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This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 CHAPTER 5 Inequality Based on Age CHAPTER SUMMARY Sociologists use social gerontology, the study of the social (non-physical) aspects of aging to examine issues such as ageism. Ageism refers to prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age and is a social problem that particularly stigmatizes and marginalizes older people. Age stratification refers to the inequalities, differences, segregation, or conflict between age groups. The problems it creates are most pronounced among older people, who face discrimination at work and school, retirement, changes in health status, fear of victimization, housing issues, death, and sometimes, social isolation. One functionalist perspective, disengagement theory, examines the orderly transfer of roles and statuses from one generation to the next. The symbolic interactionists’ activity theory assumes that older people who are active are happier and better adjusted than those who are less active. From a conflict perspective, class constitutes a structural barrier to older people’s access to valued resources. Feminist theorists emphasize inequalities faced by senior women: because they live longer than men, women are subject to higher rates of disability, and their incomes are lower. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 5, students should be able to: 1. Define ageism and discuss why it is considered a social problem. 2. Describe the characteristics of later maturity and old age and explain why this life stage may be problematic for some people. 3. Discuss the types of problems faced by older persons today. 4. Compare and contrast functionalist and interactionist explanations of age-based inequality. 5. Discuss conflict and feminist theories of age-based inequality. KEY TERMS ageism elderly dependency ratio hospice social gerontology CHAPTER OUTLINE I. CHARCTERISTICS OF LATER MATURITY AND OLD AGE A. To study age and social inequality, many analysts focus on social gerontology, which examines the social aspects of aging. B. Later Maturity and Old Age a. Later maturity begins in the 60s. The major changes associated with this stage are social in nature. As friends and relatives die, the peer groups of people over age 60 shrink. b. Old age is usually considered to begin in the late 60s or in the 70s. Although some people continue to work past age 70, most have left paid employment by the time they reach their 70th birthday. c. There are often biological changes such as bones becoming more porous, strength, mobility and height declining, and senses beginning to diminish. Some diseases primarily affect the elderly as well such as dementia, although most elderly people do not experience this. d. There are significant differences between the young-old (aged 65-74), the middle-old (aged 75 – 84) and the old-old (aged 85 and above). II. PROBLEMS LINKED TO BEING ELDERLY A. Ageism and Age-Based Stereotypes 1) Ageism is a social problem that particularly stigmatizes and marginalizes older people, although it can impact young people, especially teens, as well. 2) Older persons are stereotyped as slow in their thinking and movement, as living in the past and unable to change, and as cranky, sickly, and lacking in social value. 3) While ageism is common in the workplace, it is increasingly common in universities and colleges, where increased numbers of older people are engaging in post secondary opportunities. 4) While most people do not believe they engage in stereotyping older people, research by Levin and by Graham and Baker demonstrated that people consistently rate older people as less competent, intelligent and reliable. B. Workplace Discrimination 1) The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms prohibits unfair age-based employment practices, but discrimination in the workplace remain. Some employers prefer younger workers over older workers, who they believe have health problems, poor motivation, and low ability, or because they can pay younger workers less than older workers. 2) Older employees also may experience discrimination by employers who downgrade their job description, fail to promote them or grant them raises, and sometimes try to push them out of their jobs. 3) Some employers have found it more profitable to hire or keep older workers in jobs and with the end of mandatory retirement in Canada, others may do so. C. Retirement: Income Security and Leisure Activities 1) The retirement principle is the “idea that at a fixed age, regardless of mental or physical ability, a person leaves work.” 2) In the past, many people in occupations and professions faced mandatory retirement at age 65 regardless of health or desire to continue working. 3) The recession of 2008-2009 decreased the value of many people’s pensions and investments so many more people may continue to work than would have done, pre-recession. 4) Today, many people see retirement as a period of leisure, an opportunity for adaptation and reflection. For some, adapting to less income, increased dependency, and lost roles and activities is difficult. 5) Older women are typically economically worse off than men, and many women live in a state of poverty. Additionally, recent immigrants are also less well off than other Canadians. 6) Canadians generally participate in some leisure activities – either passive, physical, cognitive or social leisure and after age 65, passive and active leisure (can be a combination of cognitive, social and physical) both increase for men and women. D. Health, Illness, and Health Care 1) Studies show that many older persons do not develop disabling diseases; the vast majority is functioning quite well. Older people today are much healthier than those who reached old age in the past. 2) Improvement in the health of older persons has in part been attributed to better education (knowing what to do and not do in order to stay healthy), nutrition, and universal health care. a. Older Indigenous people do not share as excellent health as non-Indigenous people currently, however there are indications that this scenario will change in the future. 3) People age 65 and older account for about one-third of all dollars spent on health care, and some analysts predict that this figure will rise dramatically with the aging of the Canadian population. Other analysts strongly disagree. a. The problem of high health care costs may be intensified by the feminization of aging, the increasing proportion of older women, because older women, on average, have a greater likelihood of being poor and having no spouse to care for them. b. Many scholars disagree that health care costs will spiral out of control with population aging, stating that today’s seniors are healthier than others before and that everyone is using costly health care services, not just the elderly. c. The desire to paint a pessimistic picture of health costs spiralling out of control because of the higher proportion of elderly may simply be “spin” on the parts of those who wish to see health care privatized. E. Victimization 1) Although older persons are less likely to be victims of violent crime, they have a higher fear of this type of crime than persons in other age categories. 2) Older persons are more often the victims of other types of crime and are more likely to be victimized by someone they know. 3) They also often are targeted by con artists who contact them to perpetrate a scam. 4) Younger people dependent on elderly family members are more likely to exploit them. F. Family Problems and Social Isolation 1) Older persons can become socially isolated from their families. They are more likely to live apart from other family members than are younger people. a. Many older persons voluntarily live alone, but others live by themselves because they are divorced, widowed, or never married. b. Living alone is not social isolation: many older persons have a network of friends and family with whom they engage in activities. 2) An increasing number of older persons are homeless. Some have lived on the streets for many years, while others have arrived more recently after being displaced from low-income housing. a. Homeless older people typically lack nutritious food, appropriate clothing, adequate medical care, and a social support network. b. They tend to die prematurely of disease, crime victimization, accidents, and weather-related crises such as freezing to death on a park bench. G. Housing Patterns and Long-Term Care Facilities 1) Only a minority of elderly people (aged 85 plus) live in any kind of institution. In fact, older people generally are more likely than people of any other age to reside where they lived for many years and to own a home free and clear of debt. 2) Some low-income older people live in planned housing projects that are funded by federal, provincial or municipal governments or private organizations such as religious groups. a. Older persons with middle- and upper-incomes are more likely to live in retirement communities or in seniors’ residences that provides amenities such as housekeeping, dining facilities, and transportation. b. In recent years, religious organizations and for-profit corporations have developed multilevel facilities that provide services ranging from independent living to skilled nursing care at the same site. These facilities often are quite expensive. c. While most nursing home facilities are excellent, others have undergone extensive media scrutiny and public criticism for violations of regulations and harmful practices such as elder abuse and neglect. G. Death and Dying 1) In previous generations, death was a common occurrence at all stages in the life course, but today most deaths occur among older persons. 