CH-15-16 Population, Urbanization, and the Environmental Crisis – Social Problems in a Diverse Society : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 16 CHAPTER 15 Population, Urbanization, and the Environmental Crisis CHAPTER SUMMARY Analysts studying demography examine (among other things) fertility, mortality, and migration, all of which have an effect on population growth and population composition. Thomas Malthus warned that overpopulation would result in major global problems such as poverty and starvation, and today neo-Malthusians echo that same concern; however, according to demographic transition theory, societies go through a series of stages in which their population first increases but then stabilizes. Although demographers suggest that limiting fertility is the best way to limit population growth, they acknowledge that the issue is fraught with controversy. Canada is nearing zero population growth despite high rates of immigration, which is changing the population composition and impacts upon the urban landscape. Although cities existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the birth of the factory system brought about rapid urbanization. As cities grew, many middle-class families moved to the suburbs, changing the nature of city life. In the suburbs—the infrastructure, schools, hospitals, and so on—are more likely to be good than they are in the often-decaying central city. Among the problems that Canadian cities are facing is a fiscal crisis (taxpayers have moved out of the cities’ taxing authority while the need for services has grown), problems with health care, and a shortage of affordable housing, which carries with it an increase in the homeless population. Racialized and ethnic segregation is becoming a problem for many. Functionalist and conflict theorists offer different explanations of urban growth and problems; interactionists examine how people experience the city, while feminists examine how women experience urban and rural areas. Along with population and urbanization concerns, come environmental problems. Throughout the world, environmental degradation is a serious concern: air and water pollution, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, and problems with the earth’s soil. Desertification is depleting the portion of the earth’s surface available for growing crops; trees and forests are being lost to deforestation. Functionalists, conflict theorists, interactionists, and feminists differ as to what solutions we should seek. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 15, students should be able to: 1. List and define the primary factors that affect population growth, and discuss whether population growth is a problem. 2. Describe the Malthusian, neo-Malthusian, and demographic transition theory perspectives on population growth. 3. Discuss how immigration is changing the population composition of Canada. 4. Discuss how cities, and the number of people who live in them, have changed over the years. 5. Describe the major problems in Canadian cities, and discuss what might be done to help resolve those problems. 6. State the causes and effects of air and water pollution and what steps are being taken or could be taken to control them. 7. Describe the problems we face regarding soil and forests. 8. Compare and contrast the four theoretical perspectives on urban growth and problems and articulate the various focuses of the four perspectives regarding environmental degradation and population. KEY TERMS acid rain environmental degradation mortality deindustrialization fertility organic solidarity demographic transition theory gentrification population composition demography greenhouse effect subculture desertification mechanical solidarity sustainable development edge city megalopolis zero population growth environmental classism migration CHAPTER OUTLINE I. GLOBAL POPULATION PROBLEMS Population Growth High-income nations are experiencing lower population growth than low-income nations. In some nations, the population growth rate is negative—fewer people are added to the population through birth and immigration than are lost through death and emigration. Global population changes have a powerful influence on social, economic, and political structures in societies. The imbalanced growth between high-income and middle- and low-income nations is a potential source of global conflict, particularly if world hunger and environmental destruction increase. Three primary factors affect population growth: fertility, mortality, and migration. Fertility a. The most basic measure of fertility is the number of live births per female.. The level of fertility in a society is associated with social and biological factors. Countries with high rates of infant and child mortality often have high birth rates: by having many children, parents in these nations are more likely to see a few survive to adulthood, and children may be viewed as an “insurance plan” for the parents’ old age. In cultures where religion dictates that children are God-given, and family planning is forbidden, many more children usually are born. Women’s behaviour is used as the measure of fertility because pregnancy and childbirth are more easily quantified than biological fatherhood. Based on biological capability alone, most women could produce 20 or more children during their childbearing years. Mortality: b. The simplest measure of mortality is the number of deaths that occur in a specific population. Demographers often measure the infant mortality rate—the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1000 live births in a given year. Infant mortality has declined worldwide over the past two decades because many major childhood and communicable diseases are now under control. But rates vary widely between nations. In any nation, the infant mortality rate is an important reflection of a society’s level of preventive medical care, maternal nutrition, childbirth procedures, and neonatal care for infants. In Canada, differential levels of access to these services are reflected in the gap between infant mortality rates for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. Demographers also study life expectancy, the estimated average lifetime of people born in a specific year. In 1998, the life expectancy at birth was 78.4 years for a person born in Canada compared to 80.0 years in Japan and less than 50 years in Uganda, Burundi, Chad, and Rwanda. Life expectancy also varies by sex: Canadian females, for example, have a life expectancy of 82 years, whereas males have a life expectancy of 77 years. Life expectancy also varies by racialization and ethnicity: Indigenous people have a life expectancy that is 6 years less than non-Indigenous people. Migration c. Migration takes two forms: immigration—the movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency, and emigration—the movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere. In the mid-1990s, about 250 000 people were entering Canada each year, but this number is decreasing due to more restrictive immigration policies and stricter enforcement. It is now approximately 200 000 and decreasing. Canadian immigration authorities record only legal immigration based on entry visas and change-of-immigration-status forms. It is impossible to measure the number of illegal immigrants entering Canada each year. Approximately 20 000 refugees are admitted to Canada annually as permanent residents. To determine the effects of immigration and emigration, demographers compute the crude net migration rate—the net number of migrants (total in-migrants minus total out-migrants) per 1000 people in a population in a given year. Currently, the net migration rate in Canada is about 5.9 per 1000 population. The Impact of Population Growth Population growth affects population composition. In Canada, for example, the age distribution of the population is associated with the demand for community resources such as schools, libraries, health care and recreational facilities, employment opportunities, and age-appropriate housing. The Malthusian Perspective. In 1798, Thomas Malthus published An Essay on Population, arguing that global population—if left unchecked—would exceed the available food supply. The population would increase in a geometric progression (2, 4, 8, 16 . . .), but the food supply would increase only by an arithmetic progression (1, 2, 3, 4 . . .). The population would surpass the food supply, thus ending population growth and perhaps eliminating the world population. Disaster could only be averted by positive checks (e.g., famine, disease, and war) or preventive checks (e.g., sexual abstinence before marriage and postponement of marriage for as long as possible) to limit people’s fertility. The Neo-Malthusian Perspective. Today, neo-Malthusians (“new Malthusians”) speak of the “population bomb” to emphasize the urgent need to reduce global population growth, believing that world population growth is following the exponential growth pattern that Malthus described. Demographic transition theory asserts that population change goes through four stages. The preindustrial stage has little growth: high birth rates are offset by high death rates. The transitional or early industrial stage has significant growth as the birth rate remains high but death rates decline because of improved health, sanitation, and nutrition. In the advanced industrialization and urbanization stage, the birth rate declines as people control their fertility and the death rate declines as medicine and other health care technologies control acute and chronic diseases. In the post-industrial stage, the population grows very slowly, because a decreasing birth rate is coupled with a stable death rate. World Hunger d. Approximately 800 million people in the world experience continuous hunger or chronic malnourishment—inadequate food to provide the minimum energy necessary for doing light work over a period of time. The green revolution refers to high yield “miracle” crops: varieties of wheat that have increased world grain production, a high yield dwarf rice with twice as many grains per plant, etc. Although miracle crops have increased food production in Latin American and Asia, they have not really benefited Africa. A major problem is that the fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation systems needed to produce the high yield crops are beyond the budgets of most middle- and low-income nations; the fertilizers and pesticides often become a source of pollution and constitute health hazards. The biotechnological revolution encompasses any technique for “improving” plants or animals or using microorganisms in innovative ways. Scientists are exploring ways to genetically alter the reproductive cells of fish, poultry, sheep, and pigs in order to speed up conventional breeding times, or developing pest-resistant crops. II. CONTROLLING FERTILITY A. The global population increase in the 20th century was unprecedented, and an additional 3 billion young people around the globe will soon enter their reproductive years. Although demographers suggest that limiting fertility is the best way to slow down population growth, they acknowledge that the issue is fraught with controversy. B. Family planning programs provide birth control information, contraceptive devices, sometimes sterilization and abortion procedures, and health services. The programs do little, however, to influence a couple’s desire to have children; in some middle- and lowincome nations, women are not free to make their own choices about reproduction. C. If a nation had no immigration or emigration, and the birth rate and the death rate were the same, the population growth rate would be zero. Canada is nearing zero population growth because: (1) a high proportion of women and men in the labour force find satisfaction and rewards outside of family life; (2) birth control is inexpensive and readily available; (3) the trend is toward later marriage; (4) the cost of raising a child from birth to adulthood is rising rapidly; and (5) schools and public service campaigns make teenagers more aware of how to control fertility. III. IMMIGRATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES A. Today, approximately 5.4 million people—more than 20 percent of the total Canadian population—arrived from other nations. In addition, most Canadians are immigrants or first-generation descendents from immigrants. B. Some social analysts believe immigrants cost taxpayers millions of dollars each year; others believe that immigration produces substantial economic benefits for Canada. Recent immigrants have a poor economic record, including lower salaries and more unemployment, than previous immigrants. Since it is immigrant men who mostly have jobs, immigrant women are unlikely to get an appropriate return on their education. C. Other social scientists claim the opposite, stating that Canada’s economic future depends on highly educated immigration, which helps create and nourish a “Creative Class”. IV. CHANGES IN CANADIAN CITIES A. Early Urban Growth and Social Problems 1) Industrialization and urbanization bring about profound changes in societies and frequently spawn new social problems such as housing shortages, overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, environmental pollution, and crime. According to sociologists, a city is the relatively dense and permanent settlement of people who secure their livelihood primarily through non-agricultural activities. Although cities existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the birth of the factory system brought about rapid urbanization. 