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This document contains Chapters 11 to 14 Chapter 11 Sibling Relationships and Situations INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION The relationship between siblings can be examined in the light of interactional-transactional as well as developmental or life course frameworks. Furthermore, this relationship is gendered and, as such, can benefit from the lenses of feminism. The theme of women as kin-keepers runs through several sections of this chapter as sisters nurture brothers, for instance. Apart from the fact that few family textbooks devote an entire chapter to the sibling relationship, an innovative feature of this chapter resides in the sections on the interaction between genes and environment. The recourse to the discipline of behaviour genetics on such a scale (albeit still modest) is unique in sociology family textbooks. Yet, behaviour genetics can be utilized in a far more sociologically oriented framework than has been the case until now. Currently, it is still relegated to the domain of psychology. It also needs to be critiqued sociologically, and this is done at the end of this chapter. An excellent introduction to behaviour genetics for instructors can be found in D’Onofrio and Lahey, 2010, which is listed in the textbook’s bibliography. ADDITIONAL CLASS MATERIAL More on Behaviour Genetics As this is the first chapter that discusses behaviour genetics at greater length, an instructor may wish to return to the section in Chapter 1 as a basis for a lecture on the topic. My experience is that sociology and family studies students have been so little exposed to this perspective that I often had to give the same lecture twice: Once at the beginning of the course and then again a couple of months later. Students do not mind at all; actually, the topic fascinates them. By now, a good approach is to summarize what they already have learned about it and a good beginning is the vignette about the neonates in the preceding chapter. It is important to explain that infants arrive in the world culturally naked but clothed with innate predispositions. The minute a doctor, nurse, or parent comes into contact with them and responds to them, culture or nurture begins to work. Innate predispositions or characteristics include the child's physical appearance, health, personality traits, and abilities that are already visible as well as others that will become visible only later on. (Many genetic predispositions materialize only later on in life. A case in point is puberty. Although we are genetically wired to undergo puberty, this takes place several years after birth and its timing also depends on cultural or environmental factors such as nutrition.) Innateness is divided into three parts: (a) the purely genetic aspect, that is, the combination of and interaction between the various genes the baby has inherited when the ovum was fertilized by the spermatozoid; (b) spontaneous mutations within some genes; (c) the effects of the intrauterine environment on the fetus's development, including mutations. This effect is of social and cultural origins; this means that a child's innateness at birth has already been affected by culture, albeit indirectly. This intra-uterine environment includes a mother's malnutrition, certain foods, drug intake, alcohol consumption, smoking, lack of certain vitamins, exposure to pollutants and radiation that can affect the growth of the fetus and can even damage some genes. This also includes blows a mother may have received, her being involved in a motor vehicle accident, or her level of stress while pregnant. Poverty is a potent source of intra-uterine negative effects. Finally, some mothers have a "tired" womb: They have given birth to too many babies too rapidly. Others have a "crowded" womb: They carry twins, triplets, etc. These fetuses then have to compete for space and nutrition and for their placement in the womb (at the bottom, for instance); these factors may have an impact on the development of their brain or lungs. Students have surprisingly little knowledge about these elements even though they once upon a time learned them in biology courses. Furthermore, depending on the social class of one's students, one can actually turn this lecture into a useful public service by promoting good prenatal health care while giving a sociology or family studies class. One can also return to the theme of social inequalities and link it to a child's opportunities in life: The latter begin to take shape in the womb unless intervention occurs. Another aspect worth emphasizing to students at this point is the genetic inheritance part: Not only that half of the genes comes from each parent but that it is the combination of the genes received that is the crux of the matter for sibling differences/similarities. This can be turned into a class discussion as students can provide illustrative examples from their own families. Another related factor that students need to be reminded of is that, if both parents carry similar genes for a given trait (say hair colour or similarity of IQ), offspring are much more likely to inherit it: They get a "double dose." Furthermore, there are genes that can be activated only when both parents are carriers. For instance, when both parents pass a set of negative genes to the baby, even though neither parent suffers from the problem that comes with the genes, the genetic combination has a large chance of being activated, particularly when the environment provides a negative push in this direction. For instance, there are fathers who carry one of the genes for schizophrenia but they are themselves not afflicted by the disease: They are mere carriers. However, if married to a woman who carries the complementary genes, these two parents' genetic make-up combined can then pass on all the genes necessary to trigger schizophrenia: One or more of their children may suffer from the illness. Of course, when a parent is both genetically predisposed for schizophrenia and suffers from it, then genetic inheritance is more likely than when a parent is a mere carrier. (Simple language like this avoids having to lecture about recessive genes, dominant genes, polymorphisms, etc., which take us too far afield from sociology.) The third aspect that deserves to be stressed is that most genetic predispositions do not unavoidably result in their behavioural manifestations. Genes are not destiny, except at the very ends of the spectrum. For instance, predispositions for a very low IQ are always activated, no matter the environment. (However, as we see in the text, the environment can alleviate the child's negative genetic inheritance.) But very few people are at the extreme end of a genetic predisposition, so that, for about 90 percent of the population, what counts in the behavioural manifestation of genes is the environment. This applies to everything from aggressiveness to ability to draw, to hyperactivity, to simple depression, to self-control. Ultimately, it is generally the environment that dictates the behavioural manifestation of genes. It is the environment that provides opportunities for the manifestation of predispositions, both positive and negative, and the persistence of the related behaviours. Adopted Children It has been found, somewhat to the surprise of researchers initially, that adopted children resemble their adoptive parents most, in terms of personality, when they are small and less so as they become adolescents and then adults. This means that adoptive parents and the environment they provide do influence small children's personalities to some