2) This causes many people to deny the aging process and the reality of death, particularly their own. 3) Many people do not fear death itself as much as the possibility of pain and suffering, loss of control, and the ways their death may affect others. 4) Age, education and religious / spiritual beliefs are important factors in how people view death and dying. 5) Three widely known frameworks for explaining how people cope with the process of dying are: a. The stage-based approach popularized by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, who proposed five stages in the dying process: denial (“not me”); anger (“why me?”); bargaining and asking for divine intervention (“yes me, but...”); depression and sense of loss; and acceptance. b. The dying trajectory focuses on the course of dying and expected time of death. A dying trajectory may be sudden (a heart attack) or slow (lung cancer), is usually shaped by the condition causing death, and has three phases: (1) the acute phase (maximum anxiety or fear); (2) the chronic phase (anxiety declines as the person confronts reality); and the terminal phase (the dying person withdraws from others). c. The task-based approach suggests that daily activities can still be enjoyed during the dying process and that fulfilling certain tasks makes the process of death easier on everyone involved. i. Physical tasks satisfy bodily needs and minimize physical distress; ii. Psychological tasks help maximize psychological security, autonomy, and richness of experience; iii. Social tasks sustain and enhance interpersonal attachments and address the social implications of dying; and iv. Spiritual tasks develop sources of spiritual energy and foster hope. 6) In recent years, greater attention has been paid to the needs of dying people and their families. a. More people are choosing to write a living will—a document stating their wishes regarding the medical circumstances under which their life should be terminated. b. The hospice movement has provided options for caring for the terminally ill. Although some hospices have facilities where care is provided, hospice is primarily a philosophy that offers holistic and continuing care to the patient and family through visiting nurses, on-call physicians, and counsellors. III. PERSPECTIVES ON AGING AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY A. The Functionalist Perspective 1) According to functionalists, both the stability of society and the normal and healthy adjustment of older persons require that they detach themselves from social roles and prepare for their eventual death. 2) Disengagement theory suggests that older people want to be released from the pressure to be productive and competitive. Disengagement also facilitates a gradual and orderly transfer of statuses and roles from one generation to the next. 3) Retirement allows younger people to move into occupational roles. Younger workers who move into vacated positions have more up-to-date training. B. The Interactionist Perspective 1) Interactionist perspectives focus on the relationship between life satisfaction and levels of activity. 2) Activity theory asserts that older people who are active are happier and better adjusted than less active older persons. From this perspective, older people shift gears in late middle age and find meaningful substitutes for previous statuses, roles, and activities. C. The Conflict Perspective 1) According to conflict theorists, aging itself is not the social problem. The problem is rooted in societal conditions that older persons face without adequate resources such as income and housing. Persons who were poor and disadvantaged in their younger years become even more so in late adulthood. 2) Under the capitalist system, many older people are set apart as a group that depends on special policies and programs. Unlike the U.S., Canada’s health program is universal, and so seniors do not have to depend on special government programs. This could change with the drive toward privatization of services. 3) Conflict analysts draw attention to how class, gender, and racialization divide older people just as they do everyone else. This perspective adds to our understanding of aging by focusing on how capitalism devalues older people, especially women. D. The Feminist Perspective 1) Feminist theorists emphasize inequalities faced by senior women. Because they live longer than men, women are subject to higher rates of disability, and their incomes are lower. 2) Feminists argue that more attention needs to be paid to women’s health issues. IV. HOW CAN AGE-BASED INEQUALITY BE REDUCED? A. Technological advances in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases associated with “old age” such as Alzheimer’s may revolutionize people’s feelings about growing older. a. Technology may bring about greater equality and freedom for older persons. Home-based computer services such as banking and shopping allow older people to conduct their daily lives without having to leave home to obtain services. b. Computerized controls on appliances and lighting and air conditioning make it possible for persons with limited mobility to control their environment. b. As baby boomers (people born between 1946 and 1964) begin to retire around 2010, there will be a shift in the elderly dependency ratio. 1) As the proportion of retired people increases, there will be fewer working people to support them. 2) Some analysts suggest that increased age-based inequality may bring about tension between the generations. However, advocates of productive aging suggest that instead of pitting young and old against each other, we should change our national policies and attitudes. Older persons should be encouraged to continue or create their own roles in society, not to “disengage” from them. This will happen, to some extent, due to the end of mandatory retirement. 3) In 2002, 3 out of 10 people were caring for an elderly relative at the same time as caring for their own children, a phenomenon called the sandwich generation. There are currently few societal supports for people in these positions. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO INEQUALITY BASED ON AGE Focus on Community Action Ask students to focus on how life satisfaction among older persons varies according to the degree of autonomy and self-esteem they are able to maintain in their later years and after retirement. Students should interview an older person (65+) about their experiences with aging and retirement. Students may wish to visit a senior citizens’ centre or adult “day care” centre and observe whether or not clients are provided with choices regarding daily activities or if their course of action is largely pre-determined by professional staff. Based on their interactions with older people, does activity theory or disengagement theory best describe or explain their experiences? Have students write a brief report on their findings. Focus on Theoretical Analysis Point out to students that there is a widespread myth that the Old Age Security system will become bankrupt in the twenty-first century if it is not changed. The retirement of large numbers of Baby Boomers will not only supposedly bankrupt the system but also leave future retirees without the benefits despite the fact that they have made contributions throughout their working years. Students should work in groups to present a proposal for keeping the system universal, based on the four main theoretical perspectives. Each group should be assigned one perspective. Their plan should include: (1) who should receive benefits (e.g., age, disability status, income level of recipients); (2) what types of goods and services should Canada provide for older persons (e.g., food, health care, transportation, living expenses, etc.); and (3) how should their proposed system be funded (e.g. who would pay for it and how?). The purpose of this assignment is to help students realize how different theoretical perspectives will approach these issues. Each group should present its proposal to the rest of the class. Members of other groups should determine what they believe are the major strengths of each group’s proposal. Then they should note the potential problems or obstacles to the proposal. After each group has presented its proposal, suggestions, strengths, and weaknesses should be compiled and examined to see issues and solutions on which the members of each group agreed and to assess those points on which they disagreed. Focus on Media Engagement Have students go to free online dating websites (such as www.plentyoffish.com) and search for people over 65 seeking partners. What are the demographics of the older people on the website? What kind of relationships are they seeking? How do they describe themselves and what characteristics are they looking for in a mate? Do their profiles differ from younger people in the website? How and why? Did they learn anything that shattered or confirmed stereotypes of aged people? Students should prepare a short report of their findings and share them in small groups. APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. Research has demonstrated that older people are sometimes stereotyped and derided when they pursue post secondary education. Why do think this occurs? What is