Chapter 6: Classification and Analysis of Artifacts True/False Questions 1) A stone artifact always has its origin close to where it is found by an archaeologist. Answer: False Rationale: The origin of a stone artifact may not necessarily be close to where it is found. Stone artifacts can be transported over long distances through trade, natural processes, or human migration, making their origin potentially distant from the location where they are discovered. 2) Classification is the placing of materials into categories of types that can be used for identification and comparison. Answer: True Rationale: Classification involves categorizing materials into groups or types based on shared characteristics or attributes. This process allows archaeologists to organize and compare artifacts, features, and other archaeological materials for analytical purposes. 3) Some recovered material from archaeological sites is irrelevant to our understanding of past cultural practices. Answer: False Rationale: All recovered material from archaeological sites has the potential to contribute to our understanding of past cultural practices, even if initially it may not seem directly relevant. Through careful analysis and interpretation, seemingly mundane or irrelevant artifacts can provide valuable insights into past lifeways, technologies, economies, and social organization. 4) The construction of artifact typologies is a subjective process, and different archaeologists can construct different typologies from the same artifact assemblage. Answer: True Rationale: Artifact typologies are constructed based on the interpretation of attributes or characteristics deemed important by archaeologists. Since interpretation can vary among individuals, different archaeologists may construct different typologies from the same artifact assemblage, leading to subjectivity in the process. 5) Classification or typological schemes allow archaeologists to communicate through shared terminology and nomenclature for describing and naming objects under study. Answer: True Rationale: Classification and typological schemes provide a common framework for archaeologists to describe, categorize, and name objects under study. This shared terminology facilitates communication and allows for consistency in reporting findings and comparing data among researchers. 6) The attributes relevant to the archaeologist attempting to classify artifacts always match the attributes regarded as important by the maker or user of the objects. Answer: False Rationale: The attributes relevant to the archaeologist may not always match those regarded as important by the maker or user of the objects. Archaeologists may focus on different attributes for classification based on research questions, analytical objectives, or cultural perspectives, leading to potential discrepancies between archaeological classifications and cultural meanings. 7) Artifact types regularly change over time. Answer: True Rationale: Artifact types can change over time due to technological innovations, cultural developments, environmental influences, and social changes. As societies evolve, so do their material culture, resulting in shifts in artifact types and styles. 8) Stone tools may be either ground or flaked. Answer: True Rationale: Stone tools can be manufactured through various techniques, including grinding and flaking. Grinding produces tools with a smooth or polished surface, while flaking involves the removal of flakes from a core to create sharp edges for cutting or scraping purposes. 9) The original function of an artifact is always clear to the archaeologist. Answer: False Rationale: The original function of an artifact may not always be clear to the archaeologist, especially if contextual information is limited or ambiguous. Archaeologists often rely on contextual clues, experimental replication, ethnographic analogy, and comparative analysis to infer the likely functions of artifacts. 10) It is easy to interpret sex roles and gender characteristics from artifact assemblages. Answer: False Rationale: Interpreting sex roles and gender characteristics from artifact assemblages is often complex and nuanced. While certain artifacts may be associated with gendered activities or roles, such interpretations can be speculative and influenced by cultural biases. Additionally, gender roles may not always be clearly reflected in material culture, requiring careful contextual analysis and consideration of multiple lines of evidence. 11) The process of tool stone reduction is also known as flintknapping. Answer: True Rationale: Flintknapping refers to the process of shaping stone through the removal of flakes or chips to create tools. It is a common technique used by ancient and prehistoric peoples to manufacture stone tools for various purposes. 12) Once a stone tool is completed, it can never be used for any other purpose. Answer: False Rationale: Stone tools can be repurposed or modified for different tasks, even after they are initially manufactured. People in the past often reused and reshaped stone tools based on their changing needs or circumstances, demonstrating the versatility and adaptability of these artifacts. 13) Stone artifacts are especially good for establishing site chronologies. Answer: False Rationale: While stone artifacts can provide valuable information about past technologies, behaviors, and cultural practices, they are not always ideal for establishing site chronologies. Stone artifacts often lack chronological indicators, such as diagnostic styles or decoration, making them less useful for dating archaeological sites compared to artifacts made from materials like ceramics or metals. 