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This document contains Chapters 4 to 7 Chapter 4 Effects of Economic Changes and Inequalities on Families INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION Students often think of the economy as something vague, "out there," or they think of corporations and corporate profits and say, "What does this have to do with the family?" The economy is perhaps the key organizing structural element of society along with technology; both work in tandem. New technologies alter economic production, profits, wages, and employment conditions--all of which affect family life. Political economy perspectives provide the most efficient framework within which to study the economic situation, social inequalities, resulting poverty, and their combined effects on families. What may be very obvious to some of your students is the increasing gap between the very rich and the less affluent families in Canada. There are more billionaires and millionaires as well as more very rich families than just five years ago, all in great part because of the expansion of information technologies and their effect on the stock market. But, at the same time, nearly as many families as before have extremely low income and there are indications that the middle class is thinning out. The addition of the information technology to the market economy has resulted in a technological economy that disadvantages the majority of families whose heads do not have a college degree. The concentration of power within the hands of a few and their influence on the political institutions prevent the development of social policies that would prevent poverty. ADDITIONAL CLASS MATERIAL Had I had the space, I might have briefly discussed the fact that globalization is not a new historical phenomenon. One can think here of the reach of the Roman Empire. One can also think of medieval times. An interesting and well documented book in this respect is Power and profit: The merchant in Medieval Europe, 2002, by Peter Spufford, New York: Thames & Hudson. Very good presentations on trade, multinational companies, banks, credit, and slavery, among others, all within the European Medieval context. CHAPTER LINKAGES This chapter complements some of the themes in Chapter 2 on minority-group families: Economic inequalities between families affect non-white groups far more than others. Closely related also to Chapter 2 is the new discussion regarding the Sociohistorical Sources of Poverty, which largely focuses on Aboriginal families. Gender differences and gender roles, first broached in Chapter 1 in the sections on feminism and feminist political economy theories, are apparent throughout Chapter 4, whether in terms of the household division of labour, pay inequities, single mothering (as opposed to single fathering which is rarely put into question), divorce, and in terms of the consequences of poverty, which differ for fathers and mothers. The entire presentation on family poverty can be linked to the section on society’s failures toward families in Chapter 3. The demands placed by the economy on families amplify their burdens and, often, increase the number of responsibilities they have to shoulder. 6. The discussion on the role played by the media on family life (Chapter 3) is closely linked to this chapter’s section on the rise of consumerism in family life. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONS, PROJECTS, PAPERS This chapter allows an instructor who is interested in the effect of poverty on families to focus on this issue. Depending on class size, students can be asked to collect newspaper clippings that have anything to do with poverty and the family. It is actually surprising how many of these items appear in newspapers. This could also raise students' consciousness about the spider web ramifications of poverty for disadvantaged families. The discussion could be extended to poor families in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This chapter and the next one present an excellent opportunity for the following project: Ask students to photocopy those sections in this and previous chapters that "hang together" in terms of social inequalities and to link them together with some text of their own, as if they were designing a new chapter. Students could choose one or two of the theoretical perspectives presented in Chapter 1 as a framework. Political economy theories as well as parts of rational theories (capital) would be indicated. But one could also see how someone could elect to use a feminist approach. Students could be asked to go into the Suggested Weblinks and choose a Table (with numbers) that addresses an issue related to economic changes or the impact of the economy on family life. A very educational exercise consists in asking students to “read” the Table in words and put this “reading” in written form. This exercise hones their sense of logic, helps them understand basic numbers, and gives them some self-confidence in this much-neglected aspect of their education (numerical literacy). This exercise can be done individually or in a small group format. SUGGESTED MEDIA The CBC series Till Debt Do Us Part offers a dose of family economics as well as couple relationships. One of these 25-minute segments could be of great practical interest to students. (This might also help them in terms of “financial literacy.”) SUGGESTED READING Maclean’s November 16, 2009 issue, has an enlightening article by Nancy Macdonald on how much food we throw away (pp. 44-46, in the Environment section). SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How does the economy affect family structure and family life? Answer: The economy has a profound impact on family structure and family life in several ways: 1. Employment Opportunities: Economic conditions, such as unemployment rates, job availability, and wages, directly influence families' financial stability and their ability to meet basic needs. Economic downturns can lead to job loss, financial strain, and increased stress within families, potentially resulting in changes to family structure, such as increased parental employment or changes in living arrangements. 2. Income Inequality: Economic inequality contributes to disparities in family well-being, with low-income families facing greater challenges in providing for their children's needs. Economic inequality can also impact access to education, healthcare, and other resources that are essential for children's development. 3. Work-Family Balance: Economic pressures often influence parents' decisions regarding employment and caregiving responsibilities. In dual-income households, parents may struggle to balance work and family obligations, leading to increased stress and limited time for family activities and interactions. 4. Housing and Neighborhoods: Economic factors shape families' housing options and neighborhood environments, which can have significant implications for children's well-being. Low-income families may face challenges in accessing affordable housing and may be more likely to live in neighborhoods with limited resources and higher levels of crime and violence. Overall, the economy plays a central role in shaping family structure and family life, impacting everything from parents' employment opportunities and income levels to housing options and access to resources and support services. 2. Use a feminist perspective to critique the question: Is maternal employment detrimental to children? Answer: A feminist perspective challenges the assumption that maternal employment is inherently detrimental to children. This perspective highlights several key critiques of the question: 1. Gender Equality: The question focuses exclusively on maternal employment, reinforcing traditional gender roles and expectations regarding caregiving and breadwinning. This overlooks the importance of gender equality within the family and the workforce, as well as the potential benefits of shared caregiving responsibilities between parents. 2. Economic Necessity: Many families rely on dual incomes to meet their financial needs, particularly in light of rising costs of living and stagnant wages. For many women, employment is not a choice but a necessity for economic survival and independence. 3. Professional Fulfillment: Maternal employment can provide women with opportunities for personal and professional growth, fulfillment, and economic independence, which can have positive effects on mothers' well-being and self-esteem, ultimately benefiting their children. 