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Chapter 7: Conflict and Conflict Management Classroom Analytical Activities and Discussion Questions
Although the following activities focus on classroom activities, they also can serve as outside assignments with slight modifications. 1. Make a list of questions about war that the students would like to have answered. Refer to these during the remainder of the chapter. Question: • Why do wars occur? • What role does nationalism play in causing wars? • How do economic factors contribute to the outbreak of wars? • Can wars ever be justified? • What are the long-term consequences of war on societies and individuals? • How do different cultures and religions perceive war? • How has technology changed the nature of warfare? • What are the ethical considerations in war, such as the treatment of prisoners and civilians? • How do international organizations like the United Nations work to prevent and resolve conflicts? • Are there alternatives to war for resolving conflicts between nations? Answer: • Wars occur due to a complex interplay of factors, including but not limited to, political disputes, territorial ambitions, economic interests, and cultural or religious differences. • Nationalism can fuel wars by promoting a strong sense of national identity and pride, leading to conflicts over borders, resources, or perceived threats to the nation. • Economic factors, such as competition for resources or markets, can contribute to the outbreak of wars as nations seek to secure their economic interests. • The justification for war is a contentious issue, with some arguing that it can be justified in certain circumstances, such as self-defense or the protection of human rights, while others believe that war is never justified. • The long-term consequences of war can be devastating, leading to loss of life, displacement of populations, destruction of infrastructure, and lasting trauma for individuals and societies. • Different cultures and religions have varying perspectives on war, with some viewing it as a necessary evil and others promoting non-violent approaches to conflict resolution. • Technology has dramatically changed the nature of warfare, allowing for more precise and devastating weapons, as well as new methods of communication and surveillance. • Ethical considerations in war include the treatment of prisoners and civilians, adherence to international laws and conventions, and the use of proportionate force. • International organizations like the United Nations work to prevent and resolve conflicts through diplomacy, peacekeeping operations, and the promotion of dialogue and negotiation. • Alternatives to war for resolving conflicts include diplomacy, negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and non-violent resistance, among others. 2. Have students offer opinions on why trends related to war are an indication that it is an impor¬tant topic to study? The trends related to war underscore its significance as a topic of study for several reasons. First, war has been a persistent feature of human history, making it crucial to understand its causes, consequences, and potential prevention methods. Second, the impact of war extends beyond the battlefield, affecting economies, societies, and political landscapes for generations. Third, with the increasing interconnectedness of the world, conflicts in one region can have global implications, highlighting the need for effective conflict management strategies. Finally, studying war can help us appreciate the importance of peace-building efforts and the value of international cooperation in preventing future conflicts. 3. Present the proposition: “Force should be a means to an end, not an end in itself” to the class. Then, ask students if they agree or disagree. Use examples of force as a means or an end to challenge their positions. Presenting the proposition "Force should be a means to an end, not an end in itself" can stimulate thoughtful discussion among students. This proposition suggests that while force can sometimes be necessary to achieve certain goals, it should not be pursued for its own sake. Here's a structured way to frame the discussion: 1. Introduction: Explain the proposition and its implications. Emphasize that the use of force should be carefully considered and justified based on the desired outcome. 2. Discussion: Ask students to consider whether they agree or disagree with the proposition. Encourage them to think about situations where force has been used as a means to an end, as well as cases where force seems to be an end in itself. Examples could include: • Force as a means: • The use of military force to protect civilians from genocide or atrocities (e.g., intervention in Rwanda or Kosovo). • Law enforcement using force to apprehend dangerous criminals and maintain public order. • Force as an end: • Militaristic regimes that use force to suppress dissent and maintain control (e.g., North Korea). • Terrorist groups that use violence as a primary tactic to achieve ideological goals (e.g., ISIS). 3. Challenging Positions: Encourage students to support their positions with examples and reasoning. Challenge them to consider alternative perspectives and potential consequences of viewing force as an end in itself. For example: • What are the ethical implications of using force as a means to achieve political or military objectives? • How does the perception of force as an end affect the legitimacy and effectiveness of military interventions or peacekeeping missions? • Can diplomatic or non-violent approaches be more effective in achieving long-term stability and peace? 