14) The analysis of ceramics required knowledge of both organic and inorganic materials. Answer: True Rationale: The analysis of ceramics involves examining both organic and inorganic components. Organic residues, such as food residues or tempering materials, can provide insights into past foodways, cooking practices, and trade networks. Inorganic analyses, such as petrographic analysis or X-ray fluorescence (XRF), can reveal information about ceramic composition, manufacturing techniques, and sources of raw materials. 15) Many chronologies are constructed around temporal sequences of pottery styles. Answer: True Rationale: Pottery styles and typologies are often used to establish chronological sequences in archaeological contexts. Changes in pottery styles over time, such as decorative motifs, vessel shapes, or technological innovations, can be used to create relative chronologies and cultural sequences within a region or culture area. 16) Copper and gold do not always have to be smelted before they can be worked. Answer: True Rationale: Copper and gold are both malleable metals that can be worked without smelting. Coldworking techniques, such as hammering or annealing, allow these metals to be shaped into various forms, including ornaments, tools, and jewelry, without the need for smelting and casting processes. 17) Shell artifacts are only found in coastal sites. Answer: False Rationale: While shell artifacts are commonly associated with coastal sites due to the availability of marine resources, they can also be found in inland and freshwater contexts. People in various environments, including riverine, lacustrine, and terrestrial settings, utilized shells for tools, ornaments, and ceremonial objects. 18) Baskets and ceramics can be used for many of the same functions. Answer: True Rationale: Baskets and ceramics are both versatile containers that can be used for storage, transportation, cooking, and serving purposes. While ceramics are more durable and can withstand higher temperatures, baskets offer flexibility, portability, and permeability, making them suitable for a wide range of cultural and practical functions. 19) Once people invent ceramics, they no longer use baskets. Answer: False Rationale: The invention of ceramics did not render baskets obsolete. Instead, baskets continued to be used alongside ceramics for various purposes, providing complementary functions and meeting different cultural, economic, and environmental needs. 20) It is likely that the majority of objects made and used by past people were made from perishable materials that archaeologists fail to recover. Answer: True Rationale: Perishable materials, such as wood, leather, textiles, and plant fibers, were commonly used by past societies to manufacture tools, clothing, containers, and structures. However, these organic materials are less likely to preserve in the archaeological record compared to durable materials like stone, metal, or ceramics. As a result, archaeologists often encounter biased representations of material culture, with perishable artifacts underrepresented or absent from many archaeological assemblages. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) The first step in analysis is __________. A) computing B) excavation C) residue analysis D) classification E) dating Answer: D Rationale: Classification is indeed the first step in the analysis of archaeological materials. It involves categorizing artifacts into groups based on shared characteristics or attributes, which helps in organizing and interpreting the material culture recovered from excavation. 2) In classifying artifacts, archaeologists use __________. A) both quantitative and qualitative attributes B) residue and DNA analysis C) gas chromatography/mass spectrometry D) a standardized typological scheme E) historical written records Answer: A Rationale: Archaeologists use both quantitative (measurable) and qualitative (descriptive) attributes when classifying artifacts. This approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of the artifacts' characteristics and their relationships within a typological scheme. 3) Bifaces, blades, and cores are all __________. A) features B) ceramics C) metals D) lithics E) perishables Answer: D Rationale: Bifaces, blades, and cores are all types of lithic artifacts, which are stone tools or implements made by humans through the process of lithic reduction. 4) Percussion and pressure flaking are both ways to __________. A) work bone B) produce stone tools C) smelt iron D) recycle glass E) decorate pottery Answer: B Rationale: Percussion and pressure flaking are techniques used in the production of stone tools. They involve the controlled removal of flakes or chips from a stone core to shape it into a desired tool form. 5) Terra-cottas, earthenwares, and stonewares are all examples of __________. A) porcelains B) lithics C) ceramics D) textiles E) glass Answer: C Rationale: Terra-cottas, earthenwares, and stonewares are all types of ceramics. Ceramics are objects made from clay or other inorganic materials that are hardened through firing. 6) Scratching, incising, and punching are all techniques for __________. A) preparing hides B) making stone knives C) decorating pottery D) weaving textiles E) molding glass bottles Answer: C Rationale: Scratching, incising, and punching are techniques used for decorating pottery. These methods involve creating designs or patterns on the surface of ceramic vessels. 