extent. But, as these children grow, innate predispositions tend to predominate, as they do for non-adopted children. Children then begin to make their own choices in life and they become less similar to their adoptive parents. This occurs because they often make choices according to their genetic predispositions when they live in a society that is complex enough to allow them the opportunity to make a variety of choices, and thus to activate genetic predispositions that could not be activated in a small, uniform society. Socialization theory would lead us to expect that the longer a child lives with adoptive parents, the more similar to them that child becomes. But this occurs only in early childhood for the personality characteristics that have been tested. Two critiques are necessary here. First, it should be noted that most of the characteristics that have been tested relate to personality or temperamental traits because it is psychologists who do this sort of testing. However, one could hypothesize that, on cultural characteristics such as values, habits, career aspirations, religious beliefs, and general lifestyle, adopted children would show a substantial level of similarity with their adoptive parents via the socialization process. Indeed, both students’ autobiographies relevant to this topic and emails received from adopted adults, adoptive parents, and reunited birth mothers supported this hypothesis. The second caveat returns us to the matter of the type of society involved: Behaviour genetic studies on adoption have been carried out in large, complex western societies. We do not really know to what extent some of the results of behaviour genetics would apply universally or cross-culturally (which is a sociological critique of this discipline). In western societies, on dimensions such as achievement and interests, adoptive parents may continue to have a great deal of influence because of the environment they provide, both inside and outside the family. In fact, adopted children often have higher achievement scores than would be expected given their biological parentage but lower scores than would be expected on the basis of the social background and characteristics of their adoptive parents. Another aspect of adoption studies resides in the comparison of adoptive and biological siblings. While there is generally a greater sibling similarity among biological than adoptive siblings, siblings in general are not generally very similar, unless their parents happen to be much alike in terms of abilities, personality, and even physical appearance. As we see in the text, another factor that can make siblings more similar in terms of values and lifestyle is a powerful, shared family and school environment. Twins as Persons One type of sibling relationship I wanted to discuss in the textbook was that between siblings who are twins or higher-order births such as triplets. There should be quite a lot of research on this intriguing topic because multiple births happen much more frequently than in the past. Not only is this an intriguing topic but it is one that offers interesting ways of testing some of the elements of symbolic interactionism as well as interactional theories. Yet, most studies that have been done on twins' relationships are decades old. It seems that, in their eagerness to use twins for the testing of behaviour genetic theories, researchers have all but forgotten about the twins themselves as human beings, about their relationship with their parents, the quality of their relationship among themselves, and with their peers and other siblings. This is a regrettable gap in the literature. CHAPTER LINKAGES Gender is again a recurrent theme in this chapter, as was the case in previous ones, especially 1, 7, 9, and 10. The interactional perspective is a second recurring theme already encountered in Chapters 1, 9 and 10. A third linkage with previous chapters as well as with Chapter 1 is that of behaviour genetics. In Chapter 11, we look at sibling relationships over time; hence, the longitudinal and family developmental aspect returns and link with Chapter 1 and some aspects of Chapters 8 and 10. This chapter, especially its section on Differential Parental Treatment, can also be linked to Chapter 10. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS Students who have access to families in which there are siblings could do some observation in different settings and bring this observation to class for discussion. How similar/different are the siblings? Or, yet, could use this as the basis for a paper or a class project. A similar suggestion could be made for those who have access to families with twins. Someone could write a paper on why and how twins can be studied from the perspective of symbolic interactionism. The students’ quotes in the Student’s Study guide can be used for discussion. SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss older siblings as agents of socialization for younger siblings in childhood and adolescence. Include spacing in your response. Answer: Older siblings often serve as significant agents of socialization for their younger siblings during childhood and adolescence. In Childhood: • Role Modeling: Older siblings act as role models for younger siblings, demonstrating behaviors, attitudes, and social skills that younger siblings may imitate and learn from. • Teaching and Learning: Older siblings play a teaching role, helping younger siblings learn essential skills such as language development, social interaction, and problem-solving. • Social Support: Older siblings provide emotional support and companionship to younger siblings, offering comfort, reassurance, and guidance during times of stress or uncertainty. In Adolescence: • Peer Influence: Older siblings often introduce younger siblings to new peer groups, social activities, and cultural interests, shaping their socialization experiences and peer relationships. • Advice and Guidance: Older siblings offer advice and guidance to younger siblings on various topics such as school, friendships, dating, and personal development. • Identity Formation: Older siblings play a significant role in shaping younger siblings' identity formation, providing feedback, validation, and support as they navigate adolescence and explore their sense of self. Overall, older siblings serve as important socialization agents for younger siblings, providing guidance, support, and influence during childhood and adolescence. 2. What role does gender play in sibling relationships during childhood and adolescence? Answer: Gender plays a significant role in shaping sibling relationships during childhood and adolescence: Childhood: • Socialization: Gender socialization influences how siblings interact and relate to each other. Siblings may be socialized into traditional gender roles, leading to different expectations and behaviors based on gender. • Shared Activities: Siblings may engage in gender-typed activities and play preferences. For example, brothers may engage in rough-and-tumble play, while sisters may engage in nurturing or domestic play. • Sibling Hierarchies: Gender can influence sibling hierarchies and power dynamics within the family. Traditional gender norms may lead to older brothers exerting more authority and control over younger siblings, particularly sisters. Adolescence: • Peer Influence: Gender socialization continues to shape sibling relationships in adolescence. Siblings may reinforce or challenge traditional gender norms and stereotypes within their peer groups. • Identity Formation: Siblings may play a role in each other's gender identity formation and exploration. They may provide support, validation, and feedback as siblings navigate questions of gender identity and expression. • Conflict and Cooperation: Gender differences may contribute to conflict and competition between siblings, particularly during adolescence. Siblings may compete for parental attention, resources, and approval based on gender norms and expectations. Overall, gender influences sibling relationships by shaping socialization experiences, shared activities, power dynamics, identity formation, and conflict resolution during childhood and adolescence. 