2) Canada industrialized after World War and increasing numbers of people went to live in urban areas. The shift away from rural living and toward urban living is seen in home ownership rates. B. Contemporary Urban Growth 1) The growth of suburbs and outlying areas forever changed the nature of city life in this country. In the 1940s, these communities began to grow in earnest as a result of the automobile. Most suburban dwellers drove to work each day, establishing a pattern that would result, decades later, in traffic congestion and automobile pollution, problems that have drastically worsened in the past decade. 2) To reduce the housing shortage, the federal government subsidized what became a mass exodus from the central city to outlying suburbs. The federal government established the Central (now Canada) Mortgage and Housing Corporation to grant and insure mortgages. This resulted in the construction of half a million houses between 1945 and 1951. Although some people lost their homes in the 2008 bursting of the housing bubble, the foreclosures in Canada were not as widespread as in the United States. 3) Although early suburbanization provided many families with affordable housing, good schools and parks, and other amenities not found in the central city, the shift away from central cities set up an economic division of interests between cities and suburbs that remains in place. Since the people in suburbs pay their taxes to their local government, suburbs tend to have newer infrastructures and money to maintain them, while central cities can lack funding for essential government services. 4) Today, edge cities are springing up beyond the central cities and existing suburbs. Initially, edge cities develop as residential areas. Retail establishments and office parks move into the adjacent area, creating an unincorporated edge city. Many businesses and industries move their physical plants—and their tax dollars—to these areas because land is cheaper, workers are better educated, and utility rates and property taxes are lower than in the city. As a result, many jobs move away from poor and often “visible minority” workers in central cities, creating structural employment. Over time, large-scale metropolitan growth produces a megalopolis. V. URBAN PROBLEMS IN CANADA A. Fiscal Crisis in Cities 1) Federal and provincial government cutbacks have left Canadian cities, with their limited sources of revenue, in desperate financial straits. One plan to help the cities is to build homes on sites of abandoned factories. This plan could result in up to a million more residents being housed in the next 30 years. Federal government neglect has intensified urban problems. B. The Crisis in Urban Health Care 1) In downtown neighbourhoods, for example in Toronto, people from poor neighbourhoods, while not being discriminated against in terms of admissions, had high hospital admission and readmission rates. The costs of care are about 50 percent greater for people in poor than in wealthy neighbourhoods, which put a greater burden on hospital emergency, admitting, billing, and discharge. If hospitals in downtown neighbourhoods do not get additional resources, they will not be able to continue to provide appropriate help to the often disadvantaged people they serve. C. Housing Problems 1) Two thirds of Canadian households own their own homes but only 40 percent of those in the lowest income quintile do. Although Canadian cities do not have the blighted neighbourhoods and abandoned buildings found in U.S. cities, they do have pockets of poverty. .. 2) Landlords who let their properties become substandard through years of neglect contribute to the problem of unsuitable housing. Community groups and volunteer organizations such as the U.S.-based Habitat for Humanity, have provided recent successful initiatives that replace substandard housing and build lower-cost housing. By 2009, 1000 homes had been built across Canada by Habitat for Humanity volunteers. 3) Since the 1970s, some middle- and upper-middle class families have re-entered central city areas and gentrified properties. Some people view gentrification as the way to revitalize the central city, while others think it further depletes the stock of affordable housing for the poor and pushes low-income people out of an area where they previously lived. 4) There has been a significant increase in the number of homeless people in Canada. Since most homeless people avoid interviews with census-takers and social scientists, accurate data about the actual number of homeless people in Canada is unavailable. Studies that focus on personal problems of homeless people, such as mental illness or substance abuse, tend to assume that individual characteristics of poor people cause their homeless condition and therefore, to alleviate homelessness, the individual’s personal problems must be cured. This approach downplays the significance of structural factors such as the unavailability of low-income housing and mental-health care, which are the important determinants of homelessness. D. Spatial Separation of the Poor and Visible Minorities 1) Although it is generally acknowledged that Canada does not have the separation of poor—especially racialized poor—and non-poor to the same degree found in the U.S., the increasing immigration of racialized/ethnic minorities to Canadian cities leaves open the possibility that the U.S. segregation problems could occur here. 2) New data from the 2001 Census show that the proportion of visible minorities has grown in Canadian cities. However, the proportion of visible minorities in a Metropolitan area does not indicate the extent of segregation in that area. According to 2001 Census maps that show the concentration of visible minorities by individual census tracts, the concentration of visible minorities seems greater in Montreal than in Toronto or Vancouver, where they are more evenly distributed. VI. PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN PROBLEMS A. Functionalist Perspective 1) In examining urban problems, most functionalists focus on three processes that contributed to social disorganization and disruption of social institutions: mass migration from rural areas to urban areas during the industrialization of Canada contributed to social disorganization by weakening personal ties in the family, religion, education, and other institutions; the large-scale immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries was more than most cities could absorb, and many individuals were never fully assimilated into the cultural mainstream; and mass suburbanization created additional social disorganization that most central cities have been unable to handle. With larger numbers of strangers living in close proximity in central cities, symptoms of social disorganization, such as high rates of crime, mental illness, and suicide, grew more pronounced. According to Emile Durkheim, urban life changes people’s relationships. Rural areas are characterized by mechanical solidarity, whereas urban areas are characterized by organic solidarity. 