7) __________ permitted the mass production of durable metal objects of standardized manufacture and stimulated the rise of the ancient civilizations. A) Firing B) Casting C) Smelting D) Annealing E) Forging Answer: B Rationale: Casting permitted the mass production of durable metal objects of standardized manufacture. This technological advancement played a significant role in the rise of ancient civilizations by facilitating the production of metal tools, weapons, and other goods on a large scale. 8) Smelting, casting, and forging all refer to __________. A) aspects of metallurgy B) ways to knap flint C) technologies known only to Romans D) weapon making E) ceramics Answer: A Rationale: Smelting, casting, and forging are all aspects of metallurgy, the science and technology of working with metals. Smelting involves extracting metal from ore, casting involves shaping molten metal into a desired form using molds, and forging involves shaping metal by hammering or pressing. 9) The process of iron work during the Iron Age indicates __________. A) the first example of metallurgy B) a large trade in metals and manufactured metal goods C) the first example of metals being alloyed D) a greater knowledge of chemistry E) the creation of a metal that will not oxidize Answer: D Rationale: The process of ironwork during the Iron Age indicates a greater knowledge of chemistry. Ironworking involves complex metallurgical processes, including smelting, forging, and heat treatment, which require an understanding of chemical properties and reactions. 10) The technology of glass manufacturing developed in tandem with __________. A) metallurgy B) flintknapping C) ceramics D) textiles E) increased trade between cultures Answer: A Rationale: The technology of glass manufacturing developed in tandem with metallurgy. Both glassmaking and metallurgy involve high-temperature processes and the manipulation of raw materials to produce useful objects, making them closely related technological advancements in ancient societies. 11) The primary purpose of determining the original contents of glass bottles is __________. A) to determine if the site occupants had healthy diets B) to provide insight into economic patterns and personal habits of site occupants C) to determine the origin of the glass, itself D) to determine trade routes E) to determine if the bottles had been reused over time Answer: B Rationale: Determining the original contents of glass bottles can provide insight into economic patterns and personal habits of site occupants. By analyzing residues left in the bottles, archaeologists can learn about food, beverages, or other substances consumed by ancient populations, shedding light on their diet, trade networks, and cultural practices. 12) A key characteristic of the bone flutes from the Jiahu site is that __________. A) they are made from human bones B) they each contain the same number of holes C) they are too degraded to function D) they are capable of producing multitones E) they tell us precisely how musical compositions were performed Answer: D Rationale: A key characteristic of the bone flutes from the Jiahu site is that they are capable of producing multitones. These ancient musical instruments demonstrate advanced craftsmanship and technology, as they were designed to produce complex sounds with varying pitches, suggesting a sophisticated understanding of acoustics and musical composition. 13) All of the following are perishable kinds of artifacts except __________. A) wood B) fiber C) antler D) bark E) leather Answer: C Rationale: Antler is not a perishable material. Unlike wood, fiber, bark, and leather, which can degrade over time, antler is a durable material derived from the horns of certain animals. It can be carved, shaped, and preserved for long periods, making it valuable for various cultural and technological purposes. 14) Materials woven from plant fibers or from animal hair are called __________. A) cordage B) basketry C) textiles D) hammock E) tapestries Answer: C Rationale: Materials woven from plant fibers or animal hair are called textiles. Textiles include a wide range of woven, knitted, or felted materials used for clothing, household items, and other practical or decorative purposes. 15) The greatest treasure of the Inka empire was __________. A) their cloth B) their gold C) their silver D) their ceramics E) their emerald mines Answer: A Rationale: The greatest treasure of the Inka empire was their cloth. Inka textiles were highly valued for their quality, craftsmanship, and cultural significance. They were used for clothing, ceremonial purposes, and as symbols of wealth and status. 16) Bowstrings, nooses, and snares are all examples of __________. A) coiling technique B) earthenwares C) basketry D) textiles E) cordage Answer: E Rationale: Bowstrings, nooses, and snares are all examples of cordage. Cordage refers to ropes, strings, or strands made by twisting or braiding fibers together. These items serve various practical purposes, including hunting, trapping, and toolmaking. 17) A meaningful classification of artifacts requires __________. A) use-wear analysis B) accurate records of where each item and feature was found C) geochemical sourcing D) residue analysis E) written historical records or petroglyphs Answer: B Rationale: A meaningful classification of artifacts requires accurate records of where each item and feature was found. Contextual information, such as provenance and association with other artifacts, is essential for understanding the relationships between artifacts and interpreting their cultural significance. 