CH-1-2 Taking a New Look at Social Problems – Social Problems in a Diverse Society : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 CHAPTER 1 Taking a New Look at Social Problems CHAPTER SUMMARY Social problems are social conditions or patterns of behaviour that people believe warrant public concern and collective action to bring about change. An example of a social problem is violence—the use of physical force to cause pain, injury, or death, or damage to property and is relational. Social problems such as violence often involve significant discrepancies between the ideals of a society and their actual achievement. Sociologists study many types of social problems to determine their causes, effects, and possible solutions. Sociology is the academic and scholarly discipline that engages in systematic study of human society and social interactions. Using the sociological imagination, we can place seemingly personal problems into a larger context. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues through microlevel (focused on small-group relations and social interaction among individuals) and macrolevel (focused on social processes occurring at the societal level) analysis. Sociologists use four primary theoretical perspectives to examine social life and social problems: (1) the functionalist perspective; (2) the conflict perspective; (3) the interactionist perspective; and, (4) feminist perspectives. Microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to solve social problems differ considerably. At the microlevel, the interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals operate within primary groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their family, or friends. Mid-range attempts focus on secondary groups and formal organizations, looking at how they can assist individuals in overcoming problems such as drug addiction or domestic violence. Macrolevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how largescale social institutions such as the government and the media may become involved in remedying social problems. Collective behaviour, social movements, and special interest groups are among the methods people use in their attempts to reduce social problems. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to: 1. State the sociological definition of a social problem and distinguish between subjective awareness and objective reality of social problems. 2. Distinguish between microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel analyses of social life. 3. Explain the functionalist perspective on society and state how functionalist theorists believe that social problems arise. 4. Explain the conflict perspective on society and state how conflict theorists (using different approaches under this perspective) believe that social problems arise. 5. Explain the interactionist perspective on society and state how interactionists believe that social problems arise. 6. Explain feminist perspectives on society and state how feminist theorists believe that social problems arise. 7. Discuss, and distinguish between, microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to reduce or solve social problems. 8. Describe how sociological theories can be used to analyse social problems such as violence. 9. Describe the part that primary groups and secondary groups play in reducing social problems. 10. Compare and contrast grassroots groups and special interest groups, and discuss how each seeks to bring about positive social change. 11. Describe ways in which collective behaviour may be used to address a perceived social problem. 12. Identify the five major categories of social movements and note the types of social problems that each is most likely to address. KEY TERMS capitalism primary groups civil disobedience self-fulfilling prophecy collective behaviour situational approach conflict perspective social change discrimination social disorganization dominant group social movement functionalist perspective social problem grassroots groups society hate crime sociological imagination industrialization sociology interactionist perspective subordinate group lifestyle-routine activity approach theory macrolevel analysis urbanization microlevel analysis values norms violence perspective CHAPTER OUTLINE I. WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM? A. A social problem is a social condition or a pattern of behaviour that people believe warrants public concern and collective action to bring about change. B. Social conditions or patterns of behaviour such as violence become defined as social problems when they systematically disadvantage or harm a significant number of people or when they are seen as harmful by a number of “significant people” who wield power, wealth, and influence in a group or society. C. In sociology, examination of social problems primarily focuses on society. 1) Some social problems (e.g., violence and crime) are commonly viewed as conditions that affect all members of a population. 2) Other social problems (e.g., racialized discrimination and sexual harassment) may be viewed (correctly or incorrectly) as conditions that affect some members of a population more than others. D. Social problems often involve significant discrepancies between the ideals of society and their actual achievement. One example is discrimination (actions or practice of dominant group members that have harmful effects on subordinate group members), which heightens existing inequalities along class, racialization, gender, and age lines. It may be directed against subordinate group members whose sexual orientation, religion, nationality, or other characteristics are devalued by those who discriminate against them. This type of discrimination, when acted out in the form of violence, is known as a hate crime. E. Why Study Social Problems? 1) Studying social problems helps us understand the social forces that shape our lives on both the personal and societal levels. 2) We learn to take a sociological approach as opposed to a commonsense (“what everybody knows”) approach. Many commonsense notions are “myths” and may be widely and publicly accepted, even when erroneous. 3) A sociological examination of social problems also enables us to gain new insights into ourselves and to develop an awareness of the connection between our own “world” and those of other people. 4) A global perspective reveals that the lives of all people are closely intertwined, that and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem. II. THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. Sociologists use systematic research techniques and report their findings to other social scientists for consideration. Sociologists strive to be objective, although complete objectivity may not be attainable or desirable. B. According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination is the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. 1) The sociological imagination enables us to connect personal troubles to public issues. 2) Personal troubles are private problems of individuals and the networks of people with whom they associate regularly. For example, one person’s unemployment is a personal trouble facing the individual, other family members, and friends. 3) Public issues are matters beyond a person’s control that originate at the regional or national level and can be resolved only by collective action. 4) The sociological imagination helps us place seemingly personal troubles, such as being a victim of violence, into a larger social context and see how personal troubles may be related to public issues. 5) A clearer understanding of our situations may allow us to develop more effective and better preventions and interventions. C. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues in society through microlevel and macrolevel analysis. Using microlevel analysis, a sociologist might investigate how fear of unemployment affects workers and their immediate families. A macrolevel analysis might examine how globalization, and the attendant labour market restructuring, has impacted Canadian workers and their families. III. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. How Sociologists View Society 1) Sociologists develop theories and conduct research to determine how social life is organized. Theories help us interpret social reality in a distinct way by giving us a framework for organizing our observations and may allow us to describe, explain or possibly even predict social events. 2) Sociologists refer to a theoretical framework as a perspective, an overall approach or viewpoint toward some subject. B. The Functionalist Perspective 1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system composed of a number of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes to the overall stability of society. 2) These interrelated parts are social institutions (such as families, the economy, education, and the government) that a society develops to organize its main concerns and activities so that social needs are met. Each institution performs a unique function, the contribution that each part makes to the overall stability of society and the well-being of individuals. 3) Manifest and Latent Functions: Social institutions perform two different types of societal functions: manifest functions (the intended and recognized consequences of an activity or social process) and latent functions (the unintended consequences of an activity or social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants). 4) Dysfunctions and Social Disorganization: From the functionalist perspective, social problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill the functions they are supposed to perform or when dysfunctions (undesirable consequences of an activity or social process that inhibit a society’s ability to adapt or adjust) occur. a. According to functionalists, dysfunctions in social institutions create social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional values and norms that serve as the social control mechanisms that, under normal circumstances, keep people from engaging in nonconforming behaviour. Although values provide ideas about behaviour, they do not state explicitly how we should behave; norms do state explicit rules of behaviour or standards of conduct. b. Social disorganization is intensified by rapid social change that disrupts the stability of society. Early sociologists examined the relationship between social problems and industrialization and urbanization in Britain, Western Europe, and the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 5) Applying the Functionalist Perspective to Problems of Violence: Functionalists provide several explanations for violence in societies. One approach believes that violence arises from a condition of anomie, in which many individuals have a feeling of helplessness, normlessness, or alienation. Another functionalist explanation of violence is the lifestyle-routine activity approach, in which the patterns and timing of people’s daily movements and activities are the keys to understanding violent personal crimes as well as other types of crime. C. The Conflict Perspective 1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. 2) According to conflict theorists, certain groups of people are privileged while others are disadvantaged through the unjust use of political, economic, or social power. This perspective consists of a variety of related approaches that hold differing views regarding the most important form of conflict. 3) The Value Conflict Perspective: According to value conflict theorists, social problems are conditions incompatible with group values. a. Value clashes are ordinary occurrences in families, communities, and the larger society, where people commonly hold many divergent values. Although individuals may share certain core values, they do not share all values or a common culture (the knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society). b. Discrepancies between ideal (the values and beliefs people claim they hold) and real culture (the values and beliefs they actually follow) are a source of social problems in all societies. 