3. What are the potential negative and positive effects on parents when their children share the same group of peers? Answer: Potential Negative Effects: • Overlapping Social Boundaries: Parents may experience a loss of privacy and autonomy when their children share the same group of peers. Their social lives may become intertwined with their children's social lives, leading to a loss of independence. • Parental Pressure: Parents may feel pressure to monitor and control their children's behavior when they share the same group of peers. They may worry about their children's social relationships, activities, and influences. • Increased Conflict: Sharing the same group of peers can lead to increased conflict and tension between parents and children. Differences in values, expectations, and boundaries may cause friction within the family. Potential Positive Effects: • Shared Social Activities: Parents may enjoy participating in shared social activities, events, and outings with their children and their children's peers. This can strengthen family bonds and create positive memories. • Increased Communication: Sharing the same group of peers may facilitate open communication and dialogue between parents and children. Parents may have more insight into their children's social lives, interests, and concerns. • Supportive Network: Parents may benefit from having a supportive network of other parents whose children share the same group of peers. They can exchange advice, support, and resources related to parenting and child development. Overall, sharing the same group of peers can have both positive and negative effects on parents, depending on the nature of their relationships with their children and their children's peers. 4. Do divorce and remarriage increase sibling cohesiveness? Answer: Divorce and remarriage can have complex effects on sibling relationships and sibling cohesiveness: Effects of Divorce: • Increased Cohesion: Divorce may lead to increased sibling cohesion as siblings rely on each other for emotional support, companionship, and stability during times of family transition and change. • Shared Experiences: Siblings may bond over shared experiences related to divorce, such as adjusting to new living arrangements, coping with parental conflict, and navigating changes in family dynamics. • Protective Function: Siblings may serve as a source of stability and continuity for each other during and after divorce, providing a sense of security and belonging in the face of family disruption. Effects of Remarriage: • Mixed Effects: Remarriage can have mixed effects on sibling relationships. Sibling cohesion may increase if step-siblings form positive relationships and support each other through the transition. • New Family Dynamics: Remarriage introduces new family dynamics, roles, and relationships that can impact sibling cohesion. Siblings may need to adjust to blended family arrangements and negotiate new relationships with step-siblings and stepparents. • Challenges and Opportunities: Remarriage may present both challenges and opportunities for sibling relationships. Siblings may experience conflict, competition, and adjustment difficulties as they navigate changes in family structure and dynamics. Overall, the effects of divorce and remarriage on sibling cohesiveness depend on a variety of factors, including the quality of sibling relationships, family communication, parental support, and the ability to adapt to change. 5. Do parents treat their children differently? Answer: Yes, parents often treat their children differently for several reasons: 1. Birth Order: Parents may treat their children differently based on birth order. First-born children may receive more attention and responsibility, while younger siblings may receive less attention but more leniency. 2. Gender: Parents may treat their children differently based on gender stereotypes and expectations. They may have different expectations, rules, and opportunities for sons and daughters. 3. Personality and Temperament: Parents may adapt their parenting style to accommodate the unique personality and temperament of each child. They may use different strategies and approaches based on each child's individual needs and characteristics. 4. Parental Favoritism: Parents may unintentionally show favoritism toward one child over others, leading to differences in attention, praise, and discipline. 5. Life Circumstances: Parents may treat their children differently based on life circumstances such as marital status, financial situation, stress levels, and parental well-being. Overall, while parents may strive to treat their children fairly and equally, differences in birth order, gender, personality, parental favoritism, and life circumstances often result in variations in parental treatment and behavior. 6. (This can also be an analytical question.) Suppose that a survey of adults finds that those who report having received less positive parental attention than their siblings have a higher rate of emotional problems. a. Prove that these findings are biased or wrong. b. Prove that these findings are correct. Answer: a. Prove that these findings are biased or wrong: • Third Variable Problem: The association between less positive parental attention and higher rates of emotional problems may be due to a third variable, such as family conflict, parental mental health issues, or socioeconomic status. • Memory Bias: Participants may have biased or inaccurate memories of their childhood experiences, leading to unreliable self-reporting of parental attention and emotional problems. • Selective Reporting: Participants with emotional problems may be more likely to recall and report negative experiences with their parents, while those without emotional problems may underreport or overlook similar experiences. b. Prove that these findings are correct: • Family Systems Theory: Less positive parental attention may lead to emotional problems through the mechanism of family dynamics and relationships. Lack of parental warmth, support, and validation can contribute to feelings of low self-worth, anxiety, and depression. • Developmental Psychology: Children who receive less positive parental attention may lack the emotional support, guidance, and validation needed for healthy psychological development. This can lead to long-term emotional problems in adulthood. • Longitudinal Studies: Longitudinal studies that track individuals over time provide evidence for the long-term impact of early experiences of parental attention on emotional well-being in adulthood. Overall, while there may be potential biases and limitations in the findings, there is also theoretical and empirical support for the link between less positive parental attention and higher rates of emotional problems in adulthood. 7. In what circumstances are stepsiblings most likely to develop a close adult relationship? Answer: Stepsiblings are most likely to develop a close adult relationship under the following circumstances: 1. Positive Family Environment: Stepsiblings are more likely to develop a close relationship in families where there is a positive and supportive family environment. Open communication, mutual respect, and shared family activities can foster a sense of belonging and connection among stepsiblings. 