18) Use-wear analysis is most helpful in determining an object’s __________. A) original size B) source C) age D) cultural significance E) composition and function Answer: E Rationale: Use-wear analysis is most helpful in determining an object’s composition and function. By examining wear patterns, residues, and other traces of use, archaeologists can infer how artifacts were used and their significance within past societies. 19) Geochemical sourcing can be helpful in __________. A) reconstructing trade patterns B) determining chronology C) analyzing use wear patterns D) determining the origins of domestic plants and animals E) reconstructing the evolution of modern humans Answer: A Rationale: Geochemical sourcing can be helpful in reconstructing trade patterns. By analyzing the chemical composition of artifacts and raw materials, archaeologists can trace the origins of materials and identify potential trade networks or exchange routes between ancient societies. 20) Obsidian, jade, and turquoise are all materials that __________. A) originated near a volcanic source B) are relatively easy to source geochemically C) can be worked to a sharp edge D) are perishable in acid soils E) occur only in Inca sites Answer: B Rationale: Obsidian, jade, and turquoise are all relatively easy to source geochemically. These materials have distinctive chemical compositions that can be analyzed to determine their geological sources, aiding in the study of ancient trade routes and cultural interactions. 21) Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry are both methods used to perform __________. A) use-wear analysis B) aDNA analysis C) geochemical sourcing D) residue analysis E) carbon dating Answer: D Rationale: Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry are analytical techniques commonly used in residue analysis. They are utilized to identify and analyze organic residues left on archaeological artifacts, providing insights into past human activities, such as food consumption, medicinal practices, or craft production. 22) Protein residue analysis can detect the presence of such substances as __________. A) blood and saliva B) metals C) clothing D) inorganic dyes E) bodily oils, such as those contained in fingerprints and sweat Answer: A Rationale: Protein residue analysis can detect the presence of substances such as blood and saliva. By analyzing protein residues on artifacts, archaeologists can infer activities such as hunting, butchery, or the use of specific tools, providing valuable insights into past human behaviors and practices. 23) DNA analysis can be performed on __________. A) soft tissue only B) hard tissue only C) both soft and hard tissue D) only bodily fluids E) recently deceased remains Answer: C Rationale: DNA analysis can be performed on both soft and hard tissue. It allows archaeologists to extract genetic material from various sources such as bones, teeth, hair, or even ancient organic residues, providing information about the genetic makeup of ancient populations and their relationships with modern human populations. 24) Modern science provides the tools for archaeologists to do all of the following except __________. A) source raw materials B) identify organic residues on artifacts C) recover ancient DNA D) reconstruct ancient languages E) date iron implements Answer: D Rationale: Modern science provides archaeologists with the tools to do all of the listed tasks except reconstruct ancient languages. While scientific techniques such as residue analysis, DNA analysis, and dating methods can provide insights into past cultures and behaviors, reconstructing ancient languages typically relies on linguistic analysis and historical research rather than scientific methods. 25) Which of the following techniques would be most useful for understanding the evolution of modern humans? A) use-wear analysis B) geochemical sourcing C) residue analysis D) DNA analysis E) qualitative analysis Answer: D Rationale: DNA analysis would be most useful for understanding the evolution of modern humans. By analyzing ancient DNA extracted from archaeological remains, researchers can trace the genetic relationships between ancient human populations, reconstruct migration patterns, and understand evolutionary processes shaping human diversity over time. Short Answer Questions 1) Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative attributes, using specific examples from the text to illustrate your points. Answer: Quantitative attributes are those that can be measured or expressed numerically, providing quantitative data. For example, the weight of an artifact, the length of a bone, or the volume of a ceramic vessel are quantitative attributes. Qualitative attributes, on the other hand, are descriptive characteristics that cannot be measured numerically. For instance, the color of an artifact, the texture of a pottery sherd, or the presence of decorative motifs are qualitative attributes. In archaeological analysis, quantitative attributes allow for precise measurements and statistical analysis, while qualitative attributes provide descriptive details that contribute to the interpretation of artifacts and contexts. 