4) Critical-Conflict Perspective: According to critical-conflict theorists, social problems arise out of major contradictions inherent in the way societies are organized. a. Some of these approaches focus on class inequalities resulting from capitalism, while others focus on inequalities based on racialization/ethnicity or gender. b. According to early German economist Karl Marx, members of the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) control the means of production (e.g., the land, tools, factories, and money for investment) and are at the top of a system of social stratification that affords them different lifestyles and life chances from the members of the working class (the proletariat), who must sell their labour power (ability to work) to capitalists. In the process, the capitalists derive excessive profit from the workers’ labour. c. Marx believed that capitalism led workers to experience increased levels of poverty and alienation, feelings of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. He predicted the workers would eventually overthrow the capitalist economic system. 5) Some critical-conflict approaches focus on racialized and gendered subordination instead of on class-based inequalities. Theorists who emphasize discrimination and inequality based on racialization or ethnicity note that many social problems are rooted in the continuing exploitation and subordination of people of colour and Indigenous people by White people and White-dominant systems. 6) Applying the Conflict Perspective to Problems of Violence: Critical conflict theorists believe that in capitalist societies the wealthy may engage in some forms of violence to further their economic interests (e.g., the abuse of police or military power to protect property) whereas people living in poverty may engage in other forms of violence as a reaction against the unjust social and economic conditions they experience daily. D. The Interactionist Perspective 1) The interactionist perspective focuses on a microlevel analysis of how people act toward one another and make sense of their daily lives, viewing society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. 2) Most interactionists study social problems by analyzing the process whereby certain behaviour is defined as a social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a significant number of people view as a major social concern. 3) A founder of the interactionist approach, German sociologist Georg Simmel, investigated the impact of industrialization and urbanization on people’s values and behaviour within small social units. He noted that rapid changes in technology and dramatic growth of cities produced new social problems by breaking up the “geometry of social life.” 4) According to Simmel, alienation is brought about by a decline in personal and emotional contacts. How people interpret subjective messages they receive from others, as well as the situations they encounter in their daily life, strongly influences their behaviour and their perceptions of what constitutes a social problem. 5) Labelling Theory and the Social Construction of Reality: Other interactionists examine how people impose meanings on others. According to sociologist Howard Becker, moral entrepreneurs are persons who use their own views of right and wrong to establish rules and label others as deviant. a. Labelling theory suggests that deviants are people who have been successfully labelled as such by others. b. It raises questions about why some individuals and types of behaviour are labelled deviant but others are not. c. According to some interaction theorists, many social problems can be linked to the social construction of reality, or the process by which people’s perception of reality and their subsequent reaction, if any, is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience. d. A related approach that some interactionists favour is the definition of the situation approach, often called the Thomas Theorum after sociologists Dorothy S. Thomas and William I. Thomas. The Thomas Theroum suggests that how people define a situation determines their reaction to it. If a situation is perceived as real, it is real in its consequences. e. Sociologist Robert Merton has suggested that when people view a situation in a certain way and act according to their perceptions, the end result may be a self-fulfilling prophecy. 6) Applying Interactionist Perspectives to Problems of Violence: a. To analyze the problem of violence, interactionists focus on social interaction, and note that human behaviour is learned through interaction. For interactionists, violence is a learned response, not an inherent characteristic. b. Interactionists also look at the types of social interactions that commonly lead to violence. The situational approach suggests that violence results from a specific interaction process, termed a “situational transaction.” c. According to interactionists, reducing violence requires changing those societal values that encourage excessive competition and violence. E. Feminist Perspectives 1) Feminist theorists begin their analysis by pointing out that mainstream sociological thought and theory is both androcentric and Eurocentric, in that most sociological theory is based on the experiences, ideas, and issues of concern for males, particularly those males of European/Western extraction. 2) There are no “feminist issues” per se since every issue is a feminist issue. When feminist theorists engage in analysis, they “gender” the issues under study by looking at the differential impacts of social phenomena for men and women, and more recently for transgendered and/or non-gendered people as well. 3) Feminist theories typically examine dynamics of power in relationships between individuals, roles, and structures. This focus on power differentials is shared with conflict and Marxist theories, but feminist theories add a focus on gendered power and patriarchy. These theories generally begin an analysis from a particular “standpoint” by examining social life from the situated vantage points of the individuals and/or groups involved. 4) A classification system that categorizes various feminist theories includes: a. theories of difference (men and women experience different realities); b. theories of inequality (women’s experiences are less privileged or are disadvantaged relative to men’s); and c. or, theories of oppression (women are actively subordinated and kept disadvantaged, both by patriarchal structures and individuals reinforcing sexist socialization and ideologies). 5) Modern-day feminist theories, if they are reflexive, turn the lenses back upon themselves. Many contemporary feminists spend a good deal of time deconstructing the theories they favour, the underlying assumptions, the exclusions, the inclusiveness, the intersections and the impacts of the analysis. 6) Applying Feminist Perspectives to Problems of Violence: a. Feminist perspectives of violence highlight issues of dominance and power, and suggest that inequalities between groups result in violence. They conclude that people who enjoy power and privilege likely commit as many acts of violence as those who are disenfranchised, and that main difference between groups is that those without power are disproportionately targeted as the perpetrators or viewed as bringing it on themselves. b. One feminist perspective suggests that violence against women is a means of reinforcing patriarchy. Gender stratification is reinforced by powerful physical, psychological, and social mechanisms of control, including force or the threat of force. Fear of violence forces women to adapt their ways of being in and navigating the social world in order to ensure they are not in a position to be victimized by men. IV. SOCIAL CHANGE AND REDUCING SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. The concept of social change is important to our discussion of reducing social problems. Social change often occurs over time. Some efforts to deal with social problems are short-term strategies, whereas others are middle-term remedies, and still others constitute long-term efforts to alleviate the root causes of a social problem. For example, efforts to alleviate individual unemployment or reduce unemployment rates in a community have a different temporal dimension than long-term efforts to change the political economy in such a manner that high levels of employment and greater wage equity are brought about throughout a nation or nations. Some discussions of social change sound idealistic or utopian; however, for most social problems, a combination of strategies will be required to reduce them (for example, unemployment would need multi-level strategies to effectively prevent it). V. MICROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. Seeking Individual Solutions to Personal Problems 1) Microlevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how individuals operate within small groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their family, or friends. In this case, most people turn to their primary groups. Primary groups include one’s family, close friends, and other peers with whom one routinely shares the more personal experiences in life (such as school- or work related peer groups). 2) According to sociologists, members of our primary groups are usually there to support us even when others are not. Consequently, many people turn first to family members and friends. For example, some analysts believe that we have many more people who are without a domicile (who are technically “homeless”) than current statistics indicate: whenever possible, homeless individuals may live with relatives or friends, many of whom may already live in overcrowded and sometimes substandard housing. When people seek such short-term solutions to personal troubles, most believe the situation will be temporary. However, problems that are widespread or embedded in the larger society may stretch into months or years without resolution. At best, individualized efforts to reduce a problem are short-term measures, which some critics refer as the “band-aid approach” because such efforts most often do not eliminate the causes of the problem. 3) Some microlevel approaches to reducing social problems focus on how individuals can do something about the problems they face. For example, a person who is unemployed or among the “working poor” because of low wages, seasonal employment, or other factors may be urged to get more education or training and work experience in order to find a “better” job and have the opportunity for upward mobility. VI. MID-RANGE ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. Groups That Help People Cope With Their Problems 1) Groups that attempt to reduce a social problem by helping individuals cope with it, or to eliminate it from their own lives, are commonplace in our society (e.g. Alcoholics Anonymous or “AA”). The basic assumption of most mid-range approaches to reducing social problems is that prevention and intervention are most effective at the personal and community levels. 2) Typically, self-help groups bring together individuals who have experienced the same problem and have the same goals- quitting the problematic behaviour. An underlying assumption of this approach is that some social problems can best be reduced by reaching one person at a time. Volunteers who have had similar problems (and believe they are on the road to overcoming them) often act as role models for newer members. 3) Mid-range approaches may bring changes in the individual’s life; however, such groups typically do not systematically address the larger structural factors (such as unemployment, work-related stress, and aggressive advertising campaigns) that may contribute to the problems. As a result, larger, societal intervention is necessary to reduce the underlying problems that contribute to individual behaviour. For example, AA typically does not lobby for more stringent laws pertaining to drunk driving or the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages. B. Grassroots Groups That Work for Community-Based Change 1) Some grassroots groups focus on bringing about a change that may reduce or eliminate a social problem in a specific community or region. From this approach, people learn how to empower themselves against local, provincial, territorial, and national government officials; corporate executives; and media figures who determine what constitutes the “news” in their area. 2) Social analysts suggest that more community dialogue is needed on social issues, and more people need to become involved in grassroots social movements. Because social movements have not become institutionalized and are outside the political mainstream, they empower outsiders by offering them an opportunity to have their voices heard. 