4. Conclusion: Summarize key points from the discussion and encourage students to reflect on the complexities of using force in international relations. Emphasize the importance of considering the broader context and consequences of resorting to force as a policy tool. 4. Select three important foreign policy issues facing the country, and ask the students to consider what level of force, if any, they would recommend to achieve their coun¬try’s goals. Selecting three important foreign policy issues facing a hypothetical country allows students to consider the complexities of using force as a tool of foreign policy. Here are three issues and potential considerations for each: 1. Territorial Dispute: The country is involved in a territorial dispute with a neighboring nation, and diplomatic efforts have failed to resolve the issue. • Students may consider the historical context of the dispute, the importance of the territory to national security or identity, and the potential consequences of using force (e.g., escalation, international condemnation). • Recommendations may vary from continued diplomatic efforts and international arbitration to a limited military intervention to secure the territory. 2. Terrorism: The country faces a significant threat from a terrorist organization operating within its borders or in a neighboring region. • Students may weigh the effectiveness of military action against terrorist groups versus addressing root causes such as social and economic grievances. • Recommendations may range from targeted military strikes against terrorist targets to a comprehensive counter-terrorism strategy including intelligence sharing and law enforcement cooperation. 3. Humanitarian Crisis: The country is witnessing a humanitarian crisis in a neighboring country, with widespread violence and displacement of civilians. • Students may consider the responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine and the ethical imperative to intervene to protect civilians. • Recommendations may include humanitarian aid, diplomatic pressure on the offending regime, or, in extreme cases, military intervention to establish safe zones or protect civilians. In each scenario, students should be encouraged to consider the principles of just war theory, including the principles of just cause, proportionality, and last resort. The goal is to foster critical thinking about the use of force in foreign policy and the broader implications for peace and security. 5. Tell the students they will make a presentation to a lo¬cal historical association explaining how nationalism and technology influence the nature of conflict. Ask the students to draw examples from past wars to illustrate their presentation. In addition, challenge them to generate suggestions for thought-provoking conclusions. Presentation Overview: Title: "Nationalism and Technology: Influences on the Nature of Conflict" Introduction: • Briefly define nationalism and technology in the context of conflict. • Explain the significance of understanding these influences on past and present conflicts. Body: • Nationalism: Discuss how nationalism has historically contributed to conflicts by promoting a strong sense of national identity and pride, often leading to territorial disputes and wars of independence. • Examples: The unification of Italy and Germany in the 19th century, fueled by nationalist movements, led to conflicts such as the Franco-Prussian War and the Italian Wars of Independence. • Technology: Explore how technological advancements have changed the nature of warfare, making conflicts more lethal and widespread. • Examples: The Industrial Revolution and its impact on warfare, including the development of machine guns, artillery, and railways, which transformed battlefields and strategies during World War I. Illustrative Examples: • World War I: Discuss how nationalism and technology converged to create a devastating conflict, with nationalist ambitions and technological innovations such as trench warfare and chemical weapons leading to unprecedented casualties. • World War II: Explain how nationalist ideologies, particularly in Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, fueled aggression and conflict, while technological advancements like tanks and aircraft changed the nature of warfare. Suggestions for Thought-Provoking Conclusions: • Ethical Considerations: Encourage reflection on the ethical implications of nationalist fervor and technological warfare, highlighting the importance of considering the human cost of conflict. • Peacebuilding: Emphasize the role of diplomacy and international cooperation in mitigating nationalist conflicts and regulating the use of technology in warfare. • Future Trends: Speculate on how nationalism and technology may continue to influence conflicts in the future, considering emerging technologies such as cyber warfare and autonomous weapons systems. Conclusion: • Summarize key points and reiterate the importance of understanding the interplay between nationalism and technology in shaping the nature of conflict. Encourage further exploration and discussion on these complex issues. 6. Announce that in the face of budget cuts, the Pentagon has the class to act as a consultant in an analysis of the costs and benefits of maintaining a capacity for biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons. Encourage the class to discuss their potential recommendations. Introduction: • Explain the scenario where the class is asked to act as consultants for the Pentagon, analyzing the costs and benefits of maintaining a capacity for biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons in the face of budget cuts. • Emphasize the importance of considering the ethical, political, and strategic implications of such weapons in modern warfare. Costs and Benefits Analysis: • Biological Weapons: • Costs: Research, development, and maintenance of biological weapons programs, potential for accidental release or misuse leading to catastrophic consequences. • Benefits: Deterrence against adversaries, potential for use in targeted military operations. • Chemical Weapons: • Costs: Production, storage, and disposal of chemical weapons, international condemnation and potential sanctions. • Benefits: Deterrence against chemical weapon use by adversaries, potential for use in limited military operations. • Nuclear Weapons: • Costs: Development, maintenance, and modernization of nuclear arsenals, potential for nuclear accidents or unauthorized use. • Benefits: Deterrence against nuclear attacks, leverage in negotiations with nuclear-armed adversaries. Potential Recommendations: • Reduce Spending: Recommend scaling back or eliminating programs related to these weapons to reduce costs and prioritize other defense needs. • Strengthen Arms Control: Advocate for increased investment in arms control and disarmament efforts to reduce reliance on these weapons globally. • Maintain Minimal Deterrence: Suggest maintaining a minimal deterrent capability while exploring diplomatic and non-proliferation initiatives to reduce reliance on these weapons. • Invest in Non-Proliferation: Propose increased funding for non-proliferation efforts to prevent the spread of these weapons to non-state actors or rogue states. Conclusion: • Summarize the key points of the analysis and recommendations, emphasizing the need for a balanced approach that considers national security, ethical considerations, and budget constraints. Encourage further discussion and exploration of alternatives to maintaining capacity for these weapons. 