2) Why are the Egyptian pyramids good examples of objects that can serve to establish chronology? Answer: The Egyptian pyramids are good examples of objects that can serve to establish chronology because they were constructed during specific historical periods that are welldocumented in ancient Egyptian history. Each pyramid corresponds to the reign of a particular pharaoh, and their construction dates can often be determined through historical records, inscriptions, and archaeological evidence. Additionally, the development of pyramid construction techniques over time reflects advancements in technology and changes in political and social contexts, providing chronological markers for ancient Egyptian civilization. 3) What sort of information was provided by the remains of the steamboat Bertrand? Answer: The remains of the steamboat Bertrand provided a wealth of information about mid19th-century life and commerce in the United States. Archaeologists recovered a wide range of artifacts from the wreckage, including household items, personal belongings, foodstuffs, and commercial goods. These artifacts offered insights into daily life, social practices, consumer behavior, and economic activities during the period. Additionally, the preservation of perishable materials such as food and clothing provided rare glimpses into material culture that are typically absent from archaeological sites. 4) Why was obsidian often traded over great distances? Answer: Obsidian was often traded over great distances because of its unique properties and utility in toolmaking. Obsidian is a natural volcanic glass that can be easily fractured to produce sharp edges, making it an ideal material for manufacturing cutting tools, projectile points, and other implements. However, obsidian sources are geographically limited, and not all regions have access to this raw material. As a result, communities lacking local obsidian sources relied on trade networks to obtain obsidian from distant regions, facilitating longdistance exchange and the circulation of goods across vast territories. 5) What are the two basic methods of manufacturing stone tools? What kinds of uses were generally characteristic of each kind of stone tool? Answer: The two basic methods of manufacturing stone tools are percussion flaking and pressure flaking. Percussion flaking involves striking a stone core with another hard object to detach flakes and create sharp edges. This method was commonly used for producing large cutting tools such as hand axes, cleavers, and bifaces, which were suitable for tasks requiring significant force and durability, such as butchering animals or woodworking. Pressure flaking, on the other hand, involves applying direct pressure to a stone edge with a pointed tool to remove smaller flakes and refine the shape of the artifact. This technique was employed for producing smaller, more delicate implements such as projectile points, knives, and scrapers, which were suitable for tasks requiring precision and fine cutting, such as hunting, hide processing, and food preparation. 6) What is the difference between percussion and pressure flaking? Answer: Percussion flaking involves striking a stone core with another hard object to detach flakes and create sharp edges. This method is suitable for producing larger cutting tools. In contrast, pressure flaking involves applying direct pressure to a stone edge with a pointed tool to remove smaller flakes and refine the shape of the artifact. This technique is employed for producing smaller, more delicate implements. 7) What sort of information can the analysis of potsherds produce? Why is that information important to archaeologists? Answer: The analysis of potsherds can provide valuable information about past societies, including cultural practices, technological innovations, trade networks, and chronological sequences. Potsherds can reveal details about pottery production techniques, vessel forms, decorative styles, and patterns of use and discard. This information is crucial for reconstructing past lifeways, understanding socio-economic interactions, and interpreting cultural change over time. 8) What is the importance of glass beads in North American archaeology? Answer: Glass beads hold significant importance in North American archaeology as they serve as indicators of trade, cultural interaction, and social complexity. The presence of glass beads in archaeological contexts suggests connections with European colonizers and Indigenous peoples, facilitating the study of colonial encounters and the impact of European material culture on Native societies. Additionally, the analysis of glass beads provides insights into indigenous bead-making traditions, technological exchange, and social identity within Native American communities. 9) Would it be wise to rely exclusively on glass artifacts to establish a site chronology? Why or why not? Answer: It would not be wise to rely exclusively on glass artifacts to establish a site chronology because glass artifacts alone may not provide sufficient chronological resolution or cultural context. While glass artifacts can offer valuable chronological markers, their production, use, and discard patterns may vary depending on factors such as trade networks, technological changes, and cultural preferences. Therefore, integrating multiple lines of evidence, including ceramics, metal objects, organic remains, and stratigraphic analysis, is essential for constructing robust chronological frameworks and interpreting the complexity of past societies. 