3) Grassroots organizations and other local structures are crucial to national social movements because these movements must recruit members and gain the economic resources necessary for nationwide or global social activism. Numerous studies have shown that the local level constitutes a necessary micro foundation for larger-scale social movement activism. 4) Some social movements participate in what has been defined as counterhegemonic practice by Canadian sociologist William K. Carroll. Counterhegemonic practice refers to creating true alternatives to hegemony, although counter-hegemonic social movements need to be aware of the movement’s potential to create new injustices by defining its own issues as “the” issues. VII. MACROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. Working Through Special Interest Groups for Political Change 1) Examples of special interest groups include the Canadian Labour Congress, the Reform Party, and REAL Women. They are often referred to as pressure groups or lobbies, and may be categorized on the basis of four factors: 2) Issues. Some groups focus on single issues (such as abortion, gun control, or teaching acceptance for family diversity in Canadian schools); others focus on multiple issues (such as equal access to education, employment, and health care). 3) View of the present system of wealth and power. Some groups make radical demands that would involve the end of patriarchy, capitalism, governmental bureaucracy, or other existing power structures; others do not attack the legitimacy of the present system of wealth and power but insist on specific social reforms. 4) Beliefs about elites. Some groups want to influence elites (or incorporate movement leaders into the elite); others want to replace the existing elites with persons whom they believe share their own interests and concerns. 5) Type of Political Action. There are often many different groups, all of whom do not entirely agree on the nature or extent of the problems of proposed solutions, who may try to gain recognition from elected officials or bureaucrats for their agendas. B. Working through National Social Movements to Reduce Problems 1) Collective behavior and national social movements are significant ways in which people seek to resolve social problems. Examples of collective behavior include public demonstrations and riots. 2) Beginning with the 1919 Egyptian revolution against British occupation, an increasingly popular form of public demonstration is civil disobedience. People often seek to bring about change through actions such as sit-ins, marches, boycotts, and strikes. When people refuse to abide by a policy or law and challenge authorities to do something about it, they are demanding social change with some sense of urgency. Sometimes referred to as protest crowds, these groups engage in activities that they hope will achieve specific political goals. 3) National social movements are divided into five major categories: a. Reform movements seek to improve society by changing some specific aspect of the social structure. Environmental groups and disability rights groups are examples of groups of people who seek to bring about a change that they perceive will benefit themselves and others. Activists in reform movements typically seek to bring about change by working within the existing organizational structures of society. b. Revolutionary movements seek to bring about a total change in society. Examples include utopian groups and radical terrorists who use fear tactics to intimidate and—at least briefly—gain concessions from those with whom they disagree ideologically. Some radical terrorists may kill people in their pursuit of a society that more closely conforms to their own worldview. c. Religious movements (also referred to as expressive movements) seek to renovate or renew people through inner change. For this reason, religious movements are often linked to local and regional organizations that seek to bring about changes in the individual’s life. National religious movements often seek to persuade political officials to enact laws that will replace or eliminate what they perceive to be social problems. d. Alternative movements seek limited change in some aspects of people’s behaviour and currently include a variety of “New Age” movements which emphasize such things as the development of a new national spiritual consciousness. e. Resistance movements seek to prevent change or undo change that has already occurred. In public debates over social policies, most social movements advocating change will face resistance from the members of reactive movements that hold opposing viewpoints and want social policy to reflect their own beliefs and values. Examples of resistance movements include those which oppose same sex marriage, anti-abortion groups, such as “Operation Rescue,” which seek to close clinics which provide abortions and to recriminalize abortion; and anti-immigrant groups seeking to close Canadian borders to outsiders or to place harsher demands on immigrant workers. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING Professor Kathleen McKinney, one of the recipients of the Hans O. Mauksch Award for distinguished contributions to undergraduate sociology, is an advocate of active learning and has provided outstanding suggestions for classroom techniques to encourage students to do more than simply listen to a lecture. According to McKinney, active learning techniques are most likely to succeed when instructors prepare students in advance by providing specific objectives for the activities and explaining how using active learning techniques will benefit them. It is important to solicit student feedback afterwards in order to improve the activity in the future. Four of McKinney’s suggestions are summarized here because they are incorporated into teaching suggestions throughout this manual: 1. Think-Pair-Share: After giving students a question or problem to solve, give them a few minutes to think about the problem alone. Then have them discuss their ideas with the person sitting next to them. Finally, have student pairs share their ideas with the whole class or a larger group. This can be done in any size class, including those meeting in lecture halls with permanently fixed seating. 2. Collaborative Learning Groups: Students work in groups to fulfill a task. Each group chooses a leader and someone to take notes, and the group presents a response or a paper to the entire class. This requires flexibility in classroom space or having some other location or time when students can confer with each other. 3. Analysis or reaction to videos: Before showing a video, prepare students with questions or ideas on which to focus. After the video, ask them to answer the questions or write a review or reaction, applying sociological concepts and perspectives. Have the students present their ideas to the class. 4. Student debates: Having students prepare for and present debates on the social issues discussed in the text and in class provides an outstanding opportunity to expose them to more than one viewpoint. Students should be given advance assignments, suggested resources, and a game plan for how to approach the debates so they can take a position, gather data, and support their viewpoints. Kathleen McKinney, Sociology, Illinois State University, Normal, Il, kmckinne@ilstu.edu ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO VIOLENCE Focus on Community Action Have a class discussion about prevention and intervention strategies for reducing youth violence and gang participation in your community. Although people have initially laughed at ideas such as midnight basketball, bowling, or dances, some social analysts believe that activities such as this keep some young people out of trouble. What other types of activities and training might be useful in reducing youth-related violence in the community? Separate students in to small groups and have students investigate the current programs in place to deter youth from engaging in violence. Have these programs or initiatives been effective in their communities? Why or why not? Next, have them develop a set of suggestions for programs that might provide other opportunities for young people or activities that might help youth make better life choices. What resources would be necessary to bring such programs into being? How would the costs of these programs compare with the cost of processing people through the justice system and following up with young offenders? Each group should prepare a small report on their findings and share it with the rest of the class. Focus on Theoretical Analysis Based on Chapter One or other information you might wish to provide to students, have the class decide on a social problem (such as youth violence) they would like to analyze during the next class meeting. Set up four collaborative learning groups and determine which group will be the “experts” on each of the major theoretical perspectives. Students should bring notes to turn in to their note-taker on the following: (1) key factors involved in the theoretical perspective, (2) how that approach might explain the social problem under consideration, (3) how that approach might suggest resolving the problem, and (4) major strengths and weaknesses of the theoretical perspective as applied to that problem. Have students meet in their collaborative learning groups for about 20-30 minutes (depending on the length of your class) to compile their notes and prepare a presentation for the entire class. Then, ask group leaders to appoint other people in their group to do various aspects of the presentation, so that other members do not become dependent on the leader doing most of the group’s work and talking. Focus on Media Engagement Ask students to do a content analysis of television programs such as Saturday morning cartoons, prime-time police and hospital shows, college and professional sporting events, and Internet websites which are likely to depict violent acts. Also have students go to web sites such as Media Watch (http://www.mediawatch.com) and Media Awareness Network (www.mediaawareness.ca) to get the latest “Television and Internet Statistics” on how many hours children spend watching television and surfing the Internet and what perceptions they have about violence in media. For example, a 2005 Canadian study found this in regard to children and Internet usage: • Almost one-third of the 50 favourite Web sites listed by kids incorporate material that is violent (28 percent) or highly sexualized (32 percent). Kids in Grades 8 and 9 include these sites in their list of favourites most frequently visited. • Two sites that appear in the top four most popular sites with students in Grades 8 to 11 – Newgrounds and eBaumsworld – contain mature content. These sites also appear on the list of favourites for Grade 6 and 7 students. Students should take note of the frequency of violent acts on television programs and the Internet. As well, they should write about the gendered, racialized and class dimensions of each violent act depicted. Were they surprised with their findings? Why or why not? Have students bring their notes on what they observed on the television and Internet so they can share information with the rest of the class. APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. How can the sociological imagination help us as we deal with social problems that affect us personally? What kinds of insights might advanced sociological training provide for a person who wants to engage in problem solving in politics, government, education, the military, or other social organizations and institutions? Answer: The sociological imagination offers a powerful lens through which individuals can understand personal experiences within broader social contexts. By applying this perspective, individuals can recognize that personal troubles are often rooted in larger social issues, fostering empathy, critical thinking, and effective problem-solving skills. For example, someone facing unemployment may initially view it as a personal failure. However, through the sociological imagination, they might realize that job loss can result from broader economic forces, such as globalization or automation, impacting many individuals within society. Advanced sociological training equips individuals with analytical tools to dissect complex social problems and identify systemic causes and consequences. For instance, a sociologist studying education may uncover disparities in academic achievement linked to socioeconomic status, race, or geographic location, prompting targeted interventions to address these inequalities. In politics, understanding the sociopolitical dynamics shaping policy decisions can inform strategies for advocacy and reform. Government officials with sociological training may design more equitable policies by considering their potential impacts on diverse communities. Similarly, in the military, sociological insights can inform strategies for promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion, fostering a more inclusive and effective organizational culture. Overall, advanced sociological training empowers individuals to navigate and address social problems across various sectors by fostering a deep understanding of the interconnectedness between personal experiences and broader societal structures. This perspective is invaluable for promoting positive change and fostering more just and equitable societies. 