4. Child Development: Research suggests that high-quality childcare and supportive work-family policies can mitigate any potential negative effects of maternal employment on children. Access to affordable, high-quality childcare and supportive workplace policies, such as paid parental leave and flexible work arrangements, are critical for supporting both maternal employment and positive child outcomes. In conclusion, a feminist perspective challenges the assumption that maternal employment is inherently detrimental to children, highlighting the importance of gender equality, economic necessity, and supportive work-family policies in shaping family dynamics and child well-being. 3. How can parental employment actually deprive children of social capital? Answer: Parental employment can deprive children of social capital in several ways: 1. Limited Parental Involvement: When parents are working long hours or multiple jobs, they may have limited time and energy to spend with their children, engage in activities, or provide emotional support. This can lead to decreased parent-child interaction and bonding, impacting children's social and emotional development. 2. Reduced Access to Resources: Low-income families, in particular, may face challenges in accessing resources and opportunities that are essential for children's development, such as high-quality childcare, extracurricular activities, and educational enrichment programs. Limited access to these resources can hinder children's socialization, academic achievement, and long-term success. 3. Social Isolation: Parents who are working long hours or irregular schedules may have limited opportunities for socializing with other parents and building social networks within their communities. As a result, children may have fewer opportunities for peer interaction, play, and socialization outside of school. Overall, parental employment, especially when combined with low wages, limited benefits, and inflexible work schedules, can deprive children of social capital by limiting parental involvement, access to resources, and opportunities for socialization and community engagement. 4. Summarize the consequences of poverty for children. Answer: Poverty has profound and long-lasting consequences for children, affecting their physical, emotional, and cognitive development in numerous ways: 1. Health Problems: Children growing up in poverty are more likely to experience health problems such as malnutrition, chronic illness, and developmental delays due to inadequate access to nutritious food, healthcare, and safe living conditions. 2. Educational Disadvantages: Poverty can hinder children's academic achievement by limiting access to high-quality early childhood education, resources, and educational opportunities. Children from low-income families are more likely to struggle in school, drop out, and have lower educational attainment levels. 3. Emotional and Behavioral Issues: Poverty is associated with higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression among children, as well as behavioral problems such as aggression, impulsivity, and conduct disorders. Economic hardship and instability can also strain family relationships and contribute to household dysfunction and conflict. 4. Limited Opportunities: Children growing up in poverty often face limited opportunities for socialization, cultural enrichment, and extracurricular activities, which can hinder their social and emotional development and perpetuate the cycle of poverty into adulthood. Overall, poverty has far-reaching consequences for children, impacting their physical health, emotional well-being, academic success, and long-term opportunities for social mobility and economic success. Addressing child poverty requires comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of poverty, such as inadequate income, lack of affordable housing, and limited access to education and healthcare. Chapter 5 Impacts of Neighbourhoods and Housing Conditions on Family Life INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION This chapter is definitely a first among family texts. It is inspired by a rather well-established tradition in urban sociology, and particularly by the Chicago School, that has focused on the development of family-related problems in disadvantaged urban areas. This sociological school of thought has recently had a great deal of impact on researchers in the area of child development. One can think here of Willms, Belanger, Sauvé, Turcotte, among others in Canada, as well as Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, McLoyd, Sampson, and the psychologist Steinberg, among many others in the U.S. This new type of research, generally found in the journal Child Development, but also in the American Sociological Review, Social Forces, and the Journal of Marriage and Family, now appears in Statistics Canada publications. It is also carried out by Canadian urban sociologists such as Hulchanski and can be found in newspapers such as the Toronto Star and the Hamilton Spectator. This research combines with and controls for family poverty and aggregate neighbourhood poverty to examine their joint and separate effects on various aspects of human development and family life. This type of research can also fall within the framework of political economy theories. Hence, this chapter complements Chapter 4. ADDITIONAL CLASS MATERIAL on the home office During the early part of the 20th century, many urban families lived above their shops. Physicians and lawyers often had an office at home. Little by little, as industries grew and as professions began regrouping in large office buildings, most professionals and other workers moved out of their home base. Today, some families still have a restaurant, convenience store, or small shop on the ground floor and live above. These arrangements are characteristic of some downtown districts and reserved for families that are struggling financially. They include mothers who are employed in the garment industry and work on a piece basis at home--a home sweatshop. With the advent of the computer, fax machines, Internet, smart cell phones, and the possibility of teleconferencing, many professionals and self-employed persons have migrated back home. Others who are employed by companies work from home part of the week and are at the office the rest of the time. Technological advances have allowed white-collar workers and some professionals to avoid the tedious hours of commuting. They have more time for their work and their families. This is a new trend and it is difficult to predict how extensive it will become. Because it is new, little research exists on how the housing space is reallocated and redeployed in order to meet the demands of work. This is largely a middle-class phenomenon and one wonders how the physical boundaries between work life and family life are established. Generally, the at-home employed spouse has a study or a computer corner in the main bedroom or den. Do men and women organize their space differently and to what extent do they allow other family members to trespass during their work hours? Does the addition of the work station at home increase crowding and force family members to readjust their use of the physical space in and around the home? How does home work affect the general household division of labour? These questions constitute an excellent example of what we do not know concerning a recent development, created by sudden technological changes, which affects family life and its housing space. These questions also illustrate how difficult it is for researchers in sociology and family studies to make an equally quick move into new research opportunities. Family life evolves rapidly in some domains, and it takes a while for research to shift into gear. CHAPTER LINKAGES As is the case for the previous chapter, Chapter 5 is based on the themes of social inequities and resulting family diversity, in this case, diversity in terms of social class, types of neighbourhoods, residence (or homelessness), urban versus rural, and now multi-unit dwellings in high rises versus detached and semi-detached homes. As well, there is some continuity with Chapter 2 on race and ethnicity because some neighbourhoods are disproportionately populated by non-white families. A study of neighbourhood development thus extends our knowledge of family history in terms of immigration (Chapter 2). The theme of the effective community recurs along with the related concept of