2. Shared Experiences: Stepsiblings who have shared experiences, interests, and values are more likely to develop a close relationship. Common interests, hobbies, and activities can provide opportunities for bonding and building rapport. 3. Parental Support: Supportive parenting and parental encouragement can facilitate positive relationships between stepsiblings. Parents can play a role in fostering cooperation, communication, and conflict resolution skills among stepsiblings. 4. Time and Patience: Developing a close adult relationship with stepsiblings may take time and patience. Stepsiblings may need time to adjust to new family dynamics, establish trust, and build a sense of camaraderie and mutual respect. Overall, stepsiblings are most likely to develop a close adult relationship in families where there is a supportive and nurturing environment, shared experiences, parental support, and time to build rapport and trust. 8. Under what circumstances are siblings most likely to be similar? Give at least two circumstances. Answer: Siblings are most likely to be similar under the following circumstances: 1. Shared Environment: Siblings who grow up in the same family environment are more likely to share similar experiences, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Shared parenting practices, family routines, and cultural influences contribute to sibling similarity. 2. Genetic Similarity: Siblings share approximately 50% of their genetic makeup, making them genetically similar. Genetic factors contribute to similarities in physical appearance, personality traits, cognitive abilities, and temperament among siblings. Overall, siblings are most likely to be similar when they share a common environment and genetic background, leading to similarities in values, behaviors, and characteristics. 9. Use twins reared apart and others together to explain the role of genes and environment on personality formation. Answer: Twins reared apart and twins reared together provide valuable insights into the relative contributions of genes and environment to personality formation: • Twins Reared Together: • Twins reared together share both genes and environment, allowing researchers to examine the combined influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality. • Similarities in personality between twins reared together can be attributed to both genetic and environmental factors. However, differences in personality may also arise due to unique environmental experiences and individual differences in gene expression. • Twins Reared Apart: • Twins reared apart share genetic similarities but grow up in different environments, allowing researchers to assess the relative influence of genes and environment on personality. • Similarities in personality between twins reared apart suggest a strong genetic influence on personality traits. Even when raised in different environments, twins often show remarkable similarities in personality. • Differences in personality between twins reared apart can be attributed to environmental factors, including unique life experiences, parenting styles, cultural influences, and social relationships. Overall, studies of twins reared together and twins reared apart suggest that both genes and environment play significant roles in personality formation. While genetics provide a foundation for personality traits, environmental factors shape how these traits are expressed and manifested in individuals' lives. 10. Discuss parental influence within the context of genes. Answer: Parental influence on child development operates within the context of genes in the following ways: 1. Genetic Transmission: • Parents pass on their genes to their children, influencing their genetic makeup and predispositions. • Genetic factors inherited from parents contribute to children's physical traits, temperament, personality, and cognitive abilities. 2. Gene-Environment Interplay: • Parents create environments that interact with children's genetic predispositions, shaping their development and behavior. • Parenting practices, family dynamics, and the home environment can either support or suppress certain genetic predispositions in children. 3. Epigenetic Processes: • Parental behaviors and environmental influences can modify gene expression through epigenetic processes. • Environmental factors such as parenting styles, stress, nutrition, and exposure to toxins can influence how genes are expressed in children, impacting their development and health outcomes. 4. Niche-Picking and Socialization: • Children actively seek out environments and experiences that match their genetic predispositions, a process known as niche-picking. • Parents socialize children based on their own values, beliefs, and behaviors, influencing how genetic predispositions are expressed and manifested in children's lives. Overall, parental influence operates within the context of genes, with genetic factors interacting with environmental influences to shape children's development, behavior, and outcomes. While genes provide a foundation for development, parental influence and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping how genetic predispositions are expressed and realized in children's lives. Chapter 12 Divorce, Widowhood, and Remarriage INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION This is a fairly typical chapter found in all textbooks and needs little in lieu of an introduction. There are a few sections, however, that are not generally encountered in other texts. These focus mainly on the personal relationships of divorced adults and on serial divorces. As seen in the Linkages section, other chapters in this textbook contain additional information on divorce and remarriage. Basically, the book contains a divorce and remarriage module. ADDITIONAL CLASS MATERIAL How to Measure Divorce? The segments on how to measure divorce have been eliminated from this second edition as some instructors felt that this was too steep an introduction to divorce. Therefore, an instructor interested in teaching about proper measures of divorce can refer to the divorce paper I have published for the Vanier Institute of the Family website at www.vifamily.ca/ in the section on Contemporary Family Trends. Stepparents' Rights and Responsibilities The stepparenting role is not sufficiently institutionalized. Not only are there few guidelines helping adults who assume the role but few for children who become stepchildren--more often than not against their own preferences. Stepparents, particularly those who reside with their stepchildren, generally undertake some forms of responsibility toward them. But they have no commensurate rights. To begin with, most stepfathers and even some stepmothers contribute to these children's economic well-being. We have seen that marriage and stable cohabitation improve a single mother's economic situation as well as that of her children. Frequently, stepfathers' financial responsibilities to their new conjugal unit clash with those toward their own children who live elsewhere. Further, after a second divorce, a few mothers are even able to obtain child support payments from their ex-husband (who is the children's stepfather), after having shown that the stepfather had been their children's main form of economic security. But, at the same time, the stepfather has no visitation rights and cannot see children he may have loved and whom he is contributing to support. They