2) Besides emphasizing processes, functionalists also emphasize systems. Sociologist Talcott Parsons identified four systems that interact with each other: the cultural system, social system, personality system, and behavioural organism. The environmental system may also be considered a fifth system. Congruence indicates that some states of variables in one system may coexist with some states of variables in another system better than with others. Mismatches of states of variables constitute incongruence. B. Conflict Perspective 1) Conflict analysts believe that members of the capitalist class and political elites make far-reaching decisions about land use and urban development that benefit some people at the expense of others. Karl Marx suggested that cities are the arenas in which the intertwined processes of class conflict and capital accumulation take place; class-consciousness and worker revolt were more likely to develop when workers were concentrated in urban areas. 2) Some contemporary conflict theorists speak of a political economy model, believing that both economic and political factors affect patterns of urban growth and decline. Urban growth is influenced by capital investment decisions, power and resource inequality, class and class conflict, and government subsidy programs. Members of the capitalist class choose corporate locations, decide on sites for shopping centres and factories, and spread the population that can afford to purchase homes into sprawling suburbs located exactly where the capitalists think they should be located. One of the major results is uneven development-the tendency of some neighbourhoods, cities, or regions to grow and prosper while others stagnate and decline. Conflict theorists argue that uneven development reflects inequalities of wealth and power in society. One advantage of the political economy framework is that it can be used to study cities in middle- and lowincome nations as well as high-income nations. Though uneven development does not occur in the same way in Canadian cities as it does in U.S. cities, this does not mean that corporate capitalism does not have an effect on major cities in Canada. C. Interactionist Perspective 1) Interactionists examine urban problems from the standpoint of people’s experience of urban life and how they subjectively define the reality of city living. According to early German sociologist Georg Simmel, urban life is so highly stimulating that people have no choice but to become somewhat desensitized to events and individuals around them. Urban residents generally avoid emotional involvement with one another and try to ignore events-including violence and crime-that take place nearby. They are wary of other people, looking at others as strangers; some people act reserved to cloak deeper feelings of distrust or dislike toward others. 2) Early University of Chicago sociologist Louis Wirth suggested that urbanism is a “way of life” that increases the incidence of both social and personality disorders in individuals. Urbanism refers to the distinctive social and psychological patterns of life typically found in the city. According to Wirth, the size, density, and heterogeneity of urban populations result in an elaborate division of labour and in spatial segregation of people by racialization/ ethnicity, social class, religion, and/or lifestyle. The division of labour and spatial segregation produce feelings of alienation, powerlessness, and loneliness. 3) According to sociologist Herbert Gans, personal behaviour is shaped by the type of neighbourhood a person lives in within the larger urban area. For example, cosmopolites-students, artists, writers, musicians, entertainers, and professionals-view the city as a place where they can be close to cultural facilities and people with whom they share common interests. Unmarried people and childless couples live in the city because they want to be close to work and entertainment. Ethnic villagers live in ethnically segregated neighbourhoods because they feel most comfortable within their own group. But the deprived and the trapped live in the city because they believe they have no other alternatives. 4) Cities are known for problems of loneliness and alienation. People may try to increase their sense of community and identity by developing ties to a subculture. Ethnic neighbourhoods and interest groups (like sports teams or clubs) are examples of subcultures that may enhance people’s experience in large urban centres. D. Feminist Perspective: some feminist theorists emphasize the occupational opportunities, freedom, convenience, and stimulation for women present in cities but not available in smaller centres or suburbs. On the other hand, some feminists are concerned with the threats to women at night in cities. VII. URBAN PROBLEMS IN THE FUTURE 1) In a best-case scenario, Canada would convert to regional governments to provide water, wastewater (sewage), transportation, schools, parks, hospitals, and other public services. Revenues would be shared among central cities, affluent suburbs, and edge cities, since everyone would benefit from the improved quality of life. There is increasing impetus to take control because one thing is certain: as the world population continues to grow, urban problems will intensify, and this will affect us all. VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS A. Many scientists believe that high-income nations present the greatest threat to the earth’s ecosystems (all the plants and animal species in a given area at a particular time, as well as the chemical and physical factors that make up the non-living environment). Some scientists believe that many of the world’s ecosystems have exceeded their carrying capacity—the maximum population that an ecosystem can support without eventually being degraded or destroyed. According to biologists Paul and Anne H. Ehrlich, a baby born in a country like the U.S., and to lesser extent Canada, represents twice the destructive impact on the earth’s ecosystems as one born in Sweden, 140 times the impact of a baby born in Bangladesh or Kenya and 200 times the impact of a baby born in Haiti or Rwanda. They believe the size of the population, its level of affluence, and the technology available in the society are major contributing factors to environmental degradation. B. During most of the 20th century, economic growth in Canada and the world was based on increased output in the manufacturing sector. The environment is affected at all phases of the manufacturing process, ranging from mining and transportation to manufacturing and waste disposal. Industrial production involves extracting raw materials from the environment, usually through mining, which depletes mineral resources and fossil fuel reserves—coal, oil, and natural gas. Mining disturbs ecosystems through pollution, particularly surface mining that strips bare the land, destroying natural vegetation and wildlife habitats. After raw materials are mined, they are transported to a plant where workers transform them into manufactured products. Transporting requires the use of energy—particularly burning fossil fuels—that contributes to air pollution. Motor vehicles produce carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and photochemical pollutants. Each of these is associated with various illnesses, including heart and respiratory disease and cancer. 