2. Has Canada’s adoption of harsher penalties for people convicted of hate crimes had any impact for victims or perpetrators? What, if any, impacts might these penalties have had so far? Answer: Canada's adoption of harsher penalties for individuals convicted of hate crimes reflects its commitment to combating discrimination and promoting social cohesion. These penalties aim to deter hate-motivated behavior and provide justice for victims of such crimes. While it's challenging to gauge the direct impact of these penalties on victims or perpetrators, several potential effects can be considered. For victims, harsher penalties may offer a sense of validation and recognition of the harm caused by hate-motivated acts. Knowing that perpetrators face significant consequences may provide some measure of reassurance and empowerment to victims and marginalized communities affected by hate crimes. Additionally, increased penalties may encourage more victims to report incidents, leading to improved data collection and better support services for those affected. For perpetrators, harsher penalties may act as a deterrent, dissuading individuals from engaging in hate-motivated behavior due to the fear of severe legal consequences. However, the effectiveness of deterrence relies on factors such as the perceived likelihood of being caught and the severity of the punishment, which may vary. Moreover, some argue that harsh penalties alone may not address the underlying causes of hate crimes, such as prejudice and social divisions. Overall, while harsher penalties for hate crimes in Canada signal a commitment to upholding human rights and combating discrimination, their precise impact on victims and perpetrators remains complex and multifaceted. Combating hate requires a holistic approach that includes education, community engagement, and targeted interventions to address systemic inequalities and promote understanding and empathy among diverse populations. 3. Some critical-conflict theorists believe that social problems arise from the major contradictions inherent in capitalist economies. What roles does violence play in a capitalist economy? Answer: Critical-conflict theorists argue that violence is inherent in capitalist economies due to the fundamental contradictions and power imbalances they perpetuate. In capitalist systems, wealth and resources are concentrated among a minority while the majority experience economic deprivation, leading to social inequalities and tensions. Violence serves various roles within this context: 1. Repression of Dissent: Capitalist economies rely on maintaining existing power structures to preserve the interests of the elite. Violence can be used by the state or powerful corporations to suppress dissent and resistance from marginalized groups advocating for social change or challenging the status quo. 2. Labor Exploitation: Violence is often embedded in the labor relations of capitalist economies, where workers may face coercion, intimidation, or physical harm to ensure compliance with exploitative working conditions and low wages. 3. Resource Extraction: Capitalist economies frequently rely on the exploitation of natural resources, often leading to environmental degradation and conflicts over land and territory. Violence may be employed to secure control over valuable resources, particularly in regions with indigenous or vulnerable populations. 4. Global Economic Imperialism: Capitalist economies often engage in imperialistic practices, exploiting resources and labor in other countries to fuel economic growth. Military interventions, covert operations, and economic sanctions may be used to maintain dominance and secure access to markets and resources. 5. Criminalization of Poverty: In capitalist societies, poverty and economic marginalization are often criminalized, leading to increased surveillance, policing, and incarceration of disadvantaged populations. Violence is used as a tool of social control to manage and discipline marginalized communities. 6. Financial Speculation and Crisis: Speculative practices within capitalist financial systems can lead to economic instability and crises, resulting in widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. While this violence may not be overtly physical, its impact on people's livelihoods and well-being is profound. In summary, violence plays a multifaceted role in capitalist economies, serving to maintain power dynamics, exploit labor and resources, suppress dissent, and perpetuate social inequalities. Critical-conflict theorists argue that addressing these structural injustices requires challenging the underlying contradictions of capitalism and advocating for alternative economic systems based on principles of equity, solidarity, and social justice. 4. How might labelling theory work with the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy to increase or decrease the life chances of a youth who is suspected of committing a deviant act? Answer: Labelling theory suggests that societal reactions to individuals, particularly through the assignment of labels such as "deviant" or "criminal," can significantly influence their behavior and life outcomes. When applied to a youth suspected of committing a deviant act, labelling theory posits that the response of authorities, peers, and institutions can shape the trajectory of the youth's life. If the youth is labelled as deviant or delinquent, they may internalize this identity, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where they conform to societal expectations of deviance. For example, if a school labels a student as a troublemaker, teachers may treat them differently, leading to increased alienation and further deviant behavior. Conversely, if the youth is not labelled or is provided with positive support and interventions, they may be less likely to engage in further deviant acts. By avoiding stigmatizing labels and offering opportunities for rehabilitation and support, society can decrease the likelihood of the self-fulfilling prophecy effect taking hold. Furthermore, labelling theory suggests that once a youth is labelled as deviant, they may face increased scrutiny and limited opportunities in education, employment, and social interactions. This can decrease their life chances by reinforcing stereotypes and hindering their ability to achieve positive outcomes. To increase the life chances of a youth suspected of committing a deviant act, interventions should focus on avoiding stigmatizing labels, providing support and opportunities for rehabilitation, and addressing the underlying social, economic, and psychological factors contributing to their behavior. By challenging negative stereotypes and offering pathways to success, society can help mitigate the impact of labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy, ultimately improving the youth's prospects for the future. 5. Some feminist theorists suggest that the use of violence against women is one way that men use to maintain and reinforce patriarchal oppression throughout society. Construct arguments that support and/or refute this position. Answer: Supporting Argument: Feminist theorists argue that violence against women serves as a tool for maintaining patriarchal oppression in several ways. Firstly, it reinforces power dynamics by physically subjugating women, thereby asserting male dominance and control over their bodies and lives. Secondly, violence is used to enforce traditional gender roles and norms, punishing women who defy expectations or seek autonomy. Additionally, the threat of violence serves to intimidate women into compliance, limiting their freedom and agency within relationships and society. Furthermore, the normalization of violence against women perpetuates a culture of misogyny and sexism, where women are dehumanized and treated as inferior beings. Ultimately, by instilling fear and insecurity, violence against women sustains patriarchal structures and perpetuates inequality in all spheres of life. Refuting Argument: While violence against women is undoubtedly a pervasive issue, attributing it solely to the desire to maintain patriarchal oppression oversimplifies a complex phenomenon. Violence can stem from various factors, including individual pathology, relationship dynamics, and societal attitudes towards gender. Not all men perpetrate violence against women, and not all instances of violence can be neatly explained by patriarchal motives. Additionally, focusing solely on men as perpetrators overlooks the experiences of women who may also engage in violence, albeit less frequently. Moreover, framing violence against women as solely a tool of patriarchal oppression may overlook other forms of violence, such as intra-familial violence or violence against LGBTQ+ individuals, which are not always rooted in gender-based power imbalances. While acknowledging the role of patriarchy in shaping social norms and attitudes towards gender, it's essential to consider the intersecting factors that contribute to violence against women to develop effective strategies for prevention and intervention. 6. Suppose that you were given the economic resources and political clout to reduce a major social problem. Which problem would you choose? What steps would you take to alleviate the problem? How would you measure your success or failure in reducing or eliminating the problem? Answer: If I were granted the economic resources and political clout to address a major social problem, I would focus on alleviating poverty and income inequality. Poverty is a multifaceted issue that intersects with various social problems, including inadequate access to education, healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities. To tackle this problem effectively, I would implement a comprehensive strategy that addresses both the structural and systemic root causes of poverty and inequality. Firstly, I would invest in education and skill development programs to empower individuals with the tools and resources needed to secure stable and well-paying jobs. This would include initiatives such as free or subsidized education, vocational training, and adult education programs tailored to the needs of marginalized communities. Secondly, I would prioritize healthcare reforms aimed at ensuring universal access to affordable healthcare services, including preventive care, mental health support, and substance abuse treatment. Healthy individuals are better equipped to participate in the workforce and contribute to economic growth. Thirdly, I would implement policies to address housing affordability and homelessness, such as increasing the availability of affordable housing units, implementing rent control measures, and providing supportive housing for vulnerable populations. Additionally, I would advocate for fair labor practices, including living wages, worker protections, and opportunities for collective bargaining, to ensure that all workers can earn a decent income and support themselves and their families. To measure success in reducing poverty and income inequality, I would use a combination of qualitative and quantitative indicators, including poverty rates, income distribution, access to basic needs such as food and shelter, educational attainment, healthcare outcomes, and social mobility. By tracking progress against these metrics over time, I would be able to assess the effectiveness of interventions and adjust strategies as needed to achieve meaningful and sustainable change. Ultimately, success would be measured by the extent to which individuals and communities are able to escape the cycle of poverty and achieve a decent standard of living and well-being. 