are now his "former" stepchildren. These are very difficult issues and, as we have seen in Chapter 8, many stepfathers resort to adopting their stepchildren in order to legalize their situation. In itself, this presents some difficulties because our society is not used to the idea of a child having one mother and two fathers. Further, the well-meaning notion of giving stepparents legal visitation rights after a divorce is a minefield of complexities. It gives rise to so many questions: After how many years of marriage does a stepparent acquire such rights? What if the children do not want to see him or her? This is a problem that many fathers already experience, and this reminds us that the children already have a parent to visit. Can they afford the time to accommodate a stepparent? And what about the difference between a stepparent the children have lived with versus one who was seen occasionally when visiting the noncustodial parent? What happens in cases of joint custody when a child has alternated between two homes, one in which a stepmother and the father lived and the other in which a stepfather and the mother lived? Stepparents' rights and responsibilities might be enacted in a two-step process. First, society might choose to focus on live-in stepparents and delineate their rights and responsibilities for the duration of the marriage. A second step could consider the advisability of stepparents' rights and responsibilities following a divorce. However, what is intriguing in the policy debates on this issue is that there is little in terms of spelling out children's rights and responsibilities concerning the stepparent. Actually, while children have rights concerning their own parents, they have practically no legal responsibilities toward them. This situation flows from social constructions of children as helpless creatures in need of protection, while the reality is that they both need protection and are active social actors. CHAPTER LINKAGES The contents of this chapter contribute to a module on divorce and remarriage. They are complemented by a section on the economic consequences of divorce in Chapter 4; by the section on stepsibling relations in Chapter 11; by the sections on grandparenting and stepparenting after divorce in Chapter 10; by the section on the division of labour in remarriages with stepchildren and the section on the marital relationship in remarriage in Chapter 9; and stepparent adoption in Chapter 8. Some segments in Chapter 7 in the discussion on marriage may be relevant because they include results comparing married, divorced, and single adults. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS What do you think would happen to marriage and to divorce rates were the cultural focus to shift from individual happiness and fulfillment to responsibility for one's spouse's happiness? Is it possible that this mutuality could lead to greater marital satisfaction and stability? Or would it simply remove one burden placed on marriage (one's individual fulfillment) and replace it by another (the spouse's fulfillment) so that nothing would really change? Alternatively, what might happen if marriages became more sacred again, characterized by duty? It could be argued that once spouses emphasize their duty toward each other and the institution of marriage, they would put less emphasis on their own selfish motives. Then, they might be more fulfilled than it is possible to be under an individualistic frame of mind (see Kagitcibasi, 2007). Others might argue that this is an old-fashioned way of thinking. The additional class material on stepparents' rights and responsibilities could form the basis for an interesting class discussion. SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Enumerate the factors associated with divorce in their appropriate categories. Which of these factors comes the closest to being psychological in nature? [Lower threshold of tolerance.] Answer: Factors associated with divorce can be categorized into several groups: Individual Factors: • Lower threshold of tolerance (Psychological) Interpersonal Factors: • Communication problems • Infidelity • Incompatibility • Domestic violence Societal Factors: • Cultural and societal norms • Economic factors • Legal factors Among these factors, "Lower threshold of tolerance" comes the closest to being psychological in nature. 2. What is the relationship between the factors associated with divorce and some of the main reasons people give when asked why they divorced? Answer: The factors associated with divorce often align with the main reasons people give for divorcing. For example: • Communication problems can lead to divorce due to constant conflicts and misunderstandings. • Infidelity is often cited as a primary reason for divorce, reflecting interpersonal issues. • Economic factors, such as financial strain, can cause stress and contribute to divorce. • Incompatibility can lead to a breakdown in the relationship over time. 3. Which factors complicate women's adjustment after divorce? Answer: Several factors can complicate women's adjustment after divorce, including: • Economic instability due to lower wages or career interruptions during marriage. • Custody and child-rearing responsibilities, which often fall more heavily on women. • Social stigma or judgment from family, friends, or society. • Emotional impact, including loss of identity, self-esteem issues, and loneliness. 4. Why could it be said that the changes that occur in ex-spouses’ social networks after divorce are gendered? Answer: The changes in ex-spouses' social networks after divorce can be considered gendered because: • Women often experience a more significant loss in social networks post-divorce, as they may have been more integrated into their spouse's social circles. • Men, on the other hand, tend to maintain more of their original social networks, while women may have to rebuild theirs from scratch. • Women may also experience more social stigma or judgment after divorce, leading to further isolation or changes in their social networks. 5. Which are the best custodial parents: Fathers or mothers? Justify your answer with the help of the concept of capital. Answer: The best custodial parent depends on various factors, but using the concept of capital, it can be argued that mothers tend to be better custodial parents. Here's why: • Human capital: Traditionally, mothers often have more experience and education in childcare, giving them an advantage in providing emotional support and nurturing to children. • Social capital: Mothers typically have larger social networks focused on child-rearing, providing children with a broader support system. • Cultural capital: Societal norms often expect mothers to take on the primary caregiving role, and they may have developed skills and resources to fulfill this role effectively. 6. What do you think might be four effects of parents' serial divorces on children, both currently and later in their adult life, and what might cause these effects? Answer: Effects of parents' serial divorces on children, both currently and later in their adult life, may include: • Emotional instability: Constant changes in family structure can lead to feelings of insecurity and anxiety. • Difficulty forming long-term relationships: Children may struggle to trust and commit due to the instability they experienced in their family life. • Lower academic achievement: Constant disruptions in home life can impact a child's ability to focus on studies and achieve academic success. • Increased likelihood of divorce: Children of serial divorcers may model their parents' behavior, leading to a higher likelihood of divorce in their own adult lives. 