1) Air pollution involves an increase in carbon dioxide and other gasses that pollute the air we breathe and keep heat from radiating back into space (causing the earth to heat up) and depletion of the upper atmosphere ozone that shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation. In 1998, 85 percent of the air pollution in urban areas is attributed to the internal combustion engine in automobiles and other vehicles. Air pollution affects all life and ecosystems on the planet. Air pollution in the form of acid rain destroys forests, streams and lakes, and other ecosystems. Canadian efforts to reduce acid rain from the U.S. have been blocked by the automobile industry; companies that mine, haul, and sell high-sulphur coal; and coal miners. 2) In the past, air pollution in middle- and low-income nations was mainly attributed to fighting for survival and economic development, whereas most air pollution in high-income nations was linked to automobiles and maintaining a relatively luxurious lifestyle. Although western industrial nations account for about 68 percent of the carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, distinctions between air pollution in high-income and middle- and low-income nations are growing weaker. Automobile ownership is rising rapidly in urban centres in middle-income nations such as Mexico, Brazil, and China. In Canada, antipollution laws have brought about changes in how automobiles are made and the fuels they consume (cars are equipped with antipollution devices and leaded gasoline, a major offender, has been phased out). While some middle-income nations are requiring antipollution devices on new vehicles, many leaded gas-burning cars— often imported as used cars from Canada and the U.S.—are still a significant source of air pollution. 3) Emissions from traffic and industry also contribute to the greenhouse effect: when carbon dioxide molecules build up in the earth’s atmosphere, they act like the glass roof of a greenhouse, allowing sunlight to reach the earth’s surface but preventing the escape of solar infrared radiation (heat) back into space, thus causing the earth’s surface temperature to rise. Some scientists believe the earth will have a temperature increase of as much as five degrees over the next hundred years. Changes in weather patterns could bring increased evaporation, creating new deserts and decreasing regional water reserves. To reduce greenhouse gases, the Kyoto Protocol was developed. However, Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions have increased substantially over the past two decades. One of the major contributors is the oil sands in Northern Alberta. 4) There is some indication that the ozone layer is endangered. Ozone is vital to life on earth because it is the only gas in the atmosphere that can absorb the dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Yet in 1992, an ozone hole the size of North America was reported over the Antarctic, and scientists have concluded that the ozone layer has been thinning out at a rate of 6 percent a year since the 1990s. A thinning ozone layer causes skin cancer, damages marine life, and lowers crop yields. 5) Toxic air pollutants are found in the air in sufficient concentrations to be associated with a lifetime cancer risk greater than one in one million. The higher concentration of pollutants in areas of high levels of poverty (decribed as environmental classism) is also a growing concern. C. Problems with Water, Soil, and Forests 1) Water depletion and pollution are serious problems. The current rate of population growth and the existing climatic conditions have resulted in increasing water scarcity throughout the world. Although approximately 70 percent of the earth’s surface is covered by water, most water is not drinkable: 97 percent is salt water. 2 percent is in ice caps and glaciers and 1 percent is underground, far beyond human reach. Water pollution seriously diminishes the available supply of water. Overall, water pollution has killed tens of millions of people in the 20th century, making it humanity’s most costly pollution problem. 2) Deforestation—excessive removal of trees—also depletes useable land and results in serious erosion. Since 1992, high-income nations have made an effort to protect forests, but prior industrialization in Canada and other high-income nations had already taken a serious toll on forests, and the pattern is continuing in some middle- and low-income nations as they become more industrialized. 3) About 11 percent of the earth’s surface is used for growing crops, 32 percent is forest, and 24 percent is used to graze animals. Each year, many acres of usable land are lost through erosion and contamination. Some of the loss is due to climatic factors, but an increasing amount is due to desertification, which destroys as much as 15 million acres a year. 50 million acres of crop and pasture land become inefficient each year because of excessive application of herbicides/pesticides, insufficient crop rotation, and intensified agricultural production. D. Solid, Toxic, and Nuclear Wastes 1) In Canada and some other high-income nations, people consume a vast array of products and throw away enormous quantities of paper, plastic, metal, and other materials. In 2000, each Canadian disposed of about 0.75 tonnes of waste. Only 30 percent was recycled. Solid waste refers to any and all unwanted and discarded materials that are not liquids or gases. 2) Today, government regulations exist for the disposal of toxic wastes (the hazardous chemical by-products of industrial processes), but some hazardous wastes are not included in the regulations, and some corporations are able to avoid regulations by locating their factories in other countries. 3) Nuclear, or radioactive, wastes (the most dangerous of all toxic wastes) in Canada primarily come from nuclear power plants, and small amounts are by-products of certain medical procedures. Canada generates more grams of nuclear waste per capita than either Britain or the United States. One reason nuclear waste is so hazardous is the length of time it remains deadly. Uranium waste from nuclear power plants will remain dangerously radioactive for the next 10 000 years, and plutonium waste, for the next 240 000 years. 4) Technological disasters—everything that can go wrong when systems fail, humans err, designs prove faulty, engines misfire, etc.