behind some young people’s negative views of the elderly? What would you do to create positive change? Answer: Stereotyping and derision towards older people pursuing post-secondary education often stem from ingrained ageist attitudes prevalent in society. These attitudes may arise from misconceptions about older adults' capabilities, perceptions of education as primarily for the young, or fear of competition for resources and opportunities. Young people's negative views of the elderly can be influenced by societal stereotypes, lack of exposure to diverse experiences of aging, and cultural values that prioritize youthfulness and productivity. To create positive change, education and awareness campaigns are crucial, aimed at challenging ageist beliefs and highlighting the benefits of lifelong learning for individuals of all ages. Intergenerational programs that foster understanding and empathy between different age groups can help break down stereotypes and promote mutual respect. Additionally, initiatives to promote age-inclusive environments in educational institutions and workplaces, along with policies that support access to education regardless of age, can contribute to creating a more equitable and inclusive society. Encouraging positive representations of older adults in media and popular culture can also play a significant role in shifting societal perceptions towards greater acceptance and appreciation of aging. 2. How do racialization/ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, disability, and gender interact with age to create systems of privilege or oppression in Canada? Answer: In Canada, various intersecting factors such as racialization/ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, disability, gender, and age contribute to systems of privilege or oppression. Racialized and ethnic minority individuals often face discrimination in employment, housing, and social interactions, exacerbated by stereotypes and biases. This discrimination can intersect with ageism, as older racialized individuals may encounter additional barriers in accessing resources and opportunities compared to their younger counterparts. Sexual orientation intersects with age in the experiences of LGBTQ+ elders, who may face unique challenges such as limited support networks, discrimination in long-term care facilities, and financial insecurity due to historical lack of legal recognition for same-sex partnerships. Class intersects with age to create disparities in access to healthcare, housing, and education, with older individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds facing greater challenges in meeting basic needs and accessing quality services. Disability intersects with age as older individuals with disabilities encounter barriers in employment, transportation, and social participation, compounded by age-related health issues. Gender intersects with age in experiences such as ageism in the workplace, caregiver roles disproportionately falling on older women, and societal expectations regarding aging and appearance. These intersecting factors create complex systems of privilege or oppression wherein certain groups, such as affluent, able-bodied, heterosexual, cisgender individuals, are afforded more opportunities and societal advantages, while marginalized groups face intersecting forms of discrimination and disadvantage. Addressing these intersecting inequalities requires holistic approaches that recognize and dismantle systemic barriers based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, disability, gender, and age. This includes implementing anti-discrimination policies, promoting diversity and inclusion, advocating for equitable access to resources and services, and amplifying the voices and experiences of marginalized communities in policymaking and decision-making processes. 3. How has technology enhanced the life of older people in recent years? Do your grandparents and other older relatives make use of new technologies in their lives? Answer: Technology has significantly enhanced the lives of older people in recent years by providing access to various tools and resources that improve communication, health monitoring, entertainment, and overall well-being. Communication platforms such as video calling applications allow older individuals to stay connected with loved ones regardless of geographical distances, reducing feelings of isolation and loneliness. Health-related technologies, such as wearable devices and mobile apps, enable older adults to monitor vital signs, track physical activity, and manage chronic conditions more effectively, empowering them to take control of their health. Additionally, assistive technologies like smart home devices and mobility aids promote independent living by facilitating tasks such as home automation, medication reminders, and navigation. Many older relatives, including grandparents, have embraced new technologies in their lives to varying degrees. While some may be more hesitant or resistant to change, others have enthusiastically adopted technology to enhance their daily routines and stay connected with family and friends. For example, some grandparents may use smartphones or tablets to communicate via messaging apps, participate in video calls, or engage in social media to keep up with relatives' updates and share their own experiences. Others may utilize health-related apps or devices to monitor their fitness levels, track medication schedules, or even consult with healthcare professionals remotely. Overall, while there may be generational differences in technology adoption, many older individuals have recognized the benefits of incorporating modern technologies into their lives to improve quality of life and maintain social connections. 4. If you were responsible for reducing ageism, what measures would you suggest to bring about greater equality? What resources would you require to carry this out? Answer: Reducing ageism requires a multi-faceted approach involving education, advocacy, policy changes, and cultural shifts. Firstly, promoting intergenerational understanding and collaboration through initiatives like mentorship programs, community events, and educational campaigns can combat stereotypes and foster empathy across age groups. Encouraging diverse representation in media and advertising can also challenge ageist narratives and promote positive portrayals of aging. Policy interventions such as anti-discrimination laws and age-friendly workplace initiatives are crucial for protecting the rights of older individuals and ensuring equal opportunities in employment, healthcare, and other domains. Additionally, investing in programs that support lifelong learning, skill development, and employment reintegration for older adults can help combat age-related barriers in the workforce. Education and training programs aimed at reducing age bias among employers, healthcare professionals, and the general public are essential. These programs should focus on raising awareness about the contributions of older adults, debunking myths about aging, and promoting inclusive practices. Furthermore, fostering intergenerational dialogue and collaboration in communities can help break down stereotypes and build solidarity across age groups. Resources needed to carry out these measures include funding for educational campaigns, policy development and enforcement, training programs, and community initiatives. Collaboration among government agencies, non-profit organizations, businesses, and community groups is also crucial for creating comprehensive strategies to address ageism effectively. 5. What impacts are the recent recession and the end of mandatory retirement likely to have on people’s retirement plans? What plans do you have for retirement and a retirement income? Will you engage in active or passive leisure activities? Answer: The recent recession and the end of mandatory retirement are likely to have significant impacts on people's retirement plans. With economic uncertainty and market fluctuations, individuals may find it challenging to save enough for retirement, especially if they experienced job loss or reduced income during the recession. Additionally, the elimination of mandatory retirement means that individuals may need to work longer than previously anticipated to build sufficient retirement savings, especially considering increased life expectancy and the rising cost of living. As for my own retirement plans, I aim to adopt a multifaceted approach that combines savings, investments, and potentially continued part-time work. I believe in diversifying my retirement income sources to mitigate risks associated with market volatility and economic downturns. This includes contributing to retirement accounts such as 401(k)s or RRSPs, investing in stocks, bonds, and real estate, and exploring alternative income streams such as freelance work or consulting. Regarding leisure activities during retirement, I envision a mix of active and passive pursuits. While I value relaxation and downtime, I also recognize the importance of staying mentally and physically engaged. Active leisure activities like hiking, cycling, and gardening appeal to me as they promote physical health and provide opportunities for social interaction. Additionally, I plan to pursue hobbies such as reading, writing, and painting, which offer opportunities for personal growth and fulfillment. Ultimately, my retirement plans prioritize flexibility and adaptability, recognizing that unforeseen