspectives on global environmental issues and the ways those perspectives impact policy decisions 2. Understand how the developing and developed worlds perceive sustainable development differently 3. Assess the impact of multilateral negotiations and organizations on the pursuit of environmental quality 4. Assess the impact of human intervention on the natural environment 5. Form your own opinions about the urgency of environmental policy action Chapter Glossary Adaptation Action taken to adjust to the reality of climate change. Such actions can include flood plain mapping and improving climate control in agriculture and industrial facilities among many other actions. Anthropogenic Caused or produced by humans. Biosphere Earth’s ecological system (ecosystem) that supports life—its land, water, air, and upper atmosphere—and the living organisms, including humans, that inhabit it. Carrying capacity The number of people that an ecosystem can feed, provide water for, and otherwise sustain. Ecosystem A system consisting of all the living organisms in a particular area and the nonliving components with which the organisms interact, such as air, minerals, soil, water, and sunlight. Fertility rate The average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime in a given society. Global climate change The significant and lasting change in weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. Both anthropogenic (human induced) and natural causes have been identified by climate scientists. Green Revolution Refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s that increased agriculture production around the world. Greenhouse effect The accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gases in Earth’s atmosphere that causes rising global temperatures. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) Carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and other gases that create a blanket effect by trapping heat and preventing the nightly cooling of Earth. Kyoto Protocol A supplement to the Global Warming Convention (1992) that requires the economically developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 7% below their 1990 levels by 2012 and encourages, but does not require, less developed countries to reduce emissions. Mitigation Action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) to slow or stop global warming. Modernists Believe in humankind’s mastery of the environment. Possess great faith in technology to solve existing and future environmental problems. Multinational corporations (MNCs) Private enterprises that have production subsidiaries or branches in more than one country. Neotraditionalists Believe in ecological limits and the need to reduce ecological stress. Emphasize conservation and the search of environmental solutions that reduce humankind’s impact on ecosystems. Sustainable development Economic development that meets the needs of the present while trying not to compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs (http://www.iisd.org/sd/) UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Often called Earth Summit I or the Rio Conference, this gathering in 1992 was the first to bring together most of the world’s countries, to address the range of issues associated with sustainable development. UN Conference on Population and Development (UNCPD) A UN-sponsored conference that met in Cairo, Egypt, in September 1994. The conference called for a program of action to include international, national, and local programs to foster family planning. World Health Organization (WHO) A UN-affiliated organization created in 1946 to address world health issues. World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Often called Earth Summit II, this conference was held in Johannesburg in 2002. It was attended by almost all countries and by some 8,000 NGOs. Chapter Overview and Sample Lecture Outline The primary purpose of this lecture is to provide students with the content background needed to achieve the chapter objec¬tives. The objectives correspond to the number in the outline, and these topics require special attention. I. The Ecological State of the World (Objective 1) II. Sustainable Development (Objectives 1, 2) A. Option 1: Restrict/Roll Back Development B. Option 2: Pay for Environmentally Sustainable Development III. Global Carrying Capacity: Population Problems and Progress (Objective 3) A. Global Recognition of the Population Problem B. Approaches to Reducing the Birthrate C. The Impact of International Population Control Efforts IV. Assessing Natural Resource Pressures (Objective 3, 4) A. Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Minerals B. Forests and Land 1. Forest Depletion 2. Land Degradation 3. Forest and Land Protection C. Wildlife 1. Global Pressure on Wildlife 2. Protecting Wildlife D. Freshwater E. The Seas and Fisheries 1. Pressures on the Seas and Fisheries 2. Protecting Fisheries V. Assessing Environmental Quality (Objectives 4, 5) A. Ground Quality 1. International Ground Quality Issues 2. International Efforts to Protect Ground Quality B. Water Quality 1. International Water Quality Issues 2. International Efforts to Protect Water Quality C. Air Quality 1. International Air Quality Issues 2. Protecting Air Quality D. The Ozone Layer 1. Ozone Layer Depletion 2. Protecting the Ozone Layer E. Global Climate Change 1. Global Climate Change: What We Know 2. Global Climate Change: What Is in Dispute a. The Environmental Impact of Global Climate Change b. The Economic Impact of Global Climate Change c. The Costs of Halting or Substantially Slowing Global Climate Change 3. The International Response to Global Climate Change a. Recent Developments VI. Chapter Summary Instructor Manual for Global Politics: Engaging a Complex World Mark Boyer, Natalie Hudson, Michael Butler 9780078024818, 9781259146480