collective socialization and links back to Chapter 1 as well as Chapter 4 where we investigate the consequences of poverty, particularly for mothers and children. The various types of dwellings discussed in this chapter complete the overview of family diversity, a theme emphasized in Chapters 1 and 2. HELP WITH ANALYTICAL QUESTION (located at the end of Chapter 5 in the textbook) Question 3. My own perspective on this issue, based on the research literature, is that housing developments segregate the poor, deprive them of mainstream role models, and give rise to a critical mass of children whose parents are overworked or unemployed and lack social capital, burden the area schools with deprived children and lower teachers' morale. In contrast, were the poor given vouchers with which to choose where to live, they would feel more empowered. As well, there would be less segregation (except for those who prefer to live with other members of their ethnic group): The research clearly indicates that children from poor families have better outcomes when they live in areas that contain a higher proportion of non-poor families. However, as pointed out in the text itself, disadvantaged children living in a very well-to-do area may feel “left out” and out of place among peers, with consequent negative effects on their behaviour. This returns us to the issue of social inequality. Were the gap between the fortunate and the others less consequential, residential segregation by income would be far less salient, less destructive, and less socially isolating than it now is. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS Students bring a variety of pictures covering the entire span of quality of neighbourhoods, both rural and urban. These pictures can then be moved around on a board to discuss the impact of neighbourhoods from positive to negative on various aspects of family life. Discuss the effects on family dynamics of living in a very large home. Your discussion should go beyond what is in the text. Discuss or write a paper on the effect of residential mobility involving children who move out of a province or territory. What does this do to family solidarity, intergenerational exchange? How do children integrate themselves in new schools and within peer groups? SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are the risk factors for children in high-poverty areas? Answer: Children living in high-poverty areas face numerous risk factors that can impact their well-being and development: 1. Limited Access to Quality Education: High-poverty areas often have underfunded schools, limited access to educational resources, and higher rates of teacher turnover. As a result, children may receive a substandard education, leading to lower academic achievement and limited opportunities for future success. 2. Poor Health Outcomes: Children in high-poverty areas are more likely to experience health problems such as malnutrition, chronic illness, and developmental delays. Limited access to nutritious food, healthcare services, and safe living conditions can contribute to higher rates of illness and lower life expectancy. 3. Exposure to Violence and Crime: High-poverty areas often have higher rates of crime, violence, and substance abuse, exposing children to traumatic experiences and increasing their risk of physical and emotional harm. 4. Limited Access to Social Services: Families in high-poverty areas may have limited access to social services and support networks, such as childcare, mental health services, and recreational programs. This lack of support can exacerbate the challenges faced by children and their families. 5. Social and Emotional Challenges: Children in high-poverty areas may experience higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression due to economic hardship, family instability, and exposure to violence and trauma. These social and emotional challenges can impact children's overall well-being and development. Overall, the combination of economic, social, and environmental factors in high-poverty areas creates a challenging environment for children, increasing their risk of poor outcomes across multiple domains of development. 2. How could you link the concepts of critical mass and collective socialization? Answer: The concepts of critical mass and collective socialization are closely linked, as both emphasize the importance of social interaction and community dynamics in shaping individual behavior and identity. 1. Critical Mass: Critical mass refers to the minimum number of individuals required to initiate and sustain a social phenomenon or change. In the context of collective socialization, critical mass represents the threshold at which a group's influence becomes significant enough to shape individual beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. 2. Collective Socialization: Collective socialization refers to the process through which individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, values, and behaviors through social interaction with others. In a community or group setting, collective socialization occurs through shared experiences, traditions, and socialization practices that shape individual identity and behavior. Linking the two concepts, critical mass can be seen as the catalyst for collective socialization, as it represents the point at which a group's influence becomes powerful enough to shape individual behavior and identity. As the number of individuals sharing a particular belief, attitude, or behavior increases, it reaches a critical mass where it becomes the dominant norm within the group, influencing the socialization process for all members. In summary, critical mass and collective socialization are interconnected concepts that highlight the role of social interaction and community dynamics in shaping individual behavior and identity. 3. Distinguish between the societal or political and personal causes of families' homelessness. Answer: The causes of families' homelessness can be categorized into societal or political causes and personal causes: 1. Societal or Political Causes: • Lack of Affordable Housing: Shortage of affordable housing and rising housing costs make it difficult for low-income families to find and maintain stable housing. • Income Inequality: Low wages, unemployment, and inadequate social safety nets contribute to poverty and housing instability among families. • Cuts to Social Services: Reductions in funding for social services such as mental health care, substance abuse treatment, and emergency assistance can leave families without the support they need to avoid homelessness. 2. Personal Causes: • Financial Hardship: Job loss, medical emergencies, and other financial crises can lead to the inability to pay rent or mortgage, resulting in eviction or foreclosure. • Family Conflict: Domestic violence, family breakdown, and relationship problems can force families out of their homes and into homelessness. • Mental Health and Substance Abuse Issues: Untreated mental health problems and substance abuse issues can impair individuals' ability to maintain stable housing and employment. While personal causes of homelessness are often the most immediate factors leading to families' housing instability, societal or political factors such as lack of affordable housing and income inequality create the conditions that make homelessness more likely. 4. Do rural areas offer more opportunities for the emergence of effective communities? Answer: Rural areas can offer unique opportunities for the emergence of effective communities due to several factors: 1. Close-knit Social Networks: Rural communities often have close-knit social networks and strong social ties, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual support among residents. 2. Shared Values and Traditions: Rural communities may share common values, traditions, and cultural practices that contribute to a sense of community identity and cohesion. 3. Community Engagement: Rural residents may be more actively involved in community organizations, local government, and volunteer activities, providing opportunities for collective action and community development. 