7. Do governments at all levels in Canada listen to their constituents about social issues? What evidence can you find to support that they do or do not? Why is the situation the way it is? Answer: In Canada, governments at all levels do listen to their constituents about social issues to varying degrees. There is evidence to support both that they do and do not effectively listen to their constituents. On one hand, governments often engage in public consultations, town hall meetings, and other forms of public engagement to gather feedback and input from citizens on social issues. They may also establish advisory committees or task forces composed of community representatives to provide recommendations on policy matters. However, there are also instances where governments may appear to ignore or prioritize certain voices over others, particularly marginalized or underrepresented groups. This can lead to feelings of disenfranchisement and distrust in the political process. Additionally, the influence of special interest groups, corporate lobbyists, and political donors may sometimes overshadow the concerns of ordinary citizens, undermining democratic principles of representation and accountability. The situation is influenced by various factors, including political dynamics, institutional structures, and socio-economic disparities. Political parties may prioritize their own agendas or electoral interests over the needs of constituents, especially in highly polarized or competitive environments. Institutional barriers, such as bureaucratic red tape or party discipline, may also hinder meaningful engagement with the public. Moreover, power imbalances rooted in social inequalities, such as race, class, and gender, can marginalize certain voices and limit their ability to influence policy decisions. Efforts to improve government responsiveness to social issues require fostering a culture of transparency, accountability, and inclusive decision-making. This involves strengthening mechanisms for public participation, enhancing representation of diverse voices in decision-making processes, and addressing systemic barriers to access and influence. Ultimately, building trust between citizens and governments is essential for promoting democratic governance and addressing the complex social challenges facing Canadian society. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION African Canadian Issues Collection—This 5-part collection of NFB titles illustrates that there is a life beyond the streets for inner city youth. A gritty focus on the serious problems of poverty, drug abuse, violence and street gangs. 2006. Varying clip lengths. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Charting New Waters: Responding to Violence against Women with Disabilities—This is a video and a study guide about violence against women with disabilities. 1996. 38 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Cheating Death —This documentary tells the story of a young Toronto man and the little understood world of guns, gangs and drugs. 2004. 24 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century—The four films in Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century provide teachers with tools to engage students to search for a “culture of peace” in our homes, schools, neighbourhoods and global communities. 2002. 100 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Exiles in Lotusland—This video is gritty look a the life of Canadian youth living on the edge, suicide and “street kid” culture. 2005. 71 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. It’s a Girl’s World—This film looks at bullying and social power in a clique of 10 year old girls. 2004. 54 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Kids in Jail—This partially animated documentary shares the experiences of several incarcerated youths as they reflect upon their lives, on what led to incarceration and on their futures. 2008. 57 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Still Longshots —This documentary follows four “at-risk” young people through a weekend long video making workshop. 2007. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. The Line— A young woman is raped when a one-night stand far from home goes terribly wrong. In the aftermath, as she struggles to make sense of what happened, she decides to make a film about the relationship between her own experience and the tangle of political, legal, and cultural questions that surround issues of sex and consent. 2010. 24 mins. Media Education Foundation, www.mediaed.org. Tough Guise: Violence, Media, & the Crisis in Masculinity—While the social construction of femininity has been widely examined, the dominant role of masculinity has until recently remained largely invisible. Tough Guise is the first educational video geared toward systematically examining the relationship between pop-cultural imagery and the social construction of masculine identities in the U.S. at the dawn of the 21st century. 1999. 82 mins. Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org. CRITICAL READINGS Agnew, Vijay (Ed.). 2009. Racialized Migrant Women in Canada: Essays on Health, Violence, and Equity. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Blyth, Maggie and Enver Solomon (Eds.). 2009. Prevention and Youth Crime: Is Early Intervention Working? Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Carroll, William K. (Ed.). 1997. Organizing Dissent: Contemporary Social Movements in Theory and Practice. Toronto, ON: Garamond Press. Jiwani, Yasmin. 2006. Discourses of Denial: Mediations of Race, Gender and Violence. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Johnson, Allan G. 1991. The Forest for the Trees: An Introduction to Sociological Thinking. Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Kutner, Lawrence. 2008. Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth about Video Games and What Parents Can Do. Toronto, ON: Simon and Schuster. Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Minaker, Joanne C. and Bryn Hogeveen. 2009. Youth, Crime and Society: Issues of power and Justice. Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall. Schneider, Steven. 2009. Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada. Mississauga, ON: J. Wiley and Sons Canada. Totten, Mark D. 2001. Guys, Gangs, and Girlfriend Abuse. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press Ltd. CHAPTER 2 Poverty in the Canadian Context CHAPTER SUMMARY Canadians believe they live in a meritocracy, where success is possible for anyone who works hard enough. Many Canadians, along with more than 1.3 billion people worldwide live in absolute poverty today, a life threatening condition. In fact, more than 600 million people globally suffer from chronic malnutrition, an estimated 40 million of which die each year from hunger-related conditions. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources. Stratification in Canada—which is based on the class system—is linked with global systems of stratification that affect people’s life chances. A person’s position in a class system is determined by the wealth, power, and prestige that the person has. Stratification also exists on a global basis. Among the aspects of the Canadian class system that sociologists study are the classes themselves and the unequal distribution of people—by age, racialization/ethnicity, gender, and household composition— across those class divisions. Sociologists also study the consequences of living in poverty, including poor health and nutrition, housing, and education. Explanations for poverty include individualistic, cultural, and structural. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 2, students should be able to: 1. Analyse poverty in Canada within a global context. 2. Understand wealth and income inequalities, with particular emphasis on understanding the situations of the lower classes in Canada. 3. Describe the situation of poverty in Canada, and be able to differentiate between relative and absolute poverty. 4. Discuss the consequences of poverty for people in Canada with regard to health, nutrition and housing. 5. Critically analyse how Canada deals with poverty. 6. Explain the system of social welfare in Canada and demonstrate how neoliberal policies have impacted the Canadian welfare state since the 1970s. 7. State the individual, cultural, and structural explanations of poverty, and explain why sociologists prefer structural explanations. 8. Discuss various ways that poverty can be reduced in Canada including being able to critically examine proposed poverty reduction strategies. KEY TERMS absolute poverty life chances relative poverty blaming the victim meritocracy social stratification cultural capital poverty rate wealth feminization of poverty power welfare state income prestige CHAPTER OUTLINE I. POVERTY IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE A. Canadians view themselves as living in a meritocracy. But do all people in this nations and other part of the world really have an equal opportunity for success? What kinds of inequalities exist in the Canadian and worldwide class system today? Sociologists study inequality and poverty in a class system. A primary characteristic of the class system is social mobility, the upward or downward movement in the class structure that occurs during a person’s lifetime and from one generation to another. B. Comparisons between nations reflect the growing gap between the rich and the poor, both within and among nations. C. Disparity in life chances between high-income and low-income nations also is apparent. 1) Today, more than 1.3 billion people live in absolute poverty, which is often life threatening, as when people suffer from chronic malnutrition or die from hunger related diseases. 2) Over 600 million people suffer from chronic malnutrition; 40 million annually die from hunger-related diseases. II. ANALYZING INEQUALITY IN CANADA A. One of this country’s most persistent social problems is that Canada has a high degree of social stratification. Today, the gap between the rich and the poor in this nation is wider than it has been for decades. Throughout the world, the wealthiest and poorest people are living in increasingly separate worlds. The widening gap between rich and poor has a dramatic impact on everyone’s life chances. As one might predict, affluent people typically have better life chances than the less affluent. B. Most contemporary research on class is influenced by the theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber, and more recently by modifications to these theories by sociologists like Erik Olin Wright. 1) Marx’s means of production model: capitalist societies are divided into two classes—the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) that owns the means of production and the working-class (proletariat) that sells its labour power to the capitalists. According to Marx, inequality and poverty inevitably result from the exploitation of the workers. 2) Weber’s multidimensional model: economic factors are important in determining class location and studying social inequality, but other factors also are important. The model focuses on the interplay of wealth, power, and prestige as determinants of people’s class position. 