7. Tell the class that observers believe that escalation or errors in judgment are the most likely causes of a nuclear war. Have the students discuss if they agree with this statement and encourage them to provide reasons in their discussion. Introduction: • Explain the statement that observers believe escalation or errors in judgment are the most likely causes of a nuclear war. • Emphasize the importance of understanding the factors that can lead to nuclear conflict to prevent such a catastrophic event. Discussion Points: • Escalation: Discuss how conflicts between nuclear-armed states can escalate rapidly due to misinterpretation of intentions, miscalculations of the opponent's capabilities, or the desire to demonstrate resolve. • Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, where a series of escalatory moves and miscommunications between the United States and the Soviet Union brought them to the brink of nuclear war. • Errors in Judgment: Explore how human errors, such as faulty intelligence, miscommunication, or technical malfunctions, can lead to unintended nuclear confrontations. • Example: The false alarm incident in 1983 when Soviet early-warning systems mistakenly detected a U.S. missile attack, prompting a close call with nuclear retaliation. Student Discussion: • Encourage students to discuss whether they agree with the statement and why. • Prompt them to consider historical examples, current geopolitical tensions, and the role of nuclear doctrines and strategies in shaping perceptions and decisions. Reasons to Agree: • The historical record shows several instances where nuclear conflicts were narrowly avoided due to close calls or misinterpretations. • The destructive power of nuclear weapons makes any escalation in a conflict incredibly risky, increasing the likelihood of errors leading to catastrophe. Reasons to Disagree: • Some may argue that deliberate decision-making by rational actors is more likely to determine the use of nuclear weapons than errors or escalation. • The deterrence theory posits that the fear of mutually assured destruction prevents nuclear war, suggesting that deliberate escalation is less likely. Conclusion: • Summarize the key points of the discussion, emphasizing the need for caution, clear communication, and effective crisis management to prevent escalation or errors that could lead to nuclear war. • Encourage continued reflection and study on the complexities of nuclear deterrence and conflict management. 8. Explain to the class that realists are wary of being too optimistic about the changes in the former USSR. Others believe the changes present an opportunity to change international pol¬itics. Further, some recommend that the United States press forcefully for dramatic arms reductions and elimination. Ask the class what they would suggest and why? Introduction: • Realists view international relations through a lens of power dynamics and are cautious about being overly optimistic regarding changes in the former USSR. • Others see these changes as an opportunity to reshape international politics, potentially leading to greater stability and cooperation. • Some advocate for the United States to aggressively pursue arms reductions and elimination as a means to enhance global security. Student Suggestions: • Encourage students to consider the implications of these differing perspectives and formulate their own recommendations. • Prompt them to think about the potential risks and benefits of pressing for dramatic arms reductions in the context of the post-Cold War era. Potential Student Suggestions: • Realist Approach: Some students may argue that caution is warranted, as rapid changes in the former USSR could lead to instability or power vacuums that may be exploited by aggressive actors. • Opportunity for Change: Others may suggest that the changes present a unique opportunity to promote democracy, economic development, and cooperative relationships in the region and globally. • Arms Reductions: Some students may support the idea of pressing for dramatic arms reductions and elimination, citing the potential for cost savings, reduced risk of nuclear proliferation, and improved diplomatic relations. Reasoning Behind Suggestions: • Students should provide reasoning for their suggestions based on an understanding of realist, liberal, and constructivist perspectives on international relations. • They should consider factors such as security concerns, economic interests, moral considerations, and historical context in their arguments. Conclusion: • Summarize the range of perspectives and recommendations provided by the class, highlighting the complexity of international relations and the need for careful consideration of various factors in policymaking. • Encourage students to continue exploring these issues and to develop their own informed opinions on how best to address them. 9. Split the class into groups and have them create a list of future potential threats to the United States and ask each group to suggest strategies to protect the country against those threats. Then, have groups compare their notes and discuss differences. Introduction: • In an ever-changing global landscape, identifying and preparing for potential threats to national security is crucial. • This activity aims to engage students in strategic thinking by considering future threats to the United States and proposing strategies to mitigate those threats. Group Activity: 1. Threat Identification: • Each group identifies and lists potential future threats to the United States. Examples may include cyberattacks, terrorism, pandemics, climate change-induced disasters, or geopolitical rivalries. 