7. Review two of the theories meant to explain the effect of divorce on children. Answer: Two theories meant to explain the effect of divorce on children are: • Social learning theory: Children learn from observing their parents' behavior. Divorce can model conflict resolution strategies and impact children's views on marriage and family life. • Attachment theory: Divorce can disrupt the attachment bonds between children and parents, leading to feelings of insecurity and affecting the child's emotional development. 8. Please design a Table (with numbers) that would show that children of divorced parents have more problems than those whose parents have never divorced. Answer: (Note: Numbers are for illustrative purposes only and do not represent actual statistics.) 9. Give four advantages that children who lose a parent by death have over children whose parents divorce. Answer: Advantages that children who lose a parent by death may have over children whose parents divorce include: • Closure: Children may have closure and understanding regarding the loss of their parent, which can aid in the grieving process. • Stable memories: Memories of the deceased parent remain stable and positive, without the negative impact of ongoing conflict. • Social support: Children and surviving parent often receive more social support and sympathy from others. • Less uncertainty: Children don't have to deal with the uncertainty of their parents potentially reconciling or ongoing conflict between parents. 10. Is the relationship between a person's new spouse and his or her ex-spouse an institutionalized one? Answer: Yes, the relationship between a person's new spouse and his or her ex-spouse can be considered an institutionalized one, especially if there are children involved. This relationship is institutionalized through legal structures, such as custody agreements and visitation rights, as well as social expectations regarding co-parenting and shared responsibilities. 11. Are there gender differences in children's adjustment to their parents' remarriage? Answer: Yes, there can be gender differences in children's adjustment to their parents' remarriage. Research suggests that boys may have more difficulty adjusting to stepfamily life initially, experiencing more behavioral problems and exhibiting more resistance to authority figures. On the other hand, girls may struggle more with emotional issues, such as depression and anxiety, following their parents' remarriage. However, these differences may vary depending on various factors such as age, personality, and the quality of the parent-child relationship. 12. What type of research questions would you like sociologists to explore concerning step-grandparenting? Answer: Sociologists could explore several research questions concerning step-grandparenting, including: • How do step-grandparent roles and relationships differ from biological grandparent roles and relationships? • What factors influence the quality of relationships between step-grandparents and step-grandchildren? • How do step-grandparents navigate their role in blended families, especially when there are conflicts or tensions between biological and stepfamily members? • What impact does step-grandparent involvement have on the well-being and adjustment of step-grandchildren? • How do step-grandparents negotiate boundaries and expectations within the stepfamily system? Chapter 13 Family Violence, Abuse, and Neglect INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION This chapter, as was the case for the previous one, is also a fairly typical one. It does, however, cover certain aspects of family violence at greater length, particularly in terms of the effect of spousal violence on children, sibling abuse, and abuse of parents by children. Furthermore, child abuse by peers is included because it is the most prevalent form of violence against a family member once children enter the school system. As well, peer abuse affects family relationships, family dynamics, and human development. Although the experience of abuse is a personal one, the contexts and sources of abuse and neglect are analyzed within a sociocultural and socioeconomic perspective. CHAPTER LINKAGES Dating violence and rape should perhaps bring a revisitation of some of the contents on dating and early sexuality in Chapter 7. A great deal of dating violence occurs around the issue of sexuality. Rape is a case in point. The analysis of gender stratification and gender roles presented in Chapter 1 can be brought back here to explain much of the male-female violence, even among children. This might continue the gender module suggested with the Chapter Linkages accompanying Chapter 10. One key variable is the audiovisual media (Chapter 3) as a cultural vehicle for violence and exploitation. There are several clearly delineated linkages to the chapter on neighbourhoods (Chapter 5), particularly the concentration of poverty and violence. The sections on same-sex-partner violence complement the module on same-sex couples and same-sex parent families initiated in Chapter 1, and pursued in various sections of Chapters 7 and 8. The section on the effects of spousal violence on children is closely related to the one on the effects of the parental relationship in Chapter 9. Both are part of the module on child socialization and development that contains sections from Chapter 3 (television); various parts of Chapter 2 on Aboriginal and minority children; the effect of teen parenting, cohabitation, and marriage on children in Chapter 8; the effects of poverty and schools on children in Chapters 4 and 5; the role of religion in child socialization in Chapter 6. HELP WITH ANALYTICAL QUESTION 1. The media tend to look for a direct causality path from one specific treatment by parents to the children's adult behaviour when they become spouses and/or parents themselves. The media need to "simplify" their message to reach a public that is now used to short sound bites. Thus, the media forget about other contexts that may be at the source of what appears to be a parent -> child causality. Such contexts include poverty, violence in neighbourhoods, and genetic factors. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, PAPERS Students can be asked to monitor dating, domestic, and family abuse and neglect in films, videos, and television programmes. (Content analysis.) They could also be asked to bring magazine or newspaper clippings of news items on these topics. The discourse utilized by victims, perpetrators, or simply commentators could be analyzed. In terms of discussion, I heard the following on the radio: The report that a man had been arrested for cruelty to animals. He had dragged his chained dog behind his pick-up truck and was speeding. The dog lost all his nails and under paws. The radio commentator then added: "X had been abused as a child." What does this imply? A direct causality from an unspecified type of child abuse to abuse of his pet dog. Perhaps it was the case that he had been abused as a child, but then chances are that this man had suffered a host of other deprivations as well or that his father abused animals. As it turned out, the man appeared on the television news later on. He talked to reporters while on his way to a court appearance: He was obviously intellectually deficient and had a long past of criminal misdemeanours. (He might have suffered from FASD—or Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders) This is another example of the fact that one has to consider abuse within other contexts (genetics, for one, or FASD) and within the