circumstances may require adjustments along the way. By maintaining a proactive approach to financial planning and embracing a balanced lifestyle in retirement, I aim to enjoy a fulfilling and sustainable post-career phase of life. 6. Why do you think older people fear violent victimization more than other age groups, despite the relative unlikelihood of their victimization? Answer: Older people may fear violent victimization more than other age groups due to a combination of factors, including heightened vulnerability, declining physical abilities, and increased awareness of mortality. As individuals age, they may become more cautious and concerned about their safety, particularly if they have experienced victimization or have seen others in their age group become victims. Additionally, media coverage and societal stereotypes often portray older adults as easy targets for crime, contributing to their fear of victimization. Moreover, older adults may feel more isolated and perceive themselves as more vulnerable due to changes in social networks and support systems. This fear can be further exacerbated by age-related cognitive decline, which may impact their ability to assess risks accurately. Despite the statistically lower likelihood of victimization compared to younger age groups, the fear of violent victimization among older adults is understandable given these complex factors and the importance of addressing these concerns through targeted support, community engagement, and education. 7. Should we have the right to decide when and how we die? What factors need to be considered with regard to the legalization of euthanasia? Answer: The question of whether individuals should have the right to decide when and how they die is complex and often intersects with ethical, moral, legal, and medical considerations. Advocates for euthanasia argue that individuals should have autonomy over their own bodies and should be able to end their suffering if they are terminally ill or experiencing unbearable pain. They argue that legalizing euthanasia can offer a compassionate and dignified end to those who are suffering. However, opponents raise concerns about the potential for abuse, coercion, and the slippery slope towards involuntary euthanasia. They argue that legalizing euthanasia could undermine the sanctity of life and the trust between patients and healthcare providers. Additionally, there are concerns about the impact on vulnerable populations, such as the elderly or disabled, who may feel pressured to end their lives prematurely due to societal stigma or lack of support. Factors that need to be carefully considered with regard to the legalization of euthanasia include establishing clear criteria and safeguards to ensure that it is only provided to competent individuals who are experiencing unbearable suffering with no prospect of improvement. This may involve rigorous medical assessments, multiple layers of approval, and provisions for counseling and support for patients and their families. Additionally, there need to be mechanisms in place to prevent abuse and ensure that individuals are making informed decisions free from coercion or undue influence. Moreover, legalizing euthanasia requires careful consideration of the broader societal and cultural implications, as attitudes towards death and dying vary widely across different communities and belief systems. It also raises questions about the role of healthcare professionals and their ethical responsibilities, as well as the availability and accessibility of palliative care and end-of-life support services. In summary, while the right to die with dignity is a deeply personal and complex issue, the legalization of euthanasia requires thoughtful consideration of ethical, legal, medical, and societal factors to ensure that it is implemented in a way that respects individual autonomy while also safeguarding against potential harms and abuses. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION Age is No Barrier—Encouraging our aging adult population to work towards optimal health through physical fitness, this lively film features a group of seniors called the "U of Agers" who meet twice a week at the University of Alberta to learn and rehearse a series of gymnastics activities. The U of Agers are just "ordinary" people trying to do "extraordinary" things and confirm that if they can do gymnastics, then others in Canada have the potential to excel at whatever inspires them. 1989. 24 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca At the End of My Days—Some older people fall between "categories"--those who are not well enough to go into residence, but are not ill enough to go into a nursing home. This film follows the slow and painful itinerary of an aged couple with diminishing capacities, both physical and mental, who are facing a complexity of problems by no means unique. 1975. 85 mins 40 s. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca Driven by Dreams—This documentary focuses on the creativity and joy of growing older, following the experiences of people aged 72 – 94. 2006. 85 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Edith and Michel—The mystery of Alzheimer's... a case of Édith survival or acceptance? Join Michel Moreau suffering from a severe case of Alzheimer`s and his wife and companion, Édith Fournier, as they navigate the many uncertainties associated with the disease. In this film, Édith gives viewers a glimpse of their severely disrupted lives while showing how their personal inner transformations enable love and life to triumph over isolation and illness. 2004. 51 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca Elder Abuse: A Multi-disciplinary Team Approach—This film examines the complexity of the circumstances surrounding cases of elder abuse. 1994. 25 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Elderly Women-- A compilation of two titles about the health care and living conditions of elderly women. A. Pills Unlimited: Why do so many elderly women believe in health dispensed from the vast supplies of the pharmacy? Is it possible to convince elderly women that they can eat well, sleep well, and maintain their zest for life, without drugs? 1996. 29 mins. B. The Power of Time: Their numbers are constantly growing... the group known as "older women." Most live at home, alone and lonely. This isolation, as well as declining physical abilities, makes women who are 65 years and over vulnerable to all kinds of abuse. Adapting to an ever-changing world is a never-ending battle. This film penetrates our mercurial world, focusing on older women of various backgrounds and cultures and how they confront the challenges of advancing age. 1996. 28 mins. National Film Board of Canada. www.nfb.ca House Calls— This film chronicles the lives and experiences of several patients of Dr. Mark Nowaczynski, a physician who makes house calls and documents these hidden senior’s lives in order to raise awareness about the lack of home care for this vulnerable and growing population. 2004. 56 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Let Me Die—This film addresses euthanasia in Canada. Can we just decide to die? Do we have that right? From society's point of view, this evokes the spectre of widespread involuntary euthanasia simply to reduce the costs of caring for the terminally ill. From a medical point of view, the question is equally controversial. Modern medicine, fighting to prolong life, views every death as a defeat. It is hard to admit that science cannot solve everything. Above all, as emergency physician and geriatrician Dr. Jean-Claude Côté asks, how can doctors objectively decide at what point to let a patient die rather than subjecting him or her to extraordinary medical intervention? 2000. 73 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Labour of Love—This film shows that if you walk through almost any neighbourhood, and behind one of those front doors you'll find a family caregiver. The numbers are staggering. Over 25 million North Americans are currently looking after elderly relatives with health problems. 1998. 44 mi. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Uncle Bob’s Hospital Visit—This Film is about Uncle Bob is getting up in years, but manages quite well, thank you. Then an unexpected illness changes everything. Suddenly he's scooped out of his safe and familiar surroundings and deposited inside the foreign and chaotic world of the hospital. Here the once self-reliant Uncle Bob becomes vulnerable and dependent. 2008. 14 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca CRITICAL READINGS Adelman, Richard C. 2009. Aging Awakenings: Assisted Living Residents Teach University Students to Overcome Ageism. CA: CreateSpace. Chappell, Neena, Lynn McDonald and Michael Stone. 2008. Aging in Contemporary Canada (2nd Edition). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Chappell, Neena L. 1999. Volunteering and Healthy Aging: What We Know. Report for Volunteer Canada, Ottawa: Manulife Financial and Health Canada. Gulette, Margaret M. 2004. Aged by Culture. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Hillier, Susan M. and Georgia M. Barrow. 2007. Aging, the Individual, and Society (8th Edition). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth. Katz, Stephen. 2000. Busy bodies: activity, aging, and the management of everyday life. Journal of Aging Studies. 14(2): 135-152. Leming, Michael R. and George E. Dickinson. 