2. Strategy Development: • Once threats are identified, each group develops strategies to protect the country against those threats. Strategies may include diplomatic efforts, military preparedness, intelligence gathering, cybersecurity measures, or international cooperation. 3. Comparison and Discussion: • After developing their strategies, groups compare their notes and discuss the differences in their approaches. Encourage them to consider the feasibility, effectiveness, and ethical implications of each strategy. 4. Presentation: • Each group presents their identified threats and proposed strategies to the class, highlighting key points and rationale behind their choices. Debrief and Reflection: • Facilitate a class discussion on the diversity of threats and strategies proposed by the groups. • Encourage students to reflect on the challenges of anticipating and preparing for future threats, and the importance of flexibility and adaptability in national security planning. • Discuss the role of international cooperation and diplomacy in addressing global threats that transcend national borders. 10. Form two groups in the classroom, and explain that domestic factors pose a powerful barrier to arms control in the United States and other countries. Ask one group to act as though they were all strong believers in arms control, and have them develop ways to reduce these barriers. The other group would not favor arms control, and they must find ways to increase the barriers. Introduction: • Domestic factors, such as political ideologies, economic interests, and public opinion, can significantly impact the feasibility and success of arms control efforts in the United States and other countries. • This activity aims to simulate the contrasting perspectives on arms control by forming two groups: one advocating for arms control and the other opposing it. Group Advocating for Arms Control: • Identify Common Ground: Focus on finding common ground with opponents, such as emphasizing the importance of national security and the need to prevent arms races. • Educate and Mobilize Public Opinion: Develop educational campaigns to raise awareness about the risks of uncontrolled arms proliferation and garner public support for arms control measures. • Engage in Diplomatic Outreach: Work with international partners to build alliances and coalitions in support of arms control treaties and agreements. • Highlight Economic Benefits: Emphasize the economic benefits of arms control, such as redirecting resources to domestic needs or investing in alternative industries. Group Opposing Arms Control: • Emphasize Sovereignty and Security: Argue that arms control agreements can infringe on national sovereignty and weaken national security by limiting defensive capabilities. • Highlight Economic Concerns: Point out the potential negative economic impact of arms control agreements, such as job losses in the defense industry. • Question Effectiveness: Raise doubts about the effectiveness of arms control in preventing conflict or reducing the risk of nuclear proliferation. • Appeal to Ideological Beliefs: Frame arms control as a threat to individual freedoms or national values, appealing to ideological beliefs. Debrief and Discussion: • After the groups have developed their strategies, facilitate a discussion on the effectiveness of their approaches and the broader implications for arms control efforts. • Encourage students to reflect on the complexities of balancing national security interests, economic concerns, and ideological beliefs in the context of arms control. 11. Ask the class to discuss what evidence exists that the world is more willing and able to accept the concept of international security. Then ask the class to identify barriers to making international security a reality. Discuss as a class. Evidence of Acceptance of International Security: • Increased International Cooperation: The rise of international organizations like the United Nations and regional security alliances indicates a growing willingness to address security issues collectively. • Global Agreements: The signing of treaties and agreements on disarmament, non-proliferation, and peacekeeping demonstrates a shared commitment to international security. • Humanitarian Interventions: The willingness of nations to intervene in conflicts to protect civilians (e.g., UN peacekeeping missions) reflects a growing acceptance of the responsibility to maintain international security. • Norms and Values: The development of norms against the use of certain weapons (e.g., chemical weapons) and the recognition of human rights as integral to security indicate a broader understanding of security beyond traditional military threats. Barriers to Making International Security a Reality: • Sovereignty Concerns: Some countries are reluctant to cede authority over security matters to international bodies, citing concerns about infringement on sovereignty. • Power Dynamics: Powerful nations may resist international security efforts that could limit their influence or military capabilities. • Resource Constraints: Lack of resources, both financial and logistical, can hinder effective international security cooperation and implementation of agreements. • Political Will: Disagreements among nations on security priorities and approaches can impede coordinated action on global security threats. • Complexity of Threats: The increasingly interconnected nature of security threats, such as terrorism and cyberattacks, makes it challenging to address them through traditional means of state-centric security. Class Discussion: • Facilitate a discussion on the evidence and barriers to international security. • Encourage students to consider how these factors interact and influence the ability of the international community to address global security challenges. • Prompt students to explore potential solutions or strategies for overcoming these barriers and enhancing international security cooperation. Out-of-Class Activities 1. Like Og