4. Access to Nature and Outdoor Spaces: Rural areas often offer access to natural resources, outdoor spaces, and recreational activities that promote community bonding and social interaction. However, it is important to recognize that rural communities also face challenges such as geographic isolation, limited access to services and resources, and economic decline, which can impact their ability to develop and sustain effective communities. Additionally, rural communities may experience social inequalities and divisions based on factors such as race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, which can hinder community cohesion and cooperation. Overall, while rural areas offer opportunities for the emergence of effective communities, they also face challenges that must be addressed to support community development and well-being. 5. What are some of the mechanisms whereby farm families adapt to economic crises? Answer: Farm families employ various mechanisms to adapt to economic crises, including: 1. Diversification: Farm families may diversify their sources of income by engaging in off-farm employment, starting non-agricultural businesses, or producing multiple crops or livestock products. 2. Cost-cutting Measures: Farm families may implement cost-cutting measures such as reducing expenses, renegotiating loans, and improving efficiency in farm operations to reduce financial strain. 3. Community Support: Farm families may rely on support from local communities, government programs, and agricultural organizations to access resources, information, and assistance during times of economic hardship. 4. Sustainable Practices: Farm families may adopt sustainable farming practices, such as organic farming, conservation agriculture, and agroforestry, to improve productivity, reduce costs, and mitigate environmental risks. 5. Planning and Risk Management: Farm families may develop long-term strategic plans, diversify their crops and livestock, and purchase insurance to manage financial risks and uncertainties associated with farming. Overall, farm families use a combination of strategies to adapt to economic crises, minimize financial losses, and maintain the viability of their farms and livelihoods. 6. What have been two trends in housing since the 1940s? Answer: Two trends in housing since the 1940s include: 1. Suburbanization: Since the 1940s, there has been a significant trend towards suburbanization, with many families moving out of urban areas and into suburban communities. Suburbanization as driven by factors such as increased automobile ownership, improved transportation infrastructure, and government policies promoting homeownership and suburban development. 2. Decline of Public Housing: Another trend in housing since the 1940s has been the decline of public housing and the rise of private homeownership. Following World War II, government programs such as the GI Bill and Federal Housing Administration (FHA) loans made homeownership more accessible to middle-class families, leading to a decline in the demand for public housing and a shift towards private homeownership. These trends have had significant implications for housing patterns, urban development, and social inequalities in the United States. 7. Is residential mobility functional for family members? Answer: Residential mobility can have both positive and negative effects on family members, depending on various factors such as the reasons for the move, the frequency of moves, and the social and economic context: 1. Positive Effects: • Improved Economic Opportunities: Residential mobility can provide families with access to better job opportunities, higher wages, and improved living standards, enhancing family economic well-being and social mobility. • Social Networks and Support: Moving to a new location can allow families to establish new social networks, access support services, and build community connections, enhancing social support and integration. 2. Negative Effects: • Disruption of Social Networks: Residential mobility can disrupt social networks, friendships, and community ties, particularly for children and adolescents, leading to feelings of isolation and loneliness. • Educational Disruption: Frequent moves can disrupt children's education, leading to academic challenges, social adjustment difficulties, and lower academic achievement. • Financial Strain: Moving can be expensive and financially stressful, particularly if families are forced to move due to economic hardship or housing instability. Overall, while residential mobility can offer opportunities for economic advancement and social integration, it can also create challenges and disruptions for family members, particularly children and adolescents. 8. Which theoretical perspective(s) offers the best framework for this chapter? Justify your choice. Answer: The sociological perspective of symbolic interactionism offers the best framework for understanding the topics discussed in this chapter, including family dynamics, housing patterns, and community development. Symbolic interactionism focuses on the ways in which individuals interact with one another, interpret symbols and meanings, and construct their social reality through social interactions. 1. Family Dynamics: Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and communication in shaping family relationships, roles, and identities. This perspective highlights how family members interpret and negotiate their roles, responsibilities, and relationships through ongoing social interactions and symbolic communication. 2. Housing Patterns: Symbolic interactionism can also help us understand housing patterns and residential mobility by examining the symbolic meanings and social interactions associated with housing choices, neighborhood selection, and community attachment. This perspective highlights the ways in which individuals and families construct meanings and identities through their interactions with their physical environment and social context. 3. Community Development: Finally, symbolic interactionism provides insights into community development and social change by focusing on the ways in which individuals and groups construct shared meanings, values, and norms within their communities. This perspective emphasizes the importance of social interaction, collective identity, and shared symbols in shaping community dynamics and cohesion. Overall, symbolic interactionism offers a rich framework for understanding the complex interplay of social interactions, meanings, and symbols in shaping family life, housing patterns, and community development. Chapter 6 Roles of Educational Institutions and Religious Participation in Family Life INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION This chapter, as was the case for the previous one, also sets a precedent for family textbooks: It contains material that is not found in textbooks on the Sociology of Religion and textbooks on the Sociology of Education. The section on child care and schools are linked to Chapters 4 and 5 because they all stem from the economic organization of society. In this case, we see how the economic organization affects the schooling system and how it affects parental involvement in children's education: In rational theory language and within the framework of political economy theories, parents who are marginalized by poverty and discrimination are less likely to have the material and social resources or capital with which to help the development of their children's human capital. Children's presence in the educational system now begins very early in life; one can really analyze child care in day centres as an educational institution, if only in the sense that they prepare children for school in terms of language readiness, prosocial behaviour, and daily routine. I chose to include two types of private education for children as an extension of the socialization they receive from their parents. The first is private schooling, which involves a reinforcement of family values, lifestyle, and class reproduction. The second, home schooling, is a means to familialize children furthermore and certainly constitutes an extension of family responsibilities. One reason why I included a chapter on families and schooling is that Education majors often take family classes as an elective. I regularly had such students and was struck by how little they understood and related to poor families—even when they, themselves, originated from such backgrounds. This is worrisome because Education majors tended to complain about "how bad these parents" are and had no notion of the socioeconomic circumstances of these families. They engaged in a great deal of blaming. I was hoping that a chapter such as this one would give a better perspective to students who will become teachers. The second departure of this text from most others resides in the sections