—at the Chernobyl nuclear plant and Bhopal pesticide plant killed thousands of people. The worst-case scenario of tens of thousands of people being killed in technological disasters remains ever-present. IX. PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT A. Some functionalists note that technological innovation serves important functions in society (e.g., automation and mass production made a wide array of goods available to many people), but technology also has latent dysfunctions (e.g., automation and mass production create air pollution, overuse and depletion of natural resources). From this point of view, some environmental problems are the price a society pays for technological progress, and the best way to alleviate the problem is to develop new technologies. Other functionalists take a neo-Malthusian perspective, believing that to reduce food shortages and environmental problems, population must be controlled. Functionalists believe solutions to overpopulation and environmental degradation lie in social institutions such as education (e.g., educators can encourage population control by teaching people about the problems). B. Conflict theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels did not think the food supply was threatened by overpopulation: technology could meet the food needs of the growing world population if it were not for poverty. They argued that the labour of the working classes was used by capitalists to earn profits, which, in turn, was used to purchase machinery that could replace the workers, rather than supply food for all; thus, population growth is encouraged by capitalists who use unemployed workers (the industrial reserve army) to keep other workers from demanding higher wages or better working conditions. According to contemporary conflict theorists, corporations and the government are the two main power institutions in society. As a result, when economic decisions they make result in environmental problems, the costs are externalized, or passed along to the people. Another conflict approach uses an environmental justice framework—examining how racialization and class intersect in the struggle for scarce environmental resources. C. Since interactionists take a micro approach, viewing society as the sum of all people’s interactions, they look at environmental problems in terms of individuals. Specifically, they think environmental problems are exacerbated by people’s subjective assessment of reality. Sociologist John A. Hannigan suggests that environmental claims makers assemble, present and contest the claims they make about various environmental problems. To gain public attention and support, the claims must be newsworthy, have scientific credibility, and get past various interests. D. Feminist perspectives include women’s agency and ecofeminism. 1) Encouraging women’s agency—education and participation in the labour force— would contribute to both women’s well-being and the reduction of fertility rates. 2) Another conflict approach is known as ecofeminism—the belief that patriarchy is a root cause of environmental problems. According to ecofeminists, patriarchy not only results in the domination of women by men, but also in the belief that nature is to be possessed and dominated, rather than treated as a partner. Some ecofeminists draw attention to the gross asymmetries in the size of the ecological and social “footprints” left by certain classes, social groups, and nations relative to others. X. POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE FUTURE A. The problems discussed here present some of the greatest challenges that humans face in the 21st century. Global overpopulation, problems associated with increasing urbanization, and environmental depletion and devastation have irreversible consequences and actions taken (or not taken) today will be with us far into the future. Futurists believe that we must use a wide-angle lens to examine population, urbanization and environmental concerns. We must come to see the world and our role in it in a much different way than in the past. We must understand that environmental issues are security issues, as much so as a terrorist threat or a missile or bomb. Once we understand that, we can begin to think of all of these issues and problems in a completely different, and maybe more sustainable, light. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO POPULATION, URBANIZATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT Focus on Community Action Have students trace the development and growth of their hometown—or a community with which they are familiar—over the past fifty years and prepare a report on their findings. Encourage them to find official documents about how the area has changed in size, density, and composition of the population. They should also talk with older people to find out how social interaction and politics took place in the “good old days” as compared to today. They should also investigate how ethnic enclaves have developed in their communities over time. What do these areas provide for racialized or ethnicized communities? Do “ethnic” restaurants and specialized grocery stores provide some people with a source of identity and community that they might not otherwise have? What part do churches, synagogues, temples or mosques and other religious organizations play in reducing loneliness and alienation in large urban areas? Next, ask students to discuss, in small groups, how cities grow and change based upon the community they each have studied. What commonalities do most urban areas experience as they grow? What happens when communities do not grow or when the population decreases? Have suburban areas and edge cities been a “drain” or a resource for the central city area? Also ask students to discuss some of the identifiable ethnic enclaves or subcultural groupings that exist in your community. Focus on Theoretical Analysis Divide students in to nine groups. Each group is to become experts on eco-feminism theory and biodiversity. The books Ecofeminism by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva, 1993, and Tomorrow’s Biodiversity by Vandana Shiva, 2000, (see Critical Readings below) will be useful for this exercise. Each group should be assigned one of the following topics: climate change, population control, water, deforestation, soil/sub-soil, natural disasters, animal conservation, air pollution, and the tar sands. Groups should prepare a presentation on their findings, making sure to use an ecofeminist perspective and focusing on the importance of biodiversity. They should try to find as many Canadian sources for this project as possible. Focus on Media Engagement Have students investigate the politics of world hunger by watching or reading international and Canadian news stories about world hunger. Examples of online news website include: http://english.aljazeera.net, http://www.guardian.co.uk, http://www.foxnews.com, or