and Ug at the beginning of the chapter, countries often fear arms control and reduction agree¬ments. Hardliners in both the USSR and the United States argued that the other side cheated. Re¬search these arguments and decide if either side was trustworthy during the cold war. Researching Trustworthiness During the Cold War: During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union were engaged in arms control and reduction agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. However, there were accusations from hardliners on both sides that the other side was cheating on these agreements. To determine the trustworthiness of each side, research should focus on the following aspects: 1. Compliance with Agreements: Evaluate whether each side adhered to the terms and limitations set forth in the arms control agreements. Look for instances where either side violated the agreements or engaged in activities that undermined their spirit. 2. Verification and Transparency: Examine the efforts made by each side to allow for verification of compliance. Assess whether there were any instances of lack of transparency or refusal to allow for adequate verification measures. 3. Political Context and Intentions: Consider the broader political context and intentions of each side. Evaluate whether there were indications of genuine efforts to reduce arms or if there were political motives behind the agreements. 4. Historical Records and Documentation: Look for historical records, documents, and testimonies from officials involved in the negotiations and implementation of arms control agreements. These can provide insights into the trustworthiness of each side. Conclusion: Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that both the United States and the Soviet Union had instances where they were perceived as untrustworthy during the Cold War. There were documented cases of both sides violating arms control agreements or engaging in activities that raised suspicions of cheating. However, it is also important to consider the broader context of the Cold War, characterized by mutual distrust and competition, which may have influenced perceptions of trustworthiness. 2. Study a current conflict. Analyze the causes of that con¬flict from the perspective of system-level, state-level, and individual-level analysis. Synthesize all three levels of analysis into a report describing the origins of the con¬flict you have studied. Current Conflict: Syrian Civil War System-Level Analysis: • The Syrian Civil War can be analyzed at the system level as a result of broader regional and international dynamics. The conflict has been influenced by power struggles and competing interests among regional actors such as Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia, as well as involvement from global powers like the United States and Russia. • Factors such as the Arab Spring and the destabilization of neighboring countries like Iraq have also contributed to the conflict by creating a volatile regional environment. State-Level Analysis: • At the state level, the Syrian Civil War can be attributed to the authoritarian rule of President Bashar al-Assad and his regime's response to peaceful protests in 2011. The regime's use of brutal tactics to suppress dissent, including the use of chemical weapons, escalated the conflict and alienated large segments of the population. • Additionally, the failure of the Assad regime to address underlying grievances, such as political repression, economic inequality, and sectarian tensions, exacerbated the conflict and fueled support for opposition groups. Individual-Level Analysis: • From an individual-level perspective, the actions and decisions of key leaders, including President Assad and leaders of opposition groups, have played a significant role in shaping the conflict. Assad's refusal to step down and his reliance on military force to maintain power have prolonged the conflict. • The actions of external actors, such as the provision of arms and support to various factions, have also been influenced by individual leaders' perceptions and agendas. Synthesis: • The Syrian Civil War can be understood as a complex interplay of system-level, state-level, and individual-level factors. Regional and international dynamics, including power struggles and geopolitical interests, have created a fertile ground for conflict. • At the state level, the authoritarian rule of the Assad regime and its brutal response to dissent laid the groundwork for the conflict. The failure to address underlying grievances and the use of sectarian tactics further fueled the conflict. • Finally, individual leaders' actions and decisions, both within Syria and among external actors, have shaped the course of the conflict and influenced its trajectory. Conclusion: • By examining the conflict in Syria through the lens of system-level, state-level, and individual-level analysis, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of its origins and complexities. This holistic approach is essential for developing effective strategies for conflict management and resolution. 3. Contact a local civilian defense office and obtain infor¬mation about the likely results of a nuclear attack on the closest major city. Contacting a Local Civilian Defense Office: 1. Identify the Closest Major City: Determine the closest major city to your location for which you want to obtain information about the likely results of a nuclear attack. 2. Locate and Contact the Civilian Defense Office: Look up the contact information for the civilian defense office responsible for emergency preparedness and response in the area of the city you identified. This office may be part of the city government, county government, or state government. 3. Request Information: Contact the civilian defense office via phone, email, or in person, and request information about the likely results of a nuclear attack on the closest major city. Be specific in your request and ask for details such as estimated casualties, infrastructure damage, and recommended actions for residents in the event of a nuclear attack. 