on religiosity. After years of neglect, there is a resurgence of empirical research on the linkages between the family and religion as well as religiosity. Articles are now regularly appearing in major sociology journals. Statistics Canada also covers this topic. Furthermore, although Canadian-born students are less steeped in religion than older generations, this by no means applies across the board because a great proportion of first- and second-generation Canadian youths are still immersed in their own religious heritage--even though some do it as a political rather than a religious gesture. Thus, family diversity should include religious diversity in terms of membership and religiosity. CHAPTER LINKAGES Several sections of this chapter, beginning with the effects of child care on children could form a module on Child Socialization or, if you are in a Family Studies Department or a Psychology Department, on Child Outcomes. Indeed, by now, we have had sections in many chapters in which we are accumulating theoretical and empirical evidence on the effect on children of the quality of the sociocultural and economic contexts in which their families are embedded. This began when, in Chapter 3, we inquired into the effect of cell phones, television viewing, the use of Internet and video games. In Chapter 2, it was mentioned that the environmental constraints, particularly poverty and segregation, placed on immigrant and discriminated minority families affect the outcomes of child socialization and life course. Chapter 4 contains a specific section on the consequences of poverty on children and illustrates how difficult if often is for poor mothers to raise their children properly because of structural disadvantages. For its part, Chapter 5 presents risk factors for child socialization and life course in the context of deprived neighbourhoods. It also addresses child socialization in other contexts, such as in rural areas. Additional contexts for child socialization and life opportunities will be discussed in future chapters, particularly 8 through 13. The section on social class and educational achievement relates to pertinent sections in Chapter 5 on neighbourhoods and sections on poverty in Chapter 4. All these chapters are, in turn, linked together theoretically within the framework of political economy perspectives. The section on Early Childhood Education for Children in Low-Income Families can be used as a social policy section to complement parts of Chapter 4 on poverty. Concepts of rational theory (resources, social capital, human capital) and the theme of the effective community are much in evidence in the sections on education and religion: a linkage to Chapter 1. Note the concept of critical mass which recurs: We saw it within a similar context in Chapter 5. HELP WITH ANALYTICAL QUESTIONS Question1. Being able to distinguish the effects of child care from other possible effects, such as effects of the family and neighbourhood as well as peer and sibling effects, not to omit genetic influences. The need for a control group or several contrast groups of children who either do not attend child care centres or attend centres with a range of quality levels. Effects are not only immediate but are especially important over the long-term, hence the need to carry out longitudinal studies. Again, here as well, the problem of distinguishing between the effects of having been in a day care centre and the effects of other circumstances that occur in a child's life course, such as going to different schools and having new peer groups, is difficult to overcome, and requires large samples. Question 2. The question is why. The answer probably rests on the ideologies and vested interests ingrained in this society on several levels. First, we now have a long tradition of a more or less democratic public school system that was originally initiated to protect children and educate them. This is a historical tradition that is difficult to overcome and creates related social constructs. Second, teachers themselves often feel threatened by home schooling because it puts their occupation into question. Third, we have a social construct of the peer group as being necessary to children’s normal development. Yet, there is no valid research that proves this one way or the other. In fact, we tend to think that it is only in a peer group of age-mates that children can form democratic relations; yet, we forget about peer abuse and the fact that children's groups are often terribly stratified and many children are rejected by their peers. (See Chapter 13.) Finally, many parents who opt to home school are religious and, in a lay society, there is fear that such parents might indoctrinate their children so that the latter may not be able to function properly as adults in our society. Or that the education they receive will be substandard because of these religious beliefs. Again, there is no proof one way or the other about these notions. Question 4. Probably because most scholars are themselves not religious or feel that religion and religiosity are too "traditional" and that religion has no place in their discipline. Studies indeed show that, compared to the general public, university professors are more liberal and less religious. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS The class could be divided in groups to present proposals concerning Analytical Question no. 3. Students could be asked to write a paragraph or two reflecting on their own past educational experience, beginning with day care centres for those who attended them, then early school, and so on. The papers could be shuffled and groups could be formed in which the answers would be distributed randomly. Students could then find themes in these reminiscences (content analysis). A discussion could follow or a paper could be assigned in which these reminiscences would give rise to suggestions for improving the school system on a wide variety of levels. I don't think that I can suggest anything concerning religiosity because I do not have the background to do this: My own classes at York have been so diverse that I used to try to stir away from specific issues pertaining to religion and religiosity in view of the fact that I generally had one Jewish student sitting right next to a Muslim student who sat next to a Sikh or yet an Hindu student, and so on. So I dealt with religion and religiosity and family life as I do in the text, but I did not invite discussions--the one time I did, the results were uncomfortable... Rather, I tended to emphasize families' diversity and respect for such. I also quoted from students' autobiographies, which reflected concerns about having brought to Canada political problems, related to religion, from their home countries which then led them to have animosity against other new Canadian groups. I gave them material to think about but not to discuss because, unavoidably, students would get upset at each other: This would cancel out whatever message an instructor may be able to transmit in terms of the value of diversity. But that's only my experience. SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are indicators of quality child care? Answer: Indicators of quality child care include: 1. Staff-to-Child Ratio: Low staff-to-child ratios ensure that each child receives individualized attention and care. Recommended ratios vary depending on the age of the children but generally range from 1:3 for infants to 1:10 for school-aged children. 2. Well-Qualified Staff: Quality child care providers should have relevant education and training in early childhood development, including certifications in CPR and first aid. Additionally, ongoing professional development and training for staff are indicators of quality. 3. Safe and Stimulating Environment: Quality child care environments are safe, clean, and well-maintained. They provide age-appropriate toys, materials, and activities that stimulate children's cognitive, social, and emotional development. 4. Positive Interactions: Caregivers should engage in warm, responsive interactions with children, fostering a supportive and nurturing environment. Positive interactions include active listening, responsive communication, and respectful caregiving practices. 5. Nutritious Meals and Snacks: Quality child care programs provide nutritious meals and snacks that meet the dietary needs of children. Menus should be varied, balanced, and in compliance with nutritional guidelines. 