10) What kinds of materials are especially easy to source geochemically? Why is it useful to archaeologists to know the source of materials? Answer: Materials such as obsidian, jade, and turquoise are especially easy to source geochemically due to their distinct chemical compositions and geological origins. Geochemical sourcing involves analyzing the elemental or isotopic signatures of artifacts to determine their geological provenance or the specific geological deposits from which they were derived. Knowing the source of materials is useful to archaeologists because it provides insights into past trade networks, raw material procurement strategies, technological exchange, and cultural interactions. By tracing the movement of raw materials through geochemical analysis, archaeologists can reconstruct ancient trade routes, identify resource procurement patterns, and understand the socio-economic dynamics of past societies. Essay Questions 1) How do style and function differ? How does the archaeologist use style and function in the construction of typologies? Answer: Style refers to the aesthetic or decorative elements of an artifact, whereas function refers to its intended purpose or use. Style can include features like shape, decoration, or design motifs, which may vary based on cultural preferences, technological capabilities, or individual craftsmanship. Function, on the other hand, relates to the practical utility of the artifact, such as cutting, scraping, or grinding. Archaeologists use style and function in the construction of typologies by categorizing artifacts based on shared stylistic attributes or functional similarities. Typologies help archaeologists organize artifacts into meaningful groups, allowing for comparisons across different sites or time periods. 2) What are the different types of flaked stone tools? Describe how each type is manufactured. Answer: Flaked stone tools encompass various types, including bifaces, blades, and flakes. Bifaces are large, symmetrical tools crafted from a core by removing flakes from both sides, resulting in a pointed or rounded shape suitable for cutting or chopping. Blades are elongated flakes with parallel sides and sharp edges, typically manufactured by detaching long, narrow flakes from a prepared core. Finally, flakes are smaller, irregularly shaped pieces detached from a core, often used as expedient tools for cutting, scraping, or piercing. Each type of flaked stone tool is manufactured through percussion or pressure flaking techniques, involving the controlled removal of flakes from a stone core to achieve desired shapes and cutting edges. 3) What are the major classes of perishable artifacts and how can they enhance our understanding of the past? Use examples from the text. Answer: The major classes of perishable artifacts include organic materials such as wood, bone, textile, and basketry. These artifacts can enhance our understanding of the past by providing insights into ancient technologies, subsistence strategies, social organization, and cultural practices. For example, the discovery of well-preserved wooden structures, like those found at the Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük, offers valuable information about ancient architecture, construction techniques, and domestic life. Similarly, bone tools, such as awls or needles, illuminate past craft activities, while textiles and basketry artifacts reveal details about clothing, storage methods, and artistic traditions of ancient societies. 4) Discuss the four levels of artifact analysis. Answer: Artifact analysis typically involves four levels: description, classification, typology, and interpretation. Description entails recording the physical characteristics of artifacts, including size, shape, material, and decoration. Classification involves grouping artifacts into categories based on shared attributes or similarities. Typology further organizes artifacts into typological schemes or systems, allowing for comparative analysis and chronological sequencing. Interpretation involves contextualizing artifacts within broader archaeological frameworks, drawing inferences about past human behaviors, beliefs, and socio-economic conditions based on material culture evidence. 5) Discuss the kinds of information archaeologists can get from at least three different kinds of artifacts; explain using specific examples from the text. Answer: Archaeologists can derive various types of information from artifacts such as pottery, lithics, and ceramics. Pottery sherds provide insights into ancient technology, cultural exchange, and social practices. For instance, analysis of pottery decorations and styles can reveal information about trade networks and cultural interactions, as demonstrated by the study of Mimbres pottery designs in the American Southwest. Lithic artifacts, including stone tools like projectile points or scrapers, offer clues about past subsistence strategies, hunting practices, and tool manufacturing techniques. By examining lithic assemblages, archaeologists can reconstruct past lifeways and technological innovations, as evidenced by studies of Clovis point distributions in North America. Ceramics, such as figurines or vessels, provide evidence of religious beliefs, ritual activities, and social organization. For example, analysis of Maya ceramic iconography has shed light on religious symbolism and elite patronage in ancient Mesoamerican societies. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311
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