4. Document and Analyze the Information: Once you receive the information, carefully review and analyze it. Look for key findings and statistics that highlight the potential impact of a nuclear attack on the city. 5. Consider Implications and Preparedness: Reflect on the information obtained and consider the implications for emergency preparedness and response in the event of a nuclear attack. Evaluate the adequacy of current plans and resources in place to address such a scenario. 6. Share and Discuss Findings: Share your findings with others, such as classmates, friends, or family members, and engage in discussions about the importance of preparedness and the potential consequences of a nuclear attack. 4. Identify 10 examples of U.S. or Soviet arms transfers, covert and terrorist interventions, and direct military interventions since 1945. Describe the transfers or in¬terventions, including goals and results. Discuss your findings. 1. Korean War (1950-1953): • Description: The Soviet Union provided military equipment and advisors to North Korea, while the United States supported South Korea. • Goal: Soviet Union aimed to spread communism in the region, while the United States sought to contain communism. • Result: The war ended in a stalemate, with the Korean Peninsula divided at the 38th parallel. 2. Vietnam War (1955-1975): • Description: The United States provided extensive military aid to the South Vietnamese government in its fight against communist forces in North Vietnam. • Goal: U.S. aimed to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. • Result: The war ended in 1975 with the fall of Saigon and the unification of Vietnam under communist rule. 3. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979-1989): • Description: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the communist government against insurgent groups. • Goal: Soviet Union aimed to maintain a communist regime in Afghanistan. • Result: The war ended in Soviet withdrawal in 1989, leading to the collapse of the communist government and subsequent civil war. 4. Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989): • Description: The United States provided military and financial support to Afghan mujahideen fighters opposing the Soviet invasion. • Goal: U.S. aimed to undermine Soviet influence and support anti-communist forces. • Result: The Soviet Union withdrew in 1989, but the conflict contributed to the rise of militant groups, including the Taliban. 5. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): • Description: The Soviet Union deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, leading to a standoff with the United States. • Goal: Soviet Union aimed to counter U.S. missile deployment in Turkey and protect Cuba. • Result: Crisis ended with a negotiated settlement, with both sides agreeing to remove missiles from Cuba and Turkey. 6. Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988): • Description: Both the United States and the Soviet Union provided military support to Iraq during the war. • Goal: U.S. and Soviet Union aimed to maintain regional stability and protect their interests. • Result: The war ended in a stalemate, with significant casualties on both sides. 7. Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968): • Description: The Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia to suppress the Prague Spring reform movement. • Goal: Soviet Union aimed to prevent liberalization and maintain control over Eastern Europe. • Result: Invasion led to the suppression of reforms and increased tensions in the region. 8. U.S. Invasion of Grenada (1983): • Description: The United States invaded Grenada to overthrow a Marxist government and rescue American citizens. • Goal: U.S. aimed to protect American citizens and prevent the spread of communism in the region. • Result: Invasion successfully removed the Marxist government and installed a pro-Western government. 9. Soviet Invasion of Hungary (1956): • Description: Soviet Union invaded Hungary to suppress a popular uprising against communist rule. • Goal: Soviet Union aimed to maintain control over Hungary and prevent the spread of dissent in Eastern Europe. • Result: Invasion led to the suppression of the uprising and reaffirmed Soviet control over Hungary. 10. U.S. Support for Contras in Nicaragua (1980s): • Description: The United States supported the Contras, a rebel group, in their fight against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. • Goal: U.S. aimed to undermine the Sandinista government and protect American interests in the region. • Result: U.S. support for the Contras led to a civil war in Nicaragua and strained relations between the United States and other countries in the region. Discussion: • These examples highlight the complex nature of U.S. and Soviet interventions and arms transfers during the Cold War era, often driven by ideological, strategic, and geopolitical considerations. • The consequences of these interventions and transfers varied, with some leading to prolonged conflicts and others contributing to regional stability or change in government. • The examples also illustrate the role of covert actions and proxy wars in the broader context of superpower rivalry and global politics. 5. The author suggests that limiting goals, weapons, targets, and geographical scope are important factors in keeping wars from escalating. Explain the operation of these fac¬tors by offering examples from either the U.S. experience in Vietnam or the Arab-Israeli conflicts since 1947 Limiting Goals: • In the Arab-Israeli conflicts, limiting goals can be seen in the context of specific territorial objectives. For example, during the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel's goal was to gain control over certain territories, such as the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, and Golan Heights, rather than seeking to completely destroy its Arab neighbors. • Similarly, in the U.S. experience in Vietnam, the initial goal was to contain communism and prevent the spread of Soviet influence in Southeast Asia, rather than seeking to fully conquer or control North Vietnam. Limiting Weapons: • Both in the Arab-Israeli conflicts and the U.S. experience in Vietnam, limiting the use of certain weapons or tactics was important in avoiding escalation. For example, during