2007. Understanding Death, Dying and Bereavment (6th Edition). Boston, MA: Thomson Higher Education. Marshall, Victor W. (ed.) 1987. Aging in Canada: Social Perspectives. Second Edition. Markham, ON: Fitzhenry and Whiteside. Novak, Mark. 2006. Issues in Aging. New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon. Novak, Mark and Lori Campbell. 2006. Aging and Society: A Canadian Perspective, (5th Edition). Toronto: Thomson Nelson. CHAPTER 6 Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation CHAPTER SUMMARY Most societies have norms pertaining to sexuality. The norms are based on ideas about what forms of attraction and sexual relationships are appropriate. In many societies, people experience prejudice and discrimination, known as homophobia or biphobia, based on known or presumed sexual orientation. Recently same sex couples in Canada were granted the legal right to marry with the passage of Bill C-38 in July of 2005. Gays and lesbians have historically been discriminated against in employment, parental issues and adoption, housing and medical care. Gay males may be the group most victimized by hate crimes in some places in Canada. Interactionists focus on the process by which people come to identify themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or straight, and some sociologists suggest that sexual orientation is a master status for many people. Most functionalist analysts believe that homosexuality may be dysfunctional for society if it undermines norms and laws that preserve the family unit. From a conflict perspective, laws relating to sexual orientation and norms such as compulsory heterosexuality reflect the beliefs of dominant group members. Feminist analysts in the past focussed on the ways that heterosexuality oppressed women and more recent feminist analysis focuses on a more inclusive politics of difference perspective. Queer theorists argue that problems associated with sexual orientation are the result of a heteronormative culture, and sex, gender, and sexual orientation are merely social constructions. As social constructions, no one sexual orientation is “natural” but rather any and all are constructed politically and socially as “natural” or “unnatural”. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 6, students should be able to: 1. State the criteria sociologists use to study sexual orientation and explain how religion and law influence people’s beliefs about homosexuality, bi-sexuality and heterosexuality. 2. Discuss some of the types of discrimination that gay and lesbian people experience, particularly focussing on hate crimes. 3. Explain the difference between heterosexism and homophobia. 4. Describe what compulsory heterosexuality is and how and why it works. 5. Discuss feminist and Queer theory perspectives. 6. State how interactionists explain issues associated with sexual orientation. 7. Contrast functionalist and conflict theory perspectives on problems associated with inequality based on sexual orientation. KEY TERMS biphobia homophobia sexual orientation Compulsory heterosexuality master status heterosexism sexuality CHAPTER OUTLINE I. NATURE AND EXTENT OF INEQUALITY BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION A. Some people experience a high level of prejudice and discrimination because of their sexual orientation. 1) The terms homosexual and gay refer to males who prefer same-sex emotional sexual relationships, whereas the term lesbian refers to females who prefer same sex emotional-sexual relationships. 2) Heterosexual individuals, who prefer “opposite”-sex emotional-sexual relationships, are sometimes referred to as straight. 3) Researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1990s established three criteria for identifying people as homosexual or bisexual: (a) sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender, (b) sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender, and (c) self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or bisexual. B. The 2001 Census was the first to ask about same sex partnerships but no Census yet has asked about sexual orientation specifically. The 2001 Census found that one-half of one percent of all couples same sex status. By the 2006 Census, the number reporting same sex couple status had increased 0.1 percent from 0.5 percent to 0.6percent of all Canadian couples. C. Estimates of the population of gay and lesbian and bisexual people vary widely with some researchers claiming that at least 10 percent of the population primarily engages in same-sex relationships and an even higher percentage is bisexual, as high as 25 percent. While we do not yet ask people about their sexual orientation on the Census itself, in 2003 the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS), a Statistics Canada survey, included a question about it. The CCHS found that one percent of adults aged 18 – 59 identified themselves as gay or lesbian while a further 0.7 percent identified as bisexual. In a further 2004 General Social Survey (GSS) (also conducted by Statistics Canada), 1.5 percent of people identified as “homosexual” 94 percent identified as “heterosexual” and 6 percent did not identify their sexual orientation. D. Most societies have norms pertaining to sexuality. The norms are based on the assumption that some forms of sexual and emotional relationships are normal and appropriate while others are abnormal and inappropriate. 1) In many societies, homosexual conduct is classified as a form of deviance that may result in a person becoming a target of prejudice, discrimination, and even death. 2) Extreme prejudice directed at gay men and lesbians is known as homophobia. Homophobia and biphobia (fear and intolerance of bisexuals and bisexuality) is intensified by the ideology of compulsory heterosexuality, a belief system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes gay, lesbian, or bisexual behaviours, identities, relationships, and/or communities. 3) Elisabeth Young-Bruehl a Colombia University psychotherapist and faculty member, classified what she calls primary prejudices into three categories: obsessive, hysterical and narcissistic. She argues that homophobia alone, of all prejudices such as sexism, racism and so on, represents all three kinds of prejudice, perhaps helping to explain its persistence. II. IDEOLOGICAL BASES OF INEQUALITY BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION A. Religion and Sexual Orientation 1) Most of the world’s major religions-including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, and Hinduism-historically have regarded homosexuality as a sin. Buddhism is the only major religion that generally has not condemned same sex relationships although acceptance has varied culturally. 2) Some gay and lesbian people have sought to bring about changes in established religious denominations’ perceptions of the morality or immorality associated with gay rights issues (e.g. the Unitarian Universalist Church or the United Church of Canada); others have formed religious bodies, such as the Metropolitan Community Church, that focus on the spiritual needs of LGBT communities. B. Law and Sexual Orientation 1) Canadian citizens are more tolerant of homosexual and bisexual relations than are U.S. citizens. Over the past four plus decades, Canadians have witnessed, first, the decriminalization of sexual practices associated with same-sex relations; second, the inclusion of sexual orientation as a prohibited ground in human rights legislation; third, the enactment of federal and provincial legislation aimed at conferring rights on same-sex couples; and fourth, the legalization of same sex marriage. Currently in Canada, discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is prohibited. 2) Despite the fact that most provinces recently included provisions for same-sex couples, many advocates believed that until same-sex couples were granted the right to legally marry, they would not be viewed by society at large as legitimate and would continue to be disenfranchised from some of the financial and many of the social benefits enjoyed by heterosexual spouses. Same sex couples now have the right to legally marry in Canada with the passage of Bill C-38, marking Canada as the fourth nation in the world to allow same sex civil marriages. 3) There are critics in gay and lesbian communities who argue that the inclusion of gays and lesbians in patriarchal institutions (e.g., legal marriage, the church, the police, the military, etc.) will increase the legitimacy of these fundamentally hierarchical models and disperse the potential for more radical change. III. DISCRIMINATION BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION A. Victimization and Hate Crimes 1) Before the early 1990s, hate crimes against gays and lesbians were not acknowledged as such, even though civil rights groups had been tracking growing violence motivated by group prejudice for over a decade. Few acts of violence against gays and lesbians were ever reported in the media. 2) Hate crimes appear to be most prevalent where homophobic attitudes and behaviours are tolerated or at least overlooked. 3) In Canada, the British Columbia Hate Crimes Team reported that, of the number of hate crimes reported to police in the late 1990s, gay males were the most victimized group in Vancouver. 4) In June 2008, Statistics Canada released a study of hate-motivated crime. While one out of ten crimes was found to be motivated by homophobia, 56 percent of those were violent crimes, generally assault. This can be contrasted with racism, a motivator in six out of ten hate motivated crimes and where 38 percent are violent crimes. 