3) Wright modified Marx’s and Weber’s models so that placement in the class structure is based on four criteria (1) ownership of the means of production (capitalist class); (2) employing others (managerial class); (3) supervising others on the job (small business class); and (4) being employed by someone else (working class). C. Wealth and Income Inequality 1) The richest Canadian in 2009, Kenneth J. Thomson, has a net worth of $13 billion (USD) or approximately $15 billion dollars, Canadian. The vast majority of Canadians will never amass even a fraction of this type of wealth, however even billionaires lose money – in 2009 the average net worth of billionaires worldwide was down 23%. 2) The face of poverty is increasingly diverse with regard to family type, as more Canadians experience layoffs, lack of real wage gains, and reduced work hours. 3) Wealth is a particularly important indicator of individual and family access to life chances. 4) Income is extremely unevenly divided in Canada. The gap between the richest and poorest Canadian households continues to widen. In 2003, the highest quintile had 46.5% of all the income while the lowest quintile had 4.3%. D. The Canadian Lower Classes 1) The lower class in Canada makes up about 20% of the population. It is comprised of the working poor and the chronically poor. 2) The working poor comprise those who work full-time in positions such as unskilled labour, seasonal or migrant agricultural jobs, or the lowest-paid service sector jobs, but still remain at the edge of poverty. 3) Although the poor constitute between 11 and 16 percent of the Canadian population, depending on the measures used, they receive only about 5 percent of the overall Canadian income. 4) Minimum wages in Canada do not function to keep Canadians out of poverty any more, even if people work full time, full year. 5) Overrepresented in these lower classes are people who are unable to work because of age or disability and lone-parent female head of households, along with their dependent children. III. POVERTY IN CANADA A. The fact that Canada is such a wealthy nation, but one in which such a high proportion of the population lives in low income and poverty situations, has made Canada the target of international criticism, particularly by the United Nations. B. There are between 150,000 and 300,000 homeless people living in Canada, including the new poor, families, women, new Canadians, children and students. C. People living in poverty face two critical issues –housing insecurity and food insecurity. There is a dearth of affordable housing in Canada. People must often chose between a roof over their heads or food in their bellies. Further, being employed does not prevent people from needing to access food banks: in 2008, 14.5% of people who accessed increasing numbers of Canadian food banks were employed. Food banks feed an average of 700,000 Canadians, approximately 40% of whom are children, each month. D. While the past decade demonstrated strong economic growth (prior to the recent recession), governments continued to make severe cuts to social programs. E. Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty and relative poverty. Canada has a high poverty rate compared with other advanced industrial nations. The number of families who live below the unofficial poverty (LICO) line in Canada increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s, although since 1996, the numbers have dropped marginally each year, signifying better overall economic conditions in the late 1990s and into the 2000s for some groups of people (prior to the most recent recession). F. The Canadian Poverty Line: LICOs 1) Though there is no established formal “poverty line,” the Canadian government, through Statistics Canada, has established a low-income cut-off line that is commonly used to measure poverty in Canada. 2) A Low Income Cut-Off (LICO) line allows us to see how many people in Canada spend significantly more than the average on the necessities of life, as well as seeing how low below the cut-off some people live. 3) LICOs are not measures of poverty, although they are typically used as such, as they do indicate relative circumstances for citizens. 4) The lack of a formal governmental measure of poverty suggests that the Canadian government does not wish to officially recognize that poverty is a significant and ongoing issue in Canada. G. Consequences of Poverty 1) Health and Nutrition a. Good nutrition, which is essential to good health, depends on the food purchased, and when people are poor, they are more likely to purchase cheap but filling foods that may not meet all daily nutritional requirements. Poor children are especially at risk. b. Increasing numbers of people annually are relying on food banks to meet their needs. Approximately 40 percent of food bank users are children. c. Rural food banks serve more children and seniors than urban food banks do and rural food banks make up nearly one half of the nation’s food banks. d. The nutritional content of food bank hampers is dubious and at best, provides only five days food. Most food banks only allow once per month access to a hamper. e. Nutritional analysis of the food bank hamper contents demonstrates that donated goods do not meet basic nutritional requirements. Unsurprisingly, 40% of children living in poverty consume significantly less than the recommended guidelines for caloric and nutritional intake. 2) Housing a. Many regions of Canada lack affordable housing and has reached crisis proportions. The problem is even greater for individuals and families living in poverty because the number of low-cost housing units is decreasing and being replaced by expensive condominiums through a process of “gentrification.” b. When low-income housing is available, it may be located in high-density, often over-crowded areas. The housing often has inadequate heating/plumbing facilities, insect and rodent infestation, and dangerous structural problems due to faulty construction or lack of adequate maintenance. c. 24% of Canadians in 2001 and 30% of food bank users in 2001 spent more than 30% of their gross income on shelter, a situation that puts them at risk for homelessness. d. In recent years, increasing rates of homelessness reflect one of the most devastating effects of poverty. The composition of the homeless population has shifted to include many more families, young children, youth, and elderly. At least one-third of de-housed people in Canada today are families and one-third are youth, aged 16-24. One of every seven shelter users in Canada is a child. H. How Canada Deals with Poverty 1) In Canada, as part of an overall retrenchment of government programs and services, structural poverty is dealt with as though it is an individual problem. Rather than examine ways of eliminating poverty or dealing with poverty at a societal level, we offer temporary assistance, not through our governments, but through charity--both through individual charity and through charitable organizations. 2) Canada had zero food banks in 1980 and today has thousands – a clear measure of welfare state retrenchment. 3) Despite overall economic growth in the 1990s, poverty did not decrease on par. Further, the current recession has significantly and negatively impacted those most vulnerable. We continue to temporarily fund shelters and food banks as though the problems associated with poverty in our nation were fleeting. State welfare programs, such as Employment Insurance (EI) and Social Assistance, continue to be retrenched, resulting in heightened risks of poverty for income insecure individuals. IV. SOCIAL WELFARE IN CANADA A. Canada, like many other advanced capitalist nations, is a welfare state. Most benefits of the Canadian welfare state are taken for granted by most Canadians. Under the mantle of the welfare state come all our social programs, such as universal health care, education, pension plans, worker’s compensation, minimum wage, employment standards, environmental regulations, health and safety standards, social or income assistance, and child tax benefits, to name a few. B. The modern welfare state, or Keynesian welfare state, came into existence in Canada following World War II. One of the unintended, but useful, consequences of the welfare state has been to ameliorate the worst contradictions created by capitalism’s normal “ebb and flow” cycle. C. In the early 1970s, capitalism shifted from a national to an international economic system; in short, capitalism became global. Capitalist enterprises were no longer reliant on the purchasing power of any particular nation-state when a whole world was now the market. Under various trade agreements, capitalists sought to level or “harmonize” social and economic policies between nations so as to facilitate easier, and more profitable, trade. V. PERSPECTIVES ON POVERTY AND CLASS INEQUALITY A. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 1) Symbolic interactionists examine poverty from the perspective of meanings, definitions, and labels. Workfare programs for social assistance recipients are based on individualistic explanations for poverty. Most sociologists, however, feel that individual explanations of poverty amount to blaming the victim. 2) Symbolic interactionists are also interested in what it means to people to be poor and the impact of stigma on people’s self-concepts. Some researchers have focused on how cultural background affects people’s values and behaviour. a. According to the much criticized “culture of poverty” thesis, some, but not all, poor people develop a self-perpetuating system of beliefs and values (e.g., inability to defer gratification or plan for the future, feelings of apathy, hostility, and suspicion, and deficient speech/ communication patterns) that keeps them poor. This thesis has been critiqued as paternalistic, based on stereotypes, and simply incorrect. b. More recent cultural explanations of poverty have focused on the lack of cultural capital: low-income people do not have adequate cultural capital to function in a competitive global economy. This approach has been critiqued as victim blaming. B. The Structural Functionalist Perspective: Structural explanations for poverty focus on the macrolevel organization of society that an individual alone cannot change. 1) According to functionalists, social inequality serves an important function in society because it motivates people to work hard to acquire scarce resources, but changes in the economy have dramatically altered employment opportunities. 2) Functionalists also assert that it is functional to maintain a pool of more desperate workers in order to fill the occupations that no one wants to do. Though this may be “functional” for some perhaps, it is likely problematic for those who are forced to work in unfavourable conditions for low wages. 3) Poverty as an industry may be seen as functional for those who work within it (e.g. financial assistance workers). C. The Conflict Perspective 1) Conflict theorists suggest that poverty is a side effect of capitalism. Corporate downsizing and new technologies have enhanced capitalists’ profits and contributed to the impoverishment of middle- and low-income workers by creating a reserve army of unemployed people whom the capitalists use as a source of cheap labour and a means to keep other workers’ wages low. 2) Corporations’ (shareholders) intense quest for profit results in low wages for workers, a wide disparity in the life chances of affluent people and poor people, and the unemployment and impoverishment of many people. Conflict between the capitalists and the workers has, in part, been ameliorated in past decades by welfare state programs like EI or social assistance. D. Feminist Perspectives 1) Many feminist perspectives on poverty or class inequality focus on the gendered character of stratification and poverty. Most of the people living in poverty are women and children. This is known as the “feminization of poverty.” 2) In the foundational work for socialist feminism, Engels theorized that the fact of private property was at the heart of patriarchy. Where private property is important (in capitalism), ensuring “legitimate” offspring to inherit this property is vital. In order to ensure a man’s children were his own, monogamy and the subjugation of women became necessary. For Engels, this was “the world-historical defeat of women.” Some critique this analysis for being too deterministic. 