trajectory of a life course and other socialization experiences. The "one-variable" explanation is not useful in sociological studies of causality. Life is far more complex. Once again, the quotes presented at the beginning of Chapter 13 in the Student Guide can be a springboard to class discussions. One interesting aspect, among others, is the resulting low self-esteem. In fact, the last two quotes have the same words: “worth anything.” The last quote also contains a good example of an overlooked form of child neglect: That from an absent parent—generally a father. MEDIA OPTIONS Through YouTube, one can find many video segments on domestic violence as well as incest, from the Oprah Show (because these are topics she has given much attention) to Dr Phil. One video in particular is quite relevant: Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity, by Jackson Katz, on www.youtube.com SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How can dating violence be analysed within a life course perspective? Answer: Dating violence can be analysed within a life course perspective by considering how individual experiences and interactions change over time. This perspective examines how early life experiences, such as exposure to violence in the family of origin, childhood trauma, and socialization, influence later behaviours, including dating violence perpetration or victimization. It also considers how transitions and events across the life course, such as entering into romantic relationships, marriage, parenthood, and divorce, impact the likelihood of experiencing or perpetrating dating violence. 2. Present arguments against the notion that women are as violent as men in spousal abuse. Answer: Arguments against the notion that women are as violent as men in spousal abuse include: • Gender differences in physical strength: Men, on average, tend to be physically stronger than women, making it more likely for male perpetrators to cause serious physical harm to their female partners. • Patterns of violence: Research indicates that while women may engage in violence against their partners, it is often in self-defence or as a response to ongoing abuse. In contrast, men are more likely to engage in unprovoked, severe, and controlling forms of violence. • Historical and societal context: The patriarchal nature of society has historically enabled men to exert power and control over women, resulting in higher rates of male-perpetrated spousal abuse compared to female-perpetrated abuse. 3. How is same-sex-partner violence similar to and different from opposite-sex-partner violence? Answer: Same-sex-partner violence is similar to opposite-sex-partner violence in that it involves patterns of power and control, as well as physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. However, it differs in the following ways: • Context of victimization: Same-sex-partner violence often occurs within the context of unique stressors related to sexual orientation, such as homophobia, discrimination, and stigma. • Help-seeking behaviors: Victims of same-sex-partner violence may face additional barriers to seeking help, such as fear of being outed, lack of culturally competent services, and internalized homophobia. • Perpetrator tactics: Perpetrators of same-sex-partner violence may use threats of "outing" or manipulation of gender roles within the relationship as tactics of control. 4. What are three mediating variables that play a role in the intergenerational transmission of violence, that is, from witnessing interparental violence to committing dating and partner violence? Answer: Three mediating variables that play a role in the intergenerational transmission of violence include: • Exposure to violence: Witnessing interparental violence increases the likelihood of adopting violent behaviors as a means of conflict resolution. • Trauma and psychological distress: Children who witness interparental violence are more likely to experience trauma and psychological distress, which can manifest in violent behaviors in their own relationships. • Social learning and modeling: Children learn behaviors and attitudes from their parents through observation and imitation. Witnessing interparental violence teaches children that violence is an acceptable way to resolve conflicts, leading to an increased likelihood of perpetrating dating and partner violence in the future. 5. Please do a Table (with fictive numbers) that would show that children who have been physically and psychologically abused by their parents have, on average, more problems than other children. Answer: (Note: Numbers are fictive and for illustrative purposes only.) 6. What are factors that may contribute to the transmission of child abuse from one generation to the next? Answer: Factors that may contribute to the transmission of child abuse from one generation to the next include: • History of abuse: Individuals who were abused as children may be more likely to repeat the cycle of abuse with their own children. • Social learning: Children learn from the behavior of their parents and may come to view abusive behavior as normal or acceptable. • Parental stress and coping mechanisms: Parents who lack adequate coping skills and support may be more likely to resort to abusive behaviors when under stress. • Intergenerational transmission of trauma: Trauma experienced in one generation can impact parenting practices and family dynamics in subsequent generations, increasing the risk of child abuse. 7. Discuss child sexual abuse from a life course perspective. Answer: Child sexual abuse can be understood from a life course perspective by considering how early experiences of abuse impact later development and life outcomes. This perspective examines how factors such as the age of onset, duration, and severity of abuse, as well as the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator, influence the long-term consequences of abuse. It also considers how childhood sexual abuse can affect various domains of life, including mental health, relationships, sexuality, and identity, across the life course. 8. Which type of child abuse may be most appropriately called a crime of opportunity and why? Answer: Child neglect may be most appropriately called a crime of opportunity. Unlike other forms of abuse, which often require deliberate actions by the perpetrator, neglect can occur due to a lack of action or oversight by the caregiver. In many cases, neglect occurs when caregivers fail to provide for the basic needs of the child, such as food, shelter, supervision, and medical care, often due to factors such as substance abuse, mental illness, or inadequate resources. Neglect can occur when caregivers are unable or unwilling to fulfill their responsibilities, presenting an opportunity for harm to the child. 9. Is abuse of parents by children of all ages as socially visible as child abuse by parents? Which theoretical perspective can help explain this distinction? (probably social constructionism) Answer: No, abuse of parents by children of all ages is not as socially visible as child abuse by parents. Social constructionism can help explain this distinction. According to this theoretical perspective, societal definitions of what constitutes abuse and who can be a victim or perpetrator are socially constructed. Society tends to view parents as authority figures and caregivers, making it difficult for people to recognize and acknowledge abuse by children against their parents. Additionally, societal norms often dictate that parents should be able to control and discipline their children, further obscuring the visibility of abuse by children against parents. 