http://www.cbc.ca/news. Have students prepare a report on what they found. Is there any difference in the way world hunger was reported on between different news websites? Have students also do research on organizations such as the United Nations, the World Health Organization, and the International Red Cross to learn more about what these groups are doing to combat world hunger. Does the information from these organizations match what is being reported in the news? Also have them identify and examine the social and political issues involved in food shortages. Ask students to do a presentation on their findings and indicate what, if anything, they believe students and laypeople can do to alleviate hunger in their own communities and around the world. APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. Over the course of a week, when you purchase various items of food, clothing, and other merchandise, how much packaging do you have to throw away? Do you think that companies should be required to eliminate or reduce wasteful packaging so as to reduce the waste problem? Explain your answer. Answer: The amount of packaging waste generated from purchasing food, clothing, and other merchandise can vary significantly depending on individual consumption habits, product choices, and packaging materials used by manufacturers. In a typical week, one may accumulate a considerable amount of packaging waste, including plastic containers, cardboard boxes, paper bags, and packaging materials such as bubble wrap and Styrofoam. Companies should indeed be required to eliminate or reduce wasteful packaging to address the waste problem for several reasons. Firstly, excessive packaging contributes to environmental degradation, including pollution, deforestation, and habitat destruction associated with the extraction, production, and disposal of packaging materials. Moreover, packaging waste poses significant challenges for waste management and recycling systems, leading to overflowing landfills, littered landscapes, and marine pollution. Mandatory regulations and industry standards can incentivize companies to adopt more sustainable packaging practices, such as using recyclable, biodegradable, or compostable materials, minimizing packaging sizes, and embracing innovative packaging designs that reduce material usage without compromising product safety or quality. Furthermore, reducing wasteful packaging can yield economic benefits for businesses by lowering production costs, optimizing supply chain efficiency, and enhancing brand reputation and customer loyalty through sustainability initiatives. Consumers are increasingly demanding environmentally friendly products and packaging, and companies that fail to adapt risk losing market share and facing reputational damage. However, transitioning to sustainable packaging solutions may require investment in research and development, infrastructure upgrades, and supply chain optimization, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises. Governments, industry associations, and non-profit organizations can support this transition through incentives, grants, technical assistance, and public awareness campaigns. Ultimately, addressing the packaging waste problem requires a multi-faceted approach involving collaboration among governments, businesses, consumers, and civil society organizations. By setting clear goals, implementing effective policies, and fostering innovation and collaboration, we can move towards a more sustainable and circular economy where packaging waste is minimized, and resources are used more efficiently. 2. Are there societal values in Canada that may be detrimental to the environment? Is it possible to re-educate people so that they will come to value the environment more than other beliefs they formerly held? Why or why not? Answer: In Canada, certain societal values and practices may indeed be detrimental to the environment, despite the country's reputation for environmental stewardship. For instance, the emphasis on resource extraction industries, such as oil and gas, can lead to environmental degradation through habitat destruction, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, consumerism and overconsumption contribute to waste generation and environmental strain. Moreover, historical and ongoing exploitation of Indigenous lands and resources reflects a prioritization of economic interests over environmental protection. Re-educating people to prioritize environmental values over other beliefs is challenging but possible with the right strategies. Education plays a crucial role in raising awareness about the interconnectedness of human well-being and environmental health. By integrating environmental education into school curricula and promoting lifelong learning initiatives, individuals can develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and their implications for future generations. Furthermore, fostering a sense of environmental empathy and connection to nature through experiential learning and community engagement can inspire positive behavioral changes. Additionally, policymakers play a vital role in shaping societal values and behaviors through legislation, incentives, and public awareness campaigns. Implementing environmental regulations, promoting sustainable practices, and investing in green technologies can align societal values with environmental conservation goals. Moreover, fostering inclusive decision-making processes that prioritize Indigenous knowledge and perspectives can promote holistic approaches to environmental stewardship. Ultimately, shifting societal values to prioritize the environment requires multifaceted efforts that address cultural, economic, and political factors. By fostering a collective sense of responsibility and empowerment, re-education initiatives can cultivate a society where environmental protection is valued as a fundamental component of social well-being and sustainable development. 