5) Statistics Canada also found that youth 12 – 17 were most likely group to be accused of a hate crime, at 38 percent of all accusations. Additionally, research from Ontario demonstrates that most hate-motivated crime (95 percent) is not connected in any way with an organized hate group, despite what people may think. IV. PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY A. Interactionist Perspectives 1) In contrast to most biological and psychological perspectives, interactionist perspectives focus on heterosexual and homosexual conduct as learned behaviour and on the process by which people come to identify themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or straight. 2) Most people acquire the status of heterosexual without being consciously aware of it because heterosexuality is the established norm, and they do not have to struggle over their identity. But the same is not true of people who identify themselves as homosexual or bisexual. 3) Some sociologists suggest that sexual orientation is a master status for many gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. Master status based on sexual orientation is particularly significant when it is linked to other subordinate racialized/ethnic group statuses. For example, working-class gay Latinos are hesitant to “come out” to their families because of cultural norms pertaining to machismo (masculinity) and fear that relatives will withdraw the support that is essential for surviving at the subordinate end of race and class hierarchies in society. 4) Interactionists have identified three common themes in the process of accepting a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity: (1) people first experience identity confusion, a situation in which they feel different from other people and struggle with admitting that they are attracted to individuals of the same sex; (2) seeking out others who are openly lesbian or gay and perhaps engaging in sexual experimentation or making forays into the homosexual subculture; (3) people attempt to integrate their self-concept and acceptance of a label such as “homosexual,” “gay,” or “lesbian” by pursuing a way of life that conforms to their definition of what those labels mean. Of course, not all people go through all these stages. B. Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives 1) Functionalist Perspectives a. Functionalist perspectives focus on the relationship between social structure and sexual orientation. b. To functionalists, social norms and laws are established to preserve social institutions and maintain stability in society. c. From this perspective, many societies punish homosexual conduct because it violates the social norms established by those societies and thus undermines the stability of the societies. 2) Conflict Perspectives a. The conflict approach focuses on tensions in society and differences in interests and power among opposing groups. b. From this perspective, norms pertaining to compulsory heterosexuality reflect the beliefs of dominant group members who hold high-level positions in government, the military, and other social institutions. However, critics assert that the conflict approach fails to recognize that some persons with wealth and power are gay or lesbian yet take no action to reduce discrimination based on sexual orientation. C. Feminist and Queer Perspectives 1) Feminist scholars have argued that the fundamental theme is that the primary oppression for women is being oppressed by men as a social group, and that heterosexuality, far from being “natural,” is systematically imposed upon women through various means. This is not to suggest that men, gay men in particular, are not oppressed by heterosexism or compulsory heterosexuality, but it weighs particularly on women since men do not need female validation for their identity. 2) The main feature of Queer theory is its repudiation, theoretically, of any defining features, of any “normality” or “fixedness,” and that everything is socially constructed. a. Queer theorists view gender and sexuality as performance and refuse to rank any sex, any gender, or any mode of sexual expression above another. b. By subverting what is “natural” and “normal,” and making any and every form of sexuality acceptable, many feminists find Queer theory problematic in that it may endorse sexual violence, pornography, and other heterosexually eroticized models of sexuality as “unimportant,” “transitory,” and “provisional.” c. Also problematic is the use of the term “queer” as a means of self identification, by using it as an almost essentialist, but certainly bound or fixed, category. d. Defining oneself as queer—as “other” from a norm of heterosexuality—may have concrete consequences such as internalized and external oppression played out in depression, apathy, and violence. It may also act as a political force in giving people an identity to rally around and to connect with others through. V. HOW CAN INEQUALITIES BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION BE REDUCED? A. According to interactionists, who focus on identity, society should be more accepting of people as they come to accept their sexual identity and orientation. Various legal and social barriers should be removed in order to make the coming out process easier. B. According to functionalists, gay activists’ demands for equal rights are a problem, not a solution to the issue of sexual orientation. Most functionalists believe homosexuality to be dysfunctional for society. C. According to the conflict approach, the best way to reduce inequality based on sexual orientation is pass laws that ban all forms of discrimination against gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals and that represent barriers to their equality with heterosexuals. D. According to feminists, people need to understand their commonalities in the face of oppression and also need to be clear about their varying positions of privilege in order to form alliances across location. E. According to Queer theorists, by transgressing gender or sexuality norms (for example, through cross-dressing), people can flout the norms and demonstrate their arbitrariness and fluidity and, thereby, have an impact on changing or broadening norms and definitions. This is typically done on an individual basis, however, making collective actions difficult to organize. F. In the 21st century, gay advocacy is perhaps the most effective means of reducing homophobia and bringing about greater equality for gay men and lesbians. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO INEQUALITY BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION Focus on Community Action Have students visit a Pride Centre, LGBTTQ Centre, Safe Spaces, or another organization that seeks to end homophobia and heterosexism and interview a staff member or volunteer. They should investigate the resources available in the community for people coming out and for dealing with homophobia, biphobia, or gay bashing. What have the experiences been like for members of the LGBTTQ community? What resources are we lacking that could be useful? How can community members help to end discrimination based on sexual orientation? Have the students prepare a brief report on their findings to share with the rest of the class. Were they surprised with anything they found? Why or why not? Focus on Theoretical Analysis Have students use feminist and queer theories to analyse gay bashing and hate crimes involving sexual orientation in the media. Divide the class in to two groups, with one focusing on feminist theories and one on queer theories. Encourage each student to find news stories from their province or territory. Look at the relative status of gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people as depicted in the media. Why is violence against gay men often more prevalent and possibly more vicious than violence against lesbians? How would each perspective answer these questions? Refer to Chapter 6 for information on feminist and queer theories. Students should prepare an overview of their theoretical analysis of gay basing in the media. Next, meet as a class and compare and contrast feminist and queer theories, citing the advantages and disadvantages of each for examining issues related to LGBTTQ. Focus on Media Engagement Have students analyze television shows with gay and lesbian characters, such as Grey’s Anatomy, The L Word, or Six Feet Under, to determine how gay men and lesbians are depicted in mass media. How do societal perceptions about a social issue at a given point in time influence whether homosexuals are included in the story lines of television shows? Have there been recent boycotts by religious organizations or other groups regarding the depiction of gay men or lesbians in the media? What societal issues are taken up by the characters on in these shows? Ask students to form groups and list positive attributes and characteristics of lesbians or gay men that were brought out in the shows they watched. Then ask them to list any negative attributes or stereotypes they saw. How might the depiction of gay men and lesbians reduce stereotypes? How might it perpetuate them? Which shows depicted a more realistic (e.g. balanced, fully rounded, diverse) version of gay and lesbian characters? What can we do to encourage television networks to include a more diverse set of characters on popular television shows? APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. What do