3) More recently, instead of seeing women and men as oppositional classes, scholars have analyzed the variety of ways that gender, racialization, and class intersect within a capitalist economic system, recognizing the complexities in an analysis of who is poor and who is wealthy, who is an oppressor and who is oppressed. VI. HOW CAN POVERTY BE REDUCED? 1) Analysts who focus on individual causes for poverty typically suggest that lowincome and poverty-level people should change their attitudes, beliefs, and work habits if they want to get out of poverty. 2) People who believe poverty is culturally based suggest that poverty can be reduced by enhancing people’s cultural capital (e.g., we should develop more job training and school enrichment programs to enhance people’s cultural capital and counteract negative familial and neighbourhood influences). 3) Although some structural solutions suggest that poverty can be eliminated only if capitalism is abolished and a new means of distributing valued goods and services is established, others state that poverty can be reduced by the creation of a society where wealth is distributed more equitably. 4) In a recent (2008) poll, 90% of Canadians felt that Canada needs strong political leadership to reduce poverty and that Canada needs a proper poverty reduction plan now. 5) Poverty reduction plans that have been successful in jurisdictions outside Canada have included the following characteristics: targets and time limes; accountability; comprehensiveness; a focus on marginalized groups; and community involvement. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO POVERTY Focus on Community Action Have a class discussion on the geography of public and private space in the student’s community. How are homeless people and people living in poverty affected by the division of private and public space? Next, have the students design a short questionnaire pertaining to attitudes and beliefs about poverty and public versus private space. Suggest that they investigate popular stereotypes about poverty, welfare, and welfare recipients. Students should administer the survey to other students, co-workers, or acquaintances and compile their results. After that have students go out and speak with someone who is actually homeless or living in absolute poverty. Have the students find out the person’s life story and how the division of public and private space affects her or his life. Ask students to prepare a report and discuss their findings with the rest of the class. How closely do the answers given by their non-representative sample in the survey they administered correspond to the facts presented in the text? Were they surprised with the information they found from talking to de-housed people? Did any of their attitudes or beliefs change as a result of interviewing people in poverty? Focus on Theoretical Analysis Divide the class into four collaborative learning groups (or 8 if the class is very large) and have members of each group serve as experts on how functionalists, conflict theorists, feminists, or interactionists explain poverty and how they would go about reducing or eliminating the growing gap between the rich and the poor in this country. Each group should choose political leaders (e.g. Stephen Harper, Gordon Campbell) or community organizations (e.g. Women’s Resource Centres, Churches) that represent the sociological theory they have been assigned. One person from each group will be elected to participate in a political forum on poverty, role playing the political leader or community organization that is most closely aligned with their assigned sociological theory. The rest of the students will be tasked with asking challenging questions for each political and community leader about how they explain inequality and how it could be eliminated, making sure to include relevant information from each sociological theory. Was it possible to get consensus on how the issues of poverty, homelessness and inequality should be dealt with? Why or why not? Focus on Media Engagement Have the class watch at least three different “reality television” shows that depict how wealth, power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives (Some good examples: Laguna Beach, Jon and Kate Plus 8, COPS, To Serve and Protect, What Not To Wear, Clean Sweep, Pimp My Ride, The Swan, Survival of the Richest, Brat Camp, The Simple Life, The Hills, The Rich Girls). If students do not have access to cable television, they can use a website such as www.tvshack.net or www.episodecentral.com to watch streaming video of reality tv. Students should then prepare a brief report on what they have found, focusing on the visual images, language used, subliminal messages, intended audience of each program. How do these supposed “reality television” shows influence our perceptions about poverty? Do they accurately reflect the reality of how wealth, power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives? Have each student provide a synopsis for their own real “reality television” show that would more accurately reflect the daily lives of both people living in poverty and with wealth. They should share their “reality television” show ideas with the rest of the class. APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. Why do Canadians persist in their belief in Canada as a meritocracy? What evidence exists to support that view and what evidence exists to the contrary? Answer: Canadians persist in their belief in Canada as a meritocracy due to a combination of cultural narratives, social norms, and institutional structures. The concept of meritocracy aligns with deeply ingrained values of fairness, equality, and opportunity within Canadian society. Many Canadians are proud of Canada's multiculturalism and diversity, and they see the country as a place where individuals can succeed based on their talent and hard work, regardless of background. This belief is reinforced by narratives of successful immigrants and stories of upward mobility through education and perseverance. Evidence supporting the view of Canada as a meritocracy includes statistics on social mobility, which suggest that individuals from lower-income backgrounds have opportunities to improve their socio-economic status through education and employment. Canada's public education system, access to healthcare, and social safety nets are often cited as examples of policies that promote equal opportunity and merit-based success. However, evidence exists to challenge the belief in Canada as a pure meritocracy. Persistent social inequalities, such as income disparities, wage gaps, and underrepresentation of certain groups in positions of power, suggest that systemic barriers exist that hinder equal opportunities for all Canadians. Research has shown that factors such as race, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic background continue to influence individuals' life chances and opportunities for success. Moreover, experiences of discrimination, racism, and systemic biases in various sectors, including employment, education, and housing, undermine the meritocratic ideal by perpetuating disadvantage for marginalized communities. Historical and ongoing injustices against Indigenous peoples also highlight the limitations of Canada's meritocratic narrative, revealing deep-rooted structural inequalities that persist despite efforts towards reconciliation. While Canada may aspire to be a meritocratic society, the reality is more nuanced, with both evidence supporting and challenging this belief. Acknowledging and addressing systemic barriers and inequalities is crucial for advancing the principles of fairness, equality, and opportunity that Canadians hold dear. 2. Why are racialization/ethnicity, class, age, and gender important concerns for sociologists who study social stratification and poverty in Canada and other nations? Answer: Racialization/ethnicity, class, age, and gender are crucial considerations for sociologists studying social stratification and poverty because they intersect to shape individuals' experiences of privilege and disadvantage within society. Firstly, racialization and ethnicity play significant roles in determining access to resources, opportunities, and societal perceptions. Minoritized groups often face systemic discrimination in various domains, including education, employment, housing, and criminal justice, which can exacerbate poverty rates among these communities. Secondly, class is central to understanding socioeconomic disparities and social mobility. Wealth and income inequalities perpetuate poverty cycles, with marginalized communities experiencing limited opportunities for upward mobility due to structural barriers such as lack of access to quality education and employment discrimination. Thirdly, age dynamics are integral, as children, the elderly, and youth face distinct challenges in relation to poverty and social stratification. Intergenerational poverty, age discrimination, and inadequate social support systems further compound inequalities within these age groups. Finally, gender dynamics are essential considerations, with women often facing unique forms of economic disadvantage, including wage gaps, occupational segregation, and disproportionate caregiving responsibilities. These gendered inequalities contribute to higher rates of poverty among women, particularly single mothers and transgender individuals. By examining the intersections of racialization/ethnicity, class, age, and gender, sociologists can uncover the complex mechanisms that perpetuate poverty and social stratification, informing policies and interventions aimed at promoting equity and social justice for all individuals and communities. 3. What suggestions can you make for alleviating the problems associated with the feminization of poverty in this country? Answer: To alleviate the problems associated with the feminization of poverty, several strategies can be implemented: 1. Equal Pay Legislation: Enact and enforce policies that ensure equal pay for equal work, addressing the gender wage gap and improving the economic security of women. 2. Affordable Childcare: Increase access to affordable and high-quality childcare services, allowing women to participate fully in the workforce without facing prohibitive caregiving costs. 3. Paid Family Leave Policies: Implement paid family leave policies that provide income support for individuals taking time off for caregiving responsibilities, reducing financial strain on families. 4. Investment in Education and Training: Enhance access to education and skill development programs for women, particularly those from marginalized communities, to improve their employability and earning potential. 5. Promotion of Women's Entrepreneurship: Support women's entrepreneurship through funding initiatives, mentorship programs, and access to resources, enabling women to create economic opportunities and build financial independence. 6. Addressing Gender-Based Violence: Combat gender-based violence through comprehensive strategies that include prevention, intervention, and support services for survivors, empowering women to live free from fear and insecurity. 7. Social Safety Nets: Strengthen social safety nets, such as welfare programs and affordable housing initiatives, to provide crucial support to women experiencing poverty or facing economic hardship. 8. Representation and Leadership: Promote women's representation in decision-making roles and leadership positions across all sectors, fostering gender-inclusive policies and practices that address the root causes of feminized poverty. By implementing these strategies, policymakers and advocates can work towards alleviating the feminization of poverty and creating a more equitable society where women have equal opportunities to thrive economically and socially. 