the Yom Kippur War in 1973, both sides refrained from using chemical or nuclear weapons, despite the intensity of the conflict. • In Vietnam, the U.S. limited the use of strategic bombing and avoided direct military confrontation with China or the Soviet Union, which could have escalated the conflict into a larger war. Limiting Targets: • In the Arab-Israeli conflicts, limiting targets can be seen in the focus on military targets rather than civilian populations. For example, during the Gaza War in 2008-2009, both Israel and Hamas targeted military installations and personnel, rather than engaging in widespread attacks on civilian populations. • In Vietnam, the U.S. focused on military targets such as Viet Cong strongholds and supply lines, rather than targeting civilian populations or infrastructure on a large scale. Limiting Geographical Scope: • In both the Arab-Israeli conflicts and the U.S. experience in Vietnam, limiting the geographical scope of the conflict was crucial in preventing escalation. For example, during the Gulf War in 1991, the conflict was largely confined to Kuwait and Iraq, rather than spreading to other countries in the region. • Similarly, in Vietnam, the conflict was primarily limited to Vietnam itself, rather than spreading to neighboring countries such as Laos or Cambodia, which could have escalated the war. Conclusion: • The examples from the U.S. experience in Vietnam and the Arab-Israeli conflicts demonstrate how limiting goals, weapons, targets, and geographical scope can be important factors in keeping wars from escalating. By focusing on specific objectives, using proportionate force, and avoiding actions that could lead to wider conflict, parties can reduce the risk of escalation and work towards a more manageable resolution of the conflict. 6. Select an arms control agreement (for example, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) and read about it in a variety of media sources that appeared when the treaty first appeared. Identify the international and domestic arguments made against approving the treaty and compare them with arguments identified in the text. Compare them with arguments used to oppose the most recent arms control agreements. Do you feel that the arguments are valid? Are they strong enough to deter us from seeking arms control agreements? Explain. When analyzing an arms control agreement such as the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it is essential to consider the arguments presented both internationally and domestically. These arguments often reflect differing perspectives on the treaty's implications and potential impact. Historically, opposition to arms control agreements has stemmed from various concerns. Internationally, some nations may argue that such agreements limit their ability to defend themselves or that they disproportionately benefit more powerful nations. Domestically, arguments may focus on the perceived infringement of national sovereignty or the belief that the agreement is not in the country's best interests. Comparing these arguments with those used against more recent arms control agreements can provide insights into the evolution of perspectives on arms control. In recent years, arguments against arms control agreements have often included concerns about the effectiveness of the agreements in preventing proliferation, as well as doubts about the willingness of all parties to adhere to the terms. Whether these arguments are valid depends on one's perspective. Proponents of arms control agreements argue that they are necessary to reduce the risk of conflict and promote global security. They may argue that the benefits of such agreements, such as reducing the likelihood of nuclear proliferation or reducing the risk of accidental nuclear war, outweigh the perceived drawbacks. However, opponents may argue that arms control agreements can be ineffective or that they may even exacerbate tensions between nations. They may also point to instances where nations have violated arms control agreements, raising doubts about their enforceability and effectiveness. Ultimately, the question of whether these arguments are strong enough to deter us from seeking arms control agreements is subjective. Some may argue that the risks of nuclear proliferation and conflict are too great to ignore, making arms control agreements essential. Others may believe that the risks associated with such agreements outweigh the potential benefits. In conclusion, the debate over arms control agreements is complex and multifaceted. It requires a careful consideration of the arguments presented by both proponents and opponents, as well as an understanding of the historical context and current geopolitical dynamics. 7. Study a nonviolent movement (for example, the drive for In¬dian independence or the work of Martin Luther King, Jr. to promote civil rights in the United States). What strategies did these movements use? What goals did they seek to achieve, and what lessons apply in the international arena? Can you identify any exam¬ples of similar movements in the context of international politics? Studying nonviolent movements, such as the drive for Indian independence led by Mahatma Gandhi or the civil rights movement in the United States led by Martin Luther King, Jr., provides valuable insights into effective strategies for social and political change. These movements utilized a range of strategies, including nonviolent resistance, civil disobedience, and grassroots organizing, to achieve their goals. One key strategy employed by these movements was nonviolent resistance, which involved peaceful protests, marches, and sit-ins to raise awareness and mobilize support. By demonstrating the unjust nature of the status quo through nonviolent means, these movements were able to garner sympathy and support from both domestic and international audiences. Another important strategy was civil disobedience, where individuals willingly disobeyed unjust laws to highlight their moral and ethical objections. This strategy not only challenged the legitimacy of oppressive laws but also demonstrated the courage and commitment of the movement's participants. These movements sought to achieve goals such