10. What are two sociocultural factors or variables that recur throughout the chapter on family violence and abuse which contribute to these two phenomena? (media and disadvantaged neighbourhoods) Answer: Two sociocultural factors or variables that recur throughout the chapter on family violence and abuse, contributing to these two phenomena, are: 1. Media: Media representations and sensationalized stories often shape societal perceptions of family violence and abuse. Media coverage can both highlight and distort the prevalence and nature of these phenomena, influencing public awareness, attitudes, and responses. 2. Disadvantaged neighbourhoods: Living in disadvantaged neighborhoods is associated with higher rates of family violence and abuse. Factors such as poverty, unemployment, lack of access to resources, overcrowded living conditions, and social disorganization can contribute to increased stress and conflict within families, leading to higher rates of violence and abuse. Additionally, disadvantaged neighborhoods may have limited access to support services and interventions, further exacerbating the problem. Chapter 14 Family Futures and Social Policies INSTRUCTOR'S INTRODUCTION This is a concluding chapter in the sense that it builds upon some of the knowledge accumulated through the previous chapters and completes the loop, so to speak, by revisiting the themes presented in Chapter 1. Overall, all Chapters (although not all of their contents) are directly addressed in the totality of the concluding discussion and suggested policies. SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, PROJECTS, AND PAPERS What other family-related problems would the students like to address? What would their suggestions be in terms of social policies? Students could cut out newspaper/magazine/website clippings pertaining to social policies on a topic of their choice. They can either link these clippings with a text they write or do a review of the clippings and append them. This is a project/paper which I used to give in some of my classes: It was due at the end of the first third of the class because it takes a while to gather clippings that coalesce around a particular topic. Students bring a few clippings for class discussion each week. This also allows the instructor to monitor students' ability to gather appropriate clippings in the first place: For some students, this is a difficult task as they are not used to accessing a wide variety of informative newspapers/magazines/weblinks. Write a paper linking the themes together. SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How is the theme of the effective community linked to that of a surplus of family responsibilities? Answer: The theme of the effective community is linked to the surplus of family responsibilities in that an effective community can provide support systems and resources that alleviate the burden of family responsibilities on individual families. When communities offer accessible childcare, eldercare, social services, and support networks, families are better able to manage their responsibilities. Additionally, effective communities can provide opportunities for socialization, education, and recreation, reducing the isolation and stress experienced by families. 2. Give three additional, short-term predictions concerning the future of the family that are not included in this chapter. Answer: Three additional short-term predictions concerning the future of the family could include: • Increased utilization of telecommuting and remote work options, leading to changes in family dynamics and work-life balance. • Growing acceptance and integration of non-traditional family structures, such as cohabiting couples, single-parent households, and LGBTQ+ families. • Continued reliance on technology for communication, education, and entertainment within families, leading to both positive and negative impacts on family relationships and dynamics. 3. What needs to change so that our political system can foster the development of long-term social policies pertaining to the family? Answer: To foster the development of long-term social policies pertaining to the family, several changes need to occur within the political system: • Increased bipartisan cooperation: Political parties need to work together to prioritize family-related issues and develop comprehensive, long-term policies that address the diverse needs of families. • Greater investment in social welfare programs: The political system should prioritize funding and support for social welfare programs that provide assistance to families, such as childcare subsidies, parental leave policies, affordable housing initiatives, and healthcare access. • Enhanced collaboration between government, community organizations, and businesses: Policymakers should collaborate with community organizations, businesses, and other stakeholders to develop and implement family-friendly policies and programs that promote the well-being of families and children. 4. Why do many researchers advocate that Head Start becomes more widely available for poor children and at a younger age? Answer: Many researchers advocate for expanding Head Start and making it available for poor children at a younger age because: • Early intervention: Research has shown that early childhood education programs like Head Start can have long-term positive effects on children's cognitive, social, and emotional development, as well as their academic achievement. • Addressing inequalities: Access to quality early childhood education can help mitigate the effects of poverty and inequality by providing at-risk children with the skills and support they need to succeed in school and beyond. • Cost-effectiveness: Investing in early childhood education programs like Head Start has been shown to yield significant long-term benefits, including higher graduation rates, lower rates of crime and delinquency, and increased earning potential, making it a cost-effective strategy for reducing social and economic disparities. 5. What do we mean by "the parental role should be more adequately institutionalized"? Answer: By "the parental role should be more adequately institutionalized," we mean that society should provide better support structures, policies, and resources to help parents fulfill their roles effectively. This includes: • Parental leave policies: Providing paid parental leave to both mothers and fathers to allow them to care for and bond with their newborn or adopted children. • Childcare support: Ensuring access to affordable, high-quality childcare options for working parents. • Parenting education and support programs: Offering parenting classes, support groups, and resources to help parents develop the knowledge, skills, and confidence they need to raise healthy, happy children. 6. Give three additional suggestions for social policies that would benefit families and that are not included in this chapter. Answer: Three additional suggestions for social policies that would benefit families include: • Universal basic income (UBI): Implementing a UBI would provide all families with a guaranteed income, helping to reduce poverty, inequality, and financial stress. • Affordable healthcare: Ensuring access to affordable healthcare for all families, including preventive care, mental health services, and reproductive healthcare. • Housing assistance: Expanding access to affordable housing options, rental assistance programs, and homeownership assistance to help families achieve housing stability and security. Instructor Manual for Changing Families: Relationships in Context Anne-Marie Ambert 9780321968586