3. Which perspective on population growth do you favour—neo-Malthusian or demographic transition theory—and why? Answer: Choosing between the neo-Malthusian perspective and demographic transition theory depends on the context and the specific factors influencing population dynamics. The neo-Malthusian perspective, influenced by Thomas Malthus's theories, emphasizes the limits of resources to sustain population growth, warning of the potential for overpopulation to lead to resource depletion, environmental degradation, and social unrest. While Malthus's predictions of widespread famine and catastrophe have not fully materialized due to technological advancements and changes in societal structures, concerns about resource scarcity and environmental sustainability remain valid in certain regions and contexts. On the other hand, demographic transition theory offers a more nuanced understanding of population growth, focusing on the relationship between economic development, social change, and fertility rates. According to this theory, as societies undergo industrialization and urbanization, fertility rates tend to decline due to factors such as increased access to education, healthcare, and family planning services, as well as changes in cultural norms and economic opportunities. This results in a shift from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates, leading to stabilized population growth over time. While both perspectives offer valuable insights into population dynamics, demographic transition theory provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the complex interplay of social, economic, and environmental factors shaping population trends. It acknowledges the potential for societies to adapt and evolve in response to changing conditions, offering hope for addressing population-related challenges through policies that promote sustainable development, reproductive health, and gender equality. However, it's essential to recognize that demographic transition is not universal, and different regions may experience unique demographic trajectories influenced by historical, cultural, and political factors. Therefore, a nuanced approach that considers the strengths and limitations of both perspectives is necessary for addressing population-related issues effectively. 4. How does city life differ in your community based on people’s ethnicity, class, gender, age, and religion? What major problems would you say that your community faces now and in the future? How are these problems similar to the problems of other communities? How are they different? Answer: In my community, city life can vary significantly based on factors such as ethnicity, class, gender, age, and religion. Ethnicity: Different ethnic communities may inhabit distinct neighbor-hoods or cultural enclaves within the city, influencing social networks, businesses, and cultural events. Class: Socioeconomic disparities are evident in access to housing, education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. Wealthier residents often enjoy better amenities and services compared to those in lower-income brackets. Gender: Gender roles and expectations may influence access to resources, safety, and opportunities for participation in civic life. Women may face challenges related to safety in public spaces and gender-based discrimination in the workplace. Age: City life can vary significantly for different age groups. Young professionals may gravitate towards urban centers for career opportunities and nightlife, while families with children may prioritize access to quality schools and recreational facilities. Religion: Religious communities may establish cultural centers, places of worship, and community organizations that contribute to the diversity and vibrancy of city life. Major problems facing my community now and in the future include: 1. Housing affordability and homelessness: Rising housing costs and inadequate affordable housing options are pressing issues, leading to homelessness and housing instability for many residents. 2. Transportation and infrastructure: Traffic congestion, aging infrastructure, and limited public transportation options pose challenges to mobility and accessibility within the city. 3. Economic inequality: Socioeconomic disparities contribute to inequities in access to education, healthcare, employment, and economic opportunities, exacerbating poverty and social exclusion. 4. Environmental sustainability: Urbanization and industrialization can lead to pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change, posing threats to public health and the environment. 5. Social cohesion and inclusion: Divisions along ethnic, class, and religious lines can undermine social cohesion and contribute to social isolation, discrimination, and tensions within the community. These problems are similar to those faced by other communities globally, as urbanization, globalization, and socioeconomic inequalities are widespread phenomena. However, the specific manifestations and impacts of these problems can vary depending on local contexts, such as the level of economic development, political stability, cultural norms, and geographic location. Additionally, communities may have unique challenges related to their demographic composition, historical context, and institutional structures, which require tailored solutions and approaches. 5. What examples of gentrification have you seen? Would you say that these have benefited everyone in the community or have they benefited some people more than others? Answer: Examples of gentrification can be observed in various urban areas worldwide. One common example is the transformation of historically lower-income neighbor-hoods into trendy, upscale districts characterized by renovated properties, artisanal shops, and higher-priced housing. For instance, neighbor-hoods like Brooklyn's Williamsburg in New York City or Toronto's Regent Park have undergone significant gentrification in recent years. While gentrification often brings economic revitalization and improved infrastructure to neighbor-hoods, its benefits are not evenly distributed. Gentrification can lead to displacement and marginalization of longtime residents, particularly low-income individuals and communities of color, who may be priced out of their own neighbor-hoods due to rising rents and property values. This can result in social disruption, loss of community cohesion, and the erosion of cultural identity. Furthermore, the benefits of gentrification are often skewed towards more affluent residents and newcomers, who can afford the higher cost of living and may enjoy improved amenities and services. Meanwhile, marginalized groups may face barriers to accessing new opportunities and may experience increased marginalization and exclusion in their own communities. In essence, while gentrification may bring certain benefits such as increased investment and urban development, its impacts are complex and multifaceted. It is essential to critically examine who benefits from gentrification and who is disproportionately disadvantaged by its effects. Efforts to mitigate the negative consequences of gentrification should prioritize the needs and well-being of marginalized communities, ensuring that urban development is inclusive, equitable, and sustainable for all residents. 6. The government has so far failed to provide adequate low-income and poverty-level housing. What new initiatives can you suggest? Answer: Addressing the lack of adequate low-income and poverty-level housing requires a multifaceted approach that combines policy initiatives, community engagement, and investment in affordable housing solutions. Here are several new initiatives that could be considered: 1. Increased Funding for Affordable Housing: Governments can allocate more