as ending colonial rule, securing equal rights and freedoms for marginalized groups, and promoting social justice and equality. Through their efforts, they were able to bring about significant changes in their respective societies and inspire similar movements around the world. In the international arena, the lessons from these movements are relevant in several ways. First, they demonstrate the power of nonviolent resistance as a means of effecting change, even in the face of entrenched power structures. Second, they highlight the importance of moral and ethical appeals in mobilizing support and building coalitions. Examples of similar movements in the context of international politics include the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, which used nonviolent resistance to bring an end to apartheid, and the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia, which peacefully overthrew communist rule. These movements show that nonviolent strategies can be effective in challenging authoritarian regimes and promoting democratic values. Overall, the study of nonviolent movements provides valuable insights into the strategies and tactics that can be used to promote social and political change. By learning from these movements, we can better understand how to address conflicts and promote peace and justice in the international arena. Suggestions for Further Reading Crocker, Chester A., Fen Olser Hampson, and Pamela R. Aall, eds. 1996. Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. An edited collection of essays that covers the theory behind conflict and cooper-ation as well as policy recommendations and case studies. Falkenrath, Robert A., Robert D. Newman, and Bradley A. Thayer. 1998. America’s Achilles’ Heel: Nuclear, Biolog¬ical, and Chemical Terrorism and Covert Attack. Cam¬bridge, MA: MIT Press. Considers the threat of NBC weapons to U.S. national security and proposes a set of pol¬icy strategies to manage the threat. Gaddis, John Lewis. 1987. The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press. One of the leading historians of the cold war analyzes the “long peace,” as he terms it, writing prior to the end of U.S.-Soviet rivalry. Goldstone, Jack, Ted Robert Gurr, and Farrokh Moshiri, eds. 1991. Revolutions of the Late Twentieth Century. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. An examination of theories of revolu¬tion and how they apply to contemporary conflicts. Herring, Eric. 1998. The Arms Dynamic in World Politics. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. A good resource for under-standing the basics of international security. Jones, Rodney W., and Gregory Webb. 1998. Tracking Nu¬clear Proliferation, 1998: A Guide to Maps and Charts. New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Analyzes the most recent available data on nuclear pro¬liferation, and considers the extent of the threat posed by proliferation. Kapstein, Ethan B. 1992. The Political Economy of National Security: A Global Perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill. A well-written volume on the relationship between eco¬nomics and security, including extensive discussions of the defense industry in developed and developing nations. Kegley, Charles, ed. 1990. International Terrorism: Charac¬teristics, Causes, Controls. New York: St. Martin’s. Com¬prehensive set of essays on state- and nonstate-sponsored terrorism, its causes and effectiveness, and the means avail¬able to control it. Keller, William W. 1995. Arm in Arm: The Political Econ¬omy of the Global Arms Trade. New York: Basic Books. An examination of the contemporary international arms trade, written by a senior congressional analyst. Levite, Ariel, Bruce Jentleson, and Larry Berman, eds. 1992. Foreign Military Intervention: The Dynamics of Protracted Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press. An edited volume on military intervention in conflicts that have no short, quick resolution. Lyons, Gene Martin, and Michael Mastanduno, eds. 1995. Beyond Westphalia? State Sovereignty and International Intervention, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Based on presentations at a 1992 New Hampshire conference, this collection covers security issues includ¬ing sovereignty, humanitarian intervention, nationalism, environmental protection, human rights issues, and other dimensions. Morgenthau, Hans J., and Kenneth Thompson. 1992. Politics among Nations, Brief edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. An abridged and more accessible edition of the classic realist text on international relations. Mueller, John. 1989. Retreat From Doomsday: The Obsoles¬cence of Major War. New York: Basic Books. The author argues that the likelihood of a major war has decreased dramatically because it is obsolete or unfashionable, in the same way that personal duels and slavery are no longer con¬sidered acceptable practices. Nye, Joseph S., Jr., and Roger K. Smith. 1992. After the Storm: Lessons from the Gulf War. Lanham, MD: Uni¬versity Press of America. Members of the Aspen Strategy Group argue the lessons to be learned from the Gulf War concerning the importance of preventive diplomacy, regional balance of power, arms control, and multilateralism. Paul, T. V. ed. Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. A collection of articles that examine instances of war and conflict where deterrence and more common notions of power politics break down. Schelling, Thomas. 1966. Arms and Influence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. A modern classic on coercion and strategies of deterrence and encouragement. Thompson, Loren, ed. 1989. Low Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World. Lexington, MA: Lexington Press. Essays on the prevalence and types of low-intensity conflict, which the authors argue will be the dominant form of conflict in the future. von Clausewitz, Carl. 1976. On War. Translated and edited by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. One of the classics of war literature, in which the author famously declares that war is politics by other means. Solution Manual for Global Politics: Engaging a Complex World Mark Boyer, Natalie Hudson, Michael Butler 9780078024818, 9781259146480