4. What will happen in Canada if the rich continue to get richer and the poor continue to become increasingly impoverished? Answer: If the trend of increasing wealth inequality persists in Canada, several detrimental consequences are likely to occur: 1. Social Polarization: Widening economic disparities can deepen social divides, leading to heightened tensions between the wealthy and the impoverished. This can erode social cohesion and trust, fostering resentment and social unrest. 2. Health Disparities: Economic inequality correlates with disparities in health outcomes, with lower-income individuals experiencing higher rates of chronic diseases, mental health issues, and reduced life expectancy. This can strain healthcare systems and lead to increased healthcare costs. 3. Educational Inequities: Children from low-income families may face barriers to accessing quality education, perpetuating cycles of poverty and limiting opportunities for social mobility. This can result in a less skilled workforce and hinder economic growth in the long term. 4. Political Instability: Growing economic disparities can fuel disillusionment with the political system, leading to heightened social unrest, protests, and even political extremism. Discontent with the status quo may result in calls for radical change and undermine democratic institutions. 5. Crime and Safety Concerns: Economic inequality is associated with higher crime rates, as individuals facing poverty may resort to illegal activities out of desperation. This can lead to increased insecurity and strain law enforcement resources. 6. Housing Affordability Crisis: Rising income inequality can exacerbate housing affordability challenges, with low-income individuals and families struggling to secure safe and affordable housing. This can contribute to homelessness and housing instability. 7. Economic Stagnation: A widening wealth gap can dampen economic growth by reducing consumer spending, limiting entrepreneurship opportunities for marginalized groups, and fostering economic monopolies among the wealthy. 8. Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty: Children born into impoverished households face limited access to resources and opportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty across generations. This can entrench inequality and hinder social mobility. Addressing these potential consequences requires comprehensive policy interventions aimed at reducing economic inequality, such as progressive taxation, investment in social programs, and policies that promote equitable access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Failure to take action risks exacerbating social tensions and undermining the long-term stability and prosperity of Canadian society. 5. Why does Canada not have a formal measure of poverty? Would having an official measure change our approach to poverty in Canada? If yes, how? Answer: Canada does not have a formal measure of poverty due to various reasons, including methodological complexities, disagreements over how poverty should be defined and measured, and political considerations. Instead, Canada relies on income-based measures, such as the Low-Income Measure (LIM) or the Market Basket Measure (MBM), to assess economic deprivation and social exclusion. However, these measures have limitations and may not capture the full extent of poverty or its multidimensional nature. Critics argue that a narrow focus on income thresholds overlooks other important factors contributing to poverty, such as access to healthcare, education, housing, and social inclusion. Having an official measure of poverty could change Canada's approach to poverty by providing a clearer understanding of the scope and severity of the issue. It could help policymakers identify priority areas for intervention, allocate resources more effectively, and track progress over time. Moreover, an official measure could foster public awareness and political accountability, prompting governments to take more decisive action to address poverty and inequality. Additionally, a formal measure of poverty could facilitate the development of targeted anti-poverty strategies that address the root causes of economic deprivation and social exclusion. By adopting a multidimensional approach to poverty measurement, Canada could implement more holistic and inclusive policies that improve the well-being and quality of life for all Canadians, particularly those most vulnerable to poverty. 6. How do individual, cultural, and structural explanations for poverty differ? Which explanation best fits poverty in Canada? Why? Answer: Individual, cultural, and structural explanations for poverty offer distinct perspectives on the causes and solutions to economic deprivation: 1. Individual Explanation: This perspective attributes poverty to individual characteristics, behaviors, and choices, such as lack of education, skills, or motivation. It emphasizes personal responsibility and self-reliance, suggesting that individuals can overcome poverty through hard work and determination. However, critics argue that this perspective ignores systemic barriers and inequalities that limit individuals' opportunities for success. 2. Cultural Explanation: Cultural explanations focus on cultural norms, values, and beliefs that perpetuate poverty, such as a "culture of poverty" characterized by fatalism, dependency, and a lack of ambition. Proponents of this perspective argue that cultural factors play a significant role in perpetuating cycles of poverty by shaping individuals' attitudes and behaviors. Critics contend that cultural explanations often blame the victim and overlook structural factors contributing to poverty. 3. Structural Explanation: Structural explanations emphasize the role of societal structures, institutions, and policies in creating and perpetuating poverty. They highlight systemic inequalities, such as unequal access to education, employment, healthcare, and housing, which disproportionately affect marginalized communities. Structural explanations argue that poverty is not solely the result of individual shortcomings but rather a consequence of broader economic, political, and social forces beyond individuals' control. In the context of Canada, the structural explanation for poverty is most relevant and compelling. While individual and cultural factors may influence poverty outcomes to some extent, structural factors such as systemic discrimination, income inequality, inadequate social safety nets, and unequal access to resources have a more significant impact on poverty rates. Canada's social policies, economic structures, and institutional arrangements shape opportunities and outcomes for individuals and communities, influencing who is most vulnerable to poverty and why. Therefore, addressing poverty in Canada requires structural reforms aimed at addressing systemic barriers, redistributing resources, and promoting equitable access to opportunities and resources for all Canadians. 7. If Canada implemented a poverty reduction strategy such as the one outlined in the chapter, what impact would that have on poverty? Why do you think Canada has not adopted this or any other similar strategy? Answer: Implementing a poverty reduction strategy similar to the one outlined in the chapter would likely have a significant impact on poverty in Canada. Such a strategy would involve comprehensive measures aimed at addressing the root causes of poverty, including structural inequalities, inadequate social supports, and economic insecurity. By investing in education, healthcare, affordable housing, and social safety nets, Canada could improve the well-being and economic prospects of vulnerable populations, reducing poverty rates and promoting social inclusion. Additionally, targeted interventions, such as living wage policies, childcare subsidies, and employment training programs, could empower individuals and families to achieve financial stability and upward mobility. However, despite the potential benefits of implementing a poverty reduction strategy, Canada has not adopted such an approach due to various reasons. These may include political considerations, competing policy priorities, fiscal constraints, and ideological differences regarding the role of government in addressing social issues. Additionally, there may be challenges in garnering consensus among policymakers, stakeholders, and the public on the best approach to poverty reduction. Moreover, entrenched interests, bureaucratic inertia, and resistance to change within existing systems and institutions may hinder efforts to implement comprehensive poverty reduction strategies. Nevertheless, there is growing recognition of the need for action to address poverty in Canada, with advocacy groups, researchers, and policymakers increasingly calling for evidence-based policies and interventions to alleviate economic hardship and promote social justice. Moving forward, overcoming barriers to poverty reduction will require political will, collaboration across sectors, and a commitment to equity and social inclusion. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION A Call to Action—This film follows one activist through one of Toronto’s poorest neighbourhoods, funding cuts, housing shortages and political activism through OCAP. 2004. 12 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. A Far Cry from the Beach—A Swiss priest brings hope to the inhabitants of a squatter settlement living in poverty in Sao Paulo. 18 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Capitalism: A Love Story— Examines the impact of corporate dominance on the everyday lives of Americans (and by default, the rest of the world). 120 mins. 2009. Overture Films and Paramount Vantage. Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream—A Canadian man’s road trip into the heart of the American Dream. 2004. 45 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Neighbourhood Deliveries—A look at poverty in one of Montreal’s most impoverished areas, Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. 2006. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Salvation—This documentary portrays the front-line street workers who serve the needy under the umbrella of the Salvation Army. 2001. 51 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Them That’s Not—This video puts a human face on the statistics relating to women and poverty. 54 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Turbulences—This film highlights the unprecedented power of the financial markets and the threat they pose to democracy. 52 min. 1998. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Voices from the Shadows—This film examines Canada’s inequitable, often punitive, welfare system. 1992. 77 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Winning—This film tracks six Canadian lottery winners to see how their lives have changed, for better or for worse. 2004. 56 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. CRITICAL READINGS Beckett, Katherine and Steve Herbert. 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America. New York: NY: Oxford University Press. Crowe, Cathy. 2007. Dying for a Home: Homeless Activists Speak Out. Toronto, ON: Between the Lines. Hermer, Joe and Janet Mosher (Eds.). 2002. Disorderly People: Law and the Politics of Exclusion in Ontario. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing. Kazemipur, Abdolmohammad and Shiva S. Halli. 2000. The New Poverty in Canada: Ethnic Groups and Ghetto Neighbourhoods. Toronto, ON: Thompson Publishing Inc. Mirchandani, Kiran and Wendy Chan. 2007. Criminalizing Race, Criminalizing Poverty: Welfare Fraud Enforcement in Canada. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing. Naiman, Joanne. 2008. How Societies Work: Class, Power and Change in a Canadian Context (Fourth Edition). Halifax, NS; Fernwood Publishing. Olsen, Gregg M. 2002. The Politics of the Welfare State: Canada, Sweden, and the United States. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Seccombe, Karen. 2007. Families in Poverty. New York, NY: Pearson Education Inc. Shragge, Eric. 1997. “Workfare: An Overview” in Workfare: Ideology for a New Under-Class. Eric Shragge (Ed.). Toronto, ON: Garamond Press. Pgs. 17 - 34. Swanson, Jean. 2001. Poor-Bashing: The Politics of Exclusion. Toronto, ON: Between the Lines. Instructor Manual for Social Problems in a Diverse Society Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, Edward G. Thompson 9780205663903, 9780205718566, 9780205885756