6. Parent Involvement: Quality child care programs encourage open communication and collaboration with parents. They provide opportunities for parent involvement, such as regular updates, parent-teacher conferences, and family events. Overall, quality child care programs prioritize the health, safety, and well-being of children, providing a nurturing and stimulating environment that supports their overall development. 2. What are the effects on children of being in a day care centre? Answer: The effects of being in a day care center on children can vary depending on factors such as the quality of care, the child's age, and individual characteristics. Some potential effects include: 1. Social Development: Day care centers provide opportunities for children to interact with peers, learn social skills, and develop friendships. Positive social interactions can promote cooperation, empathy, and conflict resolution skills. 2. Cognitive Development: High-quality day care centers offer stimulating environments with age-appropriate activities that promote cognitive development, language skills, and school readiness. Children may benefit from exposure to early literacy activities, educational games, and structured learning experiences. 3. Emotional Development: Day care centers provide a supportive and nurturing environment where children can develop a sense of security, confidence, and independence. Positive relationships with caregivers and peers can promote emotional regulation, self-esteem, and resilience. 4. Parent-Child Relationships: The experience of being in day care can influence parent-child relationships, depending on factors such as the child's attachment style, the quality of care, and the parent's involvement. Some children may experience separation anxiety initially but may develop a stronger sense of security and independence over time. Overall, the effects of being in a day care center on children can be positive, providing opportunities for social, cognitive, and emotional development in a supportive and stimulating environment. 3. Is Head Start a sound policy investment? Justify your answer on the basis of research results. Answer: Head Start is a sound policy investment based on research results that demonstrate its positive effects on children's development and long-term outcomes. Research findings indicate the following benefits of Head Start participation: 1. Improved School Readiness: Children who participate in Head Start demonstrate improved school readiness skills, including cognitive, language, and social-emotional development. Head Start programs provide comprehensive early childhood education and support services that prepare children for success in school. 2. Long-Term Educational Benefits: Longitudinal studies have shown that children who participate in Head Start are more likely to complete high school, pursue post-secondary education, and achieve higher levels of educational attainment compared to similar children who did not participate in the program. 3. Positive Social and Health Outcomes: Head Start participation is associated with positive social and health outcomes, including reduced rates of grade retention, special education placement, and involvement in the juvenile justice system. Head Start programs provide access to health and nutrition services, as well as family support services that promote children's overall well-being. 4. Parental Involvement and Engagement: Head Start programs emphasize the importance of parental involvement and engagement in children's education. Parents are actively involved in their children's learning, receive support and resources to promote family stability and self-sufficiency, and participate in program governance and decision-making. Overall, research results provide strong evidence that Head Start is a sound policy investment that yields positive outcomes for children, families, and communities, contributing to improved school readiness, educational attainment, and social well-being. 4. With the help of resources theory, discuss parental involvement in children's school education. Answer: Resource theory suggests that parental involvement in children's school education is influenced by the resources that parents possess, including financial resources, educational attainment, social networks, and cultural capital. According to resource theory: 1. Financial Resources: Parents with higher incomes may have greater flexibility to be involved in their children's education by volunteering at school, participating in parent-teacher associations, and providing additional educational resources and opportunities. 2. Educational Attainment: Parents with higher levels of education are more likely to be involved in their children's education by assisting with homework, engaging in educational activities at home, and advocating for their children's educational needs. 3. Social Networks: Parents with strong social networks and community connections may have access to additional educational resources, support services, and information that can benefit their children's education. 4. Cultural Capital: Parents who possess cultural capital, such as knowledge, skills, and values related to education and academic success, are more likely to be actively involved in their children's education by promoting a positive attitude towards learning, setting high expectations, and providing educational enrichment activities. Overall, resource theory suggests that parental involvement in children's school education is influenced by the resources that parents possess, which can vary based on factors such as socioeconomic status, educational background, and social capital. 5. Link poor schools, children's test scores, and the concept of critical mass. Answer: The concept of critical mass can help explain the relationship between poor schools and children's test scores: 1. Poor Schools: Poor schools often lack the resources, facilities, and qualified teachers necessary to provide a high-quality education. They may also serve student populations that face additional challenges such as poverty, limited English proficiency, and inadequate access to educational resources and support services. 2. Children's Test Scores: Children's test scores are influenced by various factors, including the quality of their school, the effectiveness of their teachers, and the resources available to support their learning. In poor schools, children may have limited access to educational opportunities, experienced teachers, and supportive learning environments, leading to lower test scores. 3. Critical Mass: The concept of critical mass suggests that the concentration of disadvantaged students in a school can create a negative learning environment that adversely affects student outcomes. In poor schools with a critical mass of disadvantaged students, there may be a lack of peer support, limited access to academic resources, and lower academic expectations, all of which can contribute to lower test scores and academic achievement. Overall, the concept of critical mass helps explain how the concentration of disadvantaged students in poor schools can create a cycle of low achievement and underperformance that perpetuates educational inequalities and disparities in test scores. 6. Use two sociological concepts that could help explain the result that religious parents may be more involved with their children than other parents. (Suggestions: effective community, social capital, social control, support group.) Answer: Two sociological concepts that could help explain why religious parents may be more involved with their children than other parents are: 1. Social Capital: Religious communities often provide social support networks, resources, and opportunities for parental involvement and engagement. Religious parents may have access to social capital through their participation in religious organizations, such as churches, synagogues, or mosques, which offer family-oriented activities, parenting classes, and support groups that promote parental involvement in children's lives. 