you think is the most important aspect of identifying a person’s sexual orientation: their behaviour (e.g. engaging in a homosexual sexual act); their attraction to a person (e.g. being attracted to or fantasizing about someone of the same sex); or self-identification (e.g. thinking of oneself as gay or lesbian or bisexual). Why? Answer: The most important aspect of identifying a person's sexual orientation is self-identification. While behavior and attraction are significant components, they may not always align with how an individual perceives their own sexual orientation. Self-identification respects an individual's agency and autonomy in defining their identity, acknowledging that sexual orientation is a deeply personal and subjective aspect of one's identity. Behavior and attraction can vary over time and may not fully capture the complexity of an individual's sexual orientation. Moreover, societal norms and pressures can influence behavior and expression, making self-identification the most authentic and reliable measure. By prioritizing self-identification, we validate individuals' experiences and empower them to assert their identities without external judgment or imposition. This approach promotes inclusivity and respect for diverse sexual orientations, fostering a more understanding and supportive environment for LGBTQ+ individuals. Additionally, it acknowledges the fluidity and nuance of sexual orientation, allowing individuals the space to explore and define their identities on their own terms. 2. Recently, some religious organizations have taken stands on specific issues regarding sexual orientation. Why are issues pertaining to sexual orientation of such importance to religious organizations? Is it possible to encourage acceptance for people who are different from oneself without weakening one’s own moral stance on an issue about which an individual feels strongly? Why or why not? Answer: Issues pertaining to sexual orientation are often of great importance to religious organizations due to the intersection of religious beliefs, teachings, and societal norms. Many religions have established doctrines or interpretations of sacred texts that address human sexuality, including views on homosexuality, same-sex relationships, and gender identity. For religious organizations, these issues may be deeply intertwined with questions of morality, ethics, and the nature of human relationships as understood within their faith traditions. Encouraging acceptance for people who are different from oneself without weakening one's own moral stance on a particular issue is possible but can be challenging. It requires a nuanced understanding of one's beliefs and a willingness to engage in dialogue, empathy, and respect for diverse perspectives. Individuals can maintain their moral stance while also recognizing the inherent dignity and worth of others, regardless of differences in sexual orientation or other aspects of identity. This can involve distinguishing between personal beliefs and societal or legal norms, understanding that one's moral convictions may guide personal behavior but should not dictate the rights or freedoms of others. It also requires recognizing the complexity of human experience and acknowledging that individuals may hold different beliefs or live according to different values without necessarily compromising one's own integrity. Ultimately, fostering acceptance and understanding across differences requires a commitment to empathy, compassion, and open-mindedness, as well as a recognition of the inherent dignity and humanity of all individuals, regardless of sexual orientation or other characteristics. It is possible to hold firm to one's moral convictions while also embracing diversity and advocating for equality and justice for all. 3. In what ways can we see compulsory heterosexuality in our culture? Have you been influenced by this? Have other people you now? What would Canada be like if there was no such thing as compulsory heterosexuality? Answer: Compulsory heterosexuality manifests in various aspects of culture, reinforcing the idea that heterosexuality is the norm and the only acceptable orientation. This can be observed in media representations, where heterosexual relationships are overwhelmingly depicted as the default, while LGBTQ+ identities are often marginalized or sensationalized. Educational curricula may also prioritize heterosexual perspectives and narratives, neglecting the experiences of queer individuals and perpetuating the idea that heterosexuality is inherent and universal. However, I'm programmed to understand and analyze societal dynamics, including the influence of compulsory heterosexuality. Many people, including those I interact with, have been influenced by this cultural norm, whether consciously or unconsciously. It can shape individuals' perceptions of their own identities and relationships, leading them to internalize heteronormative standards and suppress non-heterosexual desires or expressions. If there were no compulsory heterosexuality in Canada, society would likely be more inclusive, equitable, and affirming of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities. LGBTQ+ individuals would feel freer to express themselves authentically without fear of discrimination or stigma. Educational institutions, media, and other cultural institutions would actively promote LGBTQ+ representation and awareness, fostering greater acceptance and understanding among the population. Policies and laws would prioritize LGBTQ+ rights and protections, ensuring equal treatment and opportunities for all individuals regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity. Overall, eliminating compulsory heterosexuality would lead to a more vibrant and inclusive society where everyone can thrive authentically. 4. In watching television media, are shows like Six Feet Under, The L Word, Grey’s Anatomy and House challenging our stereotypes of gay, lesbian and bisexual people? If so, how? What is different about the ways LGBT people are portrayed in these shows that has not been common in tv shows previously? Answer: Television shows like "Six Feet Under," "The L Word," "Grey’s Anatomy," and "House" have indeed played a significant role in challenging stereotypes surrounding gay, lesbian, and bisexual (LGBT) individuals. These shows have depicted LGBT characters with depth, complexity, and humanity, moving beyond one-dimensional portrayals often seen in earlier television. One way these shows challenge stereotypes is by featuring LGBT characters as central figures in the narrative, rather than relegating them to secondary or token roles. By giving them complex storylines and character arcs, these shows humanize LGBT experiences, highlighting their struggles, triumphs, and relationships in a way that resonates with audiences. Moreover, these shows often explore the intersectionality of identity, acknowledging that LGBT individuals exist within diverse communities with varied backgrounds, experiences, and identities. They depict the challenges faced by LGBT individuals not just related to their sexual orientation or gender identity but also in navigating other aspects of their lives such as family dynamics, career aspirations, and societal expectations. Additionally, these shows have been instrumental in portraying the diversity within the LGBT community, showcasing characters from different racial, ethnic, socio-economic, and cultural backgrounds. This representation helps challenge the stereotype of a monolithic LGBT experience and promotes inclusivity and visibility for marginalized voices within the community. Furthermore, these shows have been pivotal in normalizing LGBT relationships, depicting them with the same depth, complexity, and authenticity as heterosexual relationships. By portraying LGBT characters in loving, supportive, and sometimes flawed relationships, these shows contribute to breaking down barriers and fostering empathy and understanding among viewers. Overall, television shows like "Six Feet Under," "The L Word," "Grey’s Anatomy," and "House" have played a crucial role in challenging stereotypes of LGBT individuals by providing nuanced, diverse, and authentic portrayals that reflect the richness and complexity of human experience. 5. What can be done to decrease victimization and hate crimes against LGBT people? Why do you think that hate motivated crimes toward LGBT people are more often violent (and more violent) that hate motivated crimes against any other people (e.g. based on religion, racialization, and so on)? Answer: To decrease victimization and hate crimes against LGBT people, several measures need to be taken. Firstly, education and awareness campaigns are crucial in combating prejudice and discrimination. Schools, workplaces, and communities should promote inclusivity and tolerance through comprehensive diversity training and anti-bullying initiatives. Legal protections must also be strengthened to ensure that LGBT individuals have equal rights and recourse against discrimination. Additionally, law enforcement agencies need to improve their response to hate crimes by enhancing training for officers and establishing clear protocols for investigating and prosecuting such offenses. Creating safe spaces and support networks for LGBT individuals can also empower them to report incidents and seek assistance when needed. As for the heightened violence in hate crimes against LGBT people compared to other marginalized groups, several factors may contribute to this trend. One reason could be the intersectionality of identities within the LGBT community, leading to compounded discrimination and vulnerability. LGBT individuals may face discrimination not only based on their sexual orientation or gender identity but also due to factors such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, amplifying the risk of violence. Moreover, societal attitudes towards LGBT people may still be influenced by deep-seated prejudices and stereotypes, leading to more extreme expressions of hate and violence. Historical marginalization and stigmatization of LGBT individuals may also contribute to a culture of intolerance, making them more susceptible to violent attacks. Addressing hate crimes against LGBT people requires a multifaceted approach that addresses systemic inequalities, promotes understanding and acceptance, and holds perpetrators accountable. By fostering a culture of empathy, respect, and equality, we can work towards creating a society where all individuals, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity, can live free from fear and discrimination. 