2. Effective Community: Religious communities often serve as effective communities that promote shared values, norms, and expectations regarding family life and parental responsibilities. Religious parents may feel a sense of belonging and community within their religious congregation, which motivates them to be actively involved in their children's lives and education. Effective communities provide opportunities for socialization, support, and collective action that encourage parental involvement and engagement in children's upbringing. Chapter 7 Couple Formation and Sexual Relations INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION Chapter 7 presents the chronological beginning of couple formation, from dating all the way to cohabitation and/or marriage. It also discusses casual sexual relations, sexuality(ies) as well as sexual identities. A section on singlehood has been added and expanded upon as more and more persons remain single throughout the world and do so for a longer period of time. (The first edition contained a section on singlehood that had to be eliminated for space considerations in the second edition.) CHAPTER LINKAGES The theme of diversity (Chapter 1) is the cornerstone of this chapter: homosexual and heterosexual couples; uncommitted and committed sex; couples who cohabit, others who marry; individuals who remain single; young and older sexualities. The themes of gender roles and gender inequality (Chapter 1) return in many sections, including dating, teen sexuality, cohabitation, and marriage. This topic is also linked to exchange theory. Some of the elements involved in partner selection link with Chapter 2 in terms of ethnicity, Chapter 4 in terms of social class, and Chapter 6 in terms of religion. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS Discuss the pros and cons of early dating. What role does the social construction of adolescence play in this respect? Internet dating should be quite the discussion topic! It involves issues of self-presentation (symbolic interactionism), of criteria for partner selection, of gender differences in these respects, of outcomes or results, and so on. Actually, an instructor could devise an interesting little questionnaire that could be distributed to the class asking students about the sources of their dating partners and the results. (One has to be careful, however, to structure the questions in such a way so that students who do not date do not feel excluded.) The results could be presented the following week and would lead to a discussion. What are the differences between courtship and dating now? Students can do a cross-cultural comparison of the age of onset of sexual intercourse with a linkage to each society's culture and family values as well as social constructs. The topic of online infidelity and pornography should also give rise to discussion. An issue here is how this double phenomenon relates to consumerism and how it affects couples’ lives together. As well, one can critique how for-profit websites promote the notion that “everyone is doing it” for their own gains. Students should begin establishing linkages between this chapter and previous ones in terms of gender roles, gender differences, and gender stratification, as this theme continues to grow in importance. Discuss arranged marriages (Chapter 2) as well as polygamy (Chapter 1) within the contexts and concepts presented in the current chapter. Many of the questions asked by students in the Student’s Guide lend themselves to class discussion, especially as they emphasize certain concepts related to a western pattern of life as well as western social desirability and social constructs. SUGGESTED MEDIA An interesting new website on teen sexuality is that of www.itsateensworld.com although I am not sure if it is being updated. SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Why could it be said that early dating (9 to 14 years of age) may be detrimental in terms of human development? Answer: Early dating (9 to 14 years of age) may be detrimental to human development for several reasons: 1. Social and Emotional Immaturity: Children in this age group are still developing socially and emotionally. Early dating may lead to premature exposure to romantic relationships and adult-like behaviors for which they are not emotionally prepared, potentially leading to confusion, anxiety, and relationship difficulties. 2. Risk of Negative Experiences: Early dating may expose children to situations they are not equipped to handle, such as peer pressure, manipulation, coercion, and sexual experimentation. This can increase the risk of negative experiences such as dating violence, sexual coercion, and early sexual activity, which can have long-term consequences for physical and emotional well-being. 3. Impact on Academic Performance: Early dating may distract children from their academic responsibilities, leading to a decline in school performance, decreased motivation, and disengagement from educational activities. This can have long-term implications for their academic success and future opportunities. 4. Development of Healthy Relationships: Early dating may interfere with the development of healthy relationship skills, such as communication, conflict resolution, and boundary-setting. Children who engage in early dating may be more likely to experience difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy relationships later in life. Overall, early dating may be detrimental to human development as it can interfere with social, emotional, and academic development, as well as the development of healthy relationship skills and behaviors. 2. Use exchange theory and feminism to explain the gendered nature of dating. (Need to return to Chapter 1.) Answer: Exchange theory and feminism provide insights into the gendered nature of dating: 1. Exchange Theory: According to exchange theory, individuals engage in social interactions, including dating, based on the expectation of receiving rewards and minimizing costs. In the context of dating, men and women may have different expectations and motivations based on gender roles and societal norms. • Men as Providers: Traditional gender roles position men as providers and women as caregivers. In the context of dating, men may seek partners who fulfill traditional femininity ideals, such as physical attractiveness and youthfulness, while women may seek partners who offer resources, status, and protection. • Gendered Expectations: Exchange theory suggests that men and women engage in dating based on the perceived benefits they can receive from a potential partner. Men may seek physical attractiveness and youthfulness in women, while women may seek financial stability, social status, and emotional support in men. 2. Feminist Perspective: Feminism highlights the ways in which gender roles, power dynamics, and societal expectations influence dating behavior and relationships. • Gendered Power Dynamics: Feminist perspectives emphasize the unequal power dynamics between men and women in dating relationships, influenced by patriarchal norms and expectations. • Objectification of Women: Feminist perspectives critique the objectification of women in dating culture, where women are often valued primarily for their physical appearance and sexual attractiveness, rather than their individuality, intelligence, and achievements. Overall, exchange theory and feminism provide complementary insights into the gendered nature of dating, highlighting the ways in which gender roles, power dynamics, and societal expectations shape dating behavior and relationships. 3. Is endogamy in partner selection functional? Answer: Endogamy, or the practice of marrying within one's social, cultural, or religious group, can serve functional purposes: 1. Preservation of Cultural Identity: Endogamous marriages help preserve cultural traditions, values, and practices within a community or group. Marrying within one's cultural or religious group can strengthen social cohesion, maintain cultural continuity, and reinforce group identity. 2. Social Cohesion and Solidarity: Endogamous marriages contribute to social cohesion and solidarity within a community or group by reinforcing social ties, networks, and relationships. Marrying within the same social, cultural, or religious group promotes a sense of belonging, mutual support, and shared values and beliefs. 3. Interpersonal Compatibility: Endogamous marriages may increase the likelihood of interpersonal compatibility and marital satisfaction by reducing cultural and religious differences between partners. Shared cultural background, values, and beliefs can facilitate communication, understanding, and harmony in marital relationships. However, endogamy can also have limitations, such as perpetuating social inequalities, limiting individual choice and autonomy, and reinforcing social boundaries and divisions between different groups or communities. Overall, the functional benefits of endogamy in partner selection must be balanced with considerations of individual choice, diversity, and social equality. 4. Is cohabitational sex more satisfying than marital sex? Answer: The satisfaction levels in cohabitational sex versus marital sex can vary depending on individual preferences, relationship dynamics, and personal experiences: 1. Cohabitational Sex: • Cohabitational sex may be perceived as more satisfying for some individuals due to the absence of formal commitment and the freedom to explore sexual compatibility without the legal or social constraints of marriage. • Cohabitating partners may feel less pressure to conform to traditional gender roles and expectations, allowing for more open communication, experimentation, and sexual exploration. • However, cohabitational relationships may also experience challenges such as uncertainty about the future, lack of stability, and unresolved conflicts, which can impact sexual satisfaction. 2. Marital Sex: • Marital sex may be perceived as more satisfying for some individuals due to the emotional intimacy, commitment, and security that marriage provides. • Married couples may feel a greater sense of trust, connection, and emotional support, which can enhance sexual satisfaction and intimacy. • However, marital relationships may also experience challenges such as routine, boredom, and relationship stress, which can impact sexual satisfaction over time. Overall, the satisfaction levels in cohabitational sex versus marital sex are subjective and can vary depending on individual preferences, relationship dynamics, and personal experiences. 5. Illustrate how social constructionism can be a useful theory in the current chapter. Answer: Social constructionism can be a useful theory in understanding the dynamics of dating, relationships, and sexuality: 1. Construction of Dating Norms: Social constructionism helps us understand how societal norms, values, and beliefs shape the institution of dating. Dating rituals, expectations, and behaviors are socially constructed and vary across cultures, historical periods, and social contexts. 2. Construction of Relationship Roles: Social constructionism helps us understand how gender roles, power dynamics, and relationship norms are socially constructed within dating and marital relationships. Gendered expectations, roles, and behaviors are socially constructed and influence dating practices, partner selection, and relationship dynamics. 3. Construction of Sexual Identity: Social constructionism helps us understand how sexual identity, orientation, and behavior are socially constructed within society. Sexual norms, values, and attitudes are socially constructed and influence individuals' experiences of dating, relationships, and sexuality. Overall, social constructionism provides a useful framework for understanding how dating, relationships, and sexuality are socially constructed within society, shaped by cultural norms, values, and beliefs. 6. Illustrate how consumerism is a useful concept for some dimensions of this chapter. Answer: Consumerism is a useful concept for understanding the intersection of dating, relationships, and consumer culture: 1. Commodification of Relationships: Consumerism contributes to the commodification of relationships, where dating and romantic interactions are framed as consumer transactions. Individuals may approach dating and relationships with consumerist attitudes, seeking partners who fulfill specific criteria or attributes like products on a market. 2. Marketing of Romance: Consumer culture promotes the marketing of romance through various media channels such as advertising, entertainment, and social media. The portrayal of idealized romantic relationships in consumer culture can shape individuals' expectations, desires, and behaviors within dating and relationships. 3. Consumerist Practices in Dating: Consumerist practices such as online dating platforms, matchmaking services, and speed dating events reflect the commodification of relationships and the consumer-driven nature of modern dating culture. Individuals may approach dating as consumers, seeking to maximize their choices, options, and satisfaction. Overall, consumerism influences various dimensions of dating, relationships, and sexuality, shaping individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and experiences within the realm of romance and intimacy. 7. Returning to the presentation on polygamy in Chapter 1, which aspects of the current chapter could be brought in as applicable to this topic? Answer: In the context of the current chapter, several aspects could be brought in as applicable to the topic of polygamy: 1. Social Construction of Marriage: Polygamy reflects a different social construction of marriage compared to monogamy. The acceptance or rejection of polygamy is influenced by cultural norms, values, and beliefs surrounding marriage, family, and gender roles. 2. Gender Dynamics: Polygamous relationships often involve complex gender dynamics, power imbalances, and social hierarchies. The practice of polygamy may reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations, particularly regarding the roles of men and women within the family and community. 3. Social Inequality: Polygamy can perpetuate social inequality and disparities within communities, particularly regarding access to resources, status, and power. The distribution of resources, attention, and affection among multiple spouses and children may create competition, jealousy, and conflict within polygamous families. Overall, the discussion of polygamy in Chapter 1 can be expanded upon in the current chapter to explore its social, cultural, and gendered dimensions within the context of dating, relationships, and family life. 8. How can you fit arranged marriage (from Chapter 2) in the current chapter? Answer: Arranged marriage can be fitted into the current chapter in the following ways: 1. Social Construction of Marriage: Arranged marriage reflects a different social construction of marriage compared to love-based or self-selected marriages. The practice of arranged marriage is shaped by cultural norms, values, and beliefs surrounding family, marriage, and kinship. 2. Dating and Relationship Norms: Arranged marriage challenges Western norms of dating and partner selection, emphasizing familial involvement, compatibility, and long-term commitment over individual choice and romantic love. 3. Gender Dynamics: Arranged marriage often involves complex gender dynamics, power dynamics, and social expectations. The roles of men and women within arranged marriages may be influenced by traditional gender roles, family expectations, and cultural norms. Overall, the discussion of arranged marriage in Chapter 2 can be integrated into the current chapter to explore its social, cultural, and gendered dimensions within the context of dating, relationships, and family life. 9. How can you link the phenomenon of an increasing proportion of young and even middle-aged persons who remain single in many parts of the world to economic forces? Answer: The increasing proportion of young and middle-aged persons who remain single in many parts of the world can be linked to economic forces in the following ways: 1. Financial Independence: Economic opportunities, particularly for women, have increased in many parts of the world, allowing individuals to achieve financial independence and stability without relying on marriage for economic support. 2. Changing Employment Patterns: Changes in employment patterns, such as the rise of precarious work, temporary employment, and gig economy jobs, have made it more difficult for individuals to achieve financial stability and security, making marriage and family formation less of a priority. 3. Housing Affordability: The increasing cost of housing in urban areas has made it more difficult for individuals to afford independent living arrangements, leading to delayed marriage and family formation as individuals prioritize financial stability and housing security. 4. Education and Career Goals: Increasing educational and career opportunities have led many individuals to prioritize personal and professional goals over marriage and family formation, delaying marriage until later in life. Overall, economic forces such as financial independence, changing employment patterns, housing affordability, and education and career goals contribute to the increasing proportion of young and middle-aged persons who remain single in many parts of the world. Instructor Manual for Changing Families: Relationships in Context Anne-Marie Ambert 9780321968586