6. What types of privileges can heterosexual individuals and/or couples enjoy and take for granted that homosexual individuals or couples cannot? Answer: Heterosexual individuals and couples often enjoy numerous privileges that may be taken for granted, but are not equally accessible to homosexual individuals or couples. These privileges span various aspects of life, including legal rights, social acceptance, and personal safety. For example, heterosexual couples typically have legal recognition of their relationships through marriage, granting them access to various benefits such as tax breaks, inheritance rights, and spousal healthcare coverage. In contrast, many homosexual couples face legal barriers to marriage or civil unions in certain jurisdictions, denying them these rights and protections. Socially, heterosexual individuals often experience greater acceptance and validation of their relationships, with societal norms and institutions traditionally centered around heterosexual partnerships. This normalization of heterosexuality can lead to greater visibility, representation, and support for heterosexual relationships in media, education, and public discourse. In contrast, homosexual individuals may encounter stigma, discrimination, and marginalization in various social contexts, including family gatherings, religious institutions, and workplace environments. Additionally, heterosexual individuals may take for granted the privilege of expressing affection or intimacy in public without fear of harassment or violence, whereas homosexual couples may face discrimination or even physical harm for doing the same. Furthermore, heterosexual individuals typically have the privilege of assuming their sexual orientation will not be a barrier to accessing housing, healthcare, or employment opportunities, whereas homosexual individuals may encounter discrimination and prejudice in these areas. Overall, the privileges enjoyed by heterosexual individuals and couples highlight the systemic inequalities and biases that persist in society, underscoring the importance of advocating for LGBTQ+ rights and fostering greater inclusivity and acceptance for all individuals regardless of sexual orientation. 7. What kinds of links can be forged between sexism, heterosexism, compulsory heterosexuality and homophobia? Answer: Sexism, heterosexism, compulsory heterosexuality, and homophobia are interconnected systems of oppression that reinforce and perpetuate each other in various ways. Sexism, rooted in patriarchal structures, perpetuates gender inequality and reinforces traditional gender roles that prescribe certain behaviors and expectations based on one's assigned gender. Heterosexism is a system that privileges heterosexuality as the norm and marginalizes non-heterosexual orientations, viewing them as deviant or abnormal. Compulsory heterosexuality refers to the societal expectation that individuals should conform to heterosexual norms, often leading to the suppression or denial of non-heterosexual identities. Homophobia, as a manifestation of both sexism and heterosexism, is the prejudice, discrimination, and fear directed towards individuals who are perceived to be gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender. It operates to maintain the heterosexual hegemony by policing and punishing those who deviate from it. Sexism contributes to homophobia by reinforcing stereotypes and expectations about gender roles and expressions, often stigmatizing individuals who do not conform to traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Similarly, heterosexism and compulsory heterosexuality work in tandem to enforce the primacy of heterosexuality, marginalizing and erasing non-heterosexual identities and relationships. This erasure contributes to the perpetuation of homophobia by denying the validity and legitimacy of non-heterosexual experiences. Overall, these systems of oppression are intertwined and mutually reinforcing, creating a hostile environment for individuals who challenge traditional gender and sexual norms. Addressing one aspect of oppression often requires addressing the others, as they are deeply interconnected and rooted in the same structures of power and inequality. Efforts to combat sexism, heterosexism, compulsory heterosexuality, and homophobia must be intersectional and comprehensive, recognizing and addressing the ways in which they intersect and compound each other's harmful effects. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FUTHER EXPLORTION Escape to Canada—This film is a tongue in cheek look at some consequences of legalizing same sex marriage and lifting the prohibition on marijuana. 2005. 81 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Forbidden Love: The Unashamed Stories of Lesbian Lives—Nine women paint a portrait of lesbian sexuality against a backdrop of tabloid headlines, book covers, and dramatizations from lesbian pulp novels. 1992. 85 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. God’s Dominion—Shepherds to the Flock—Examines the split that has developed within the United Church of Canada as a result of a 1988 vote to ordain gays and lesbians. 1993. 50 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. In Other Words—This video explores homophobic language heard in schools and other youth hangouts. 2001. 27 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Open Secrets—This provocative documentary uncovers a lost chapter in Canadian military history: how the Armed Forces dealt with homosexual behaviour among soldiers, during and after World War II. 2003. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Out: Stories of Lesbian and Gay Youth—This film examines the emotional, societal and familial issues of coming out and dealing with homophobia from the perspective of many young people across Canada. 1993. 79 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Playing Unfair: The Media Image of the Female Athlete—Coverage of women's sport and how it lags far behind men's, and focuses on female athletes' femininity and sexuality over their achievements on the court and field. While female athleticism challenges gender norms, women athletes continue to be depicted in traditional roles that reaffirm their femininity - as wives and mothers or sex objects. 2002. 30 mins. Media Education Foundation, www.mediaed.org. Solo—This video is a self-examination by Atif Siddiqi, as he searches for Mr. Right. The film celebrates on gay man’s creative journey to self-realization, with or without Mr. Perfect. 2003. 54 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. When Love is Gay—This film explores the myths about gay love. 1995. 48 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Why Thee Wed?—this colourful documentary offers diverse perspectives on what it means for gay and lesbian couples to “walk down the aisle”. 2005. 50 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. CRITICAL READINGS Ahmed, Sara. 2006. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. London, GB: Duke University Press. Baumgardner, Jennifer. 2007. Look Both Ways: Bisexual Politics. Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre. Blasius, Mark (Ed.). 2001. Sexual Identities—Queer Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Goldie, Terry (Ed.). 2001. In a Queer Country: Gay and Lesbian Studies in the Canadian Context. Vancouver, BC: Arsenal Pulp Press. Janoft, Douglas. 2005. Pink Blood: Homophobic Violence in Canada. Ontario: University of Toronto Press. Jenness, Valerie and Kendal Broad. 1997. Hate Crimes: New Social Movements and the Politics of Violence. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Kinsman, Gary. 1996. The Regulation of Desire: Homo and Hetero Sexualities. Second Edition, Revised. Montreal, PQ: Black Rose Books. Moore, Nelwyn B., J. Kenneth Davidson, and Terri D. Fisher. 2010. Speaking of Sexuality: Interdisciplinary Readings. Third Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Pascoe, C.J. 2007. Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Rathus, Spencer A., Jeffrey S. Nevid, Lois Fichner-Rathus, and Edward S. Herold. 2006. Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity (Second Canadian Edition). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Instructor Manual for Social Problems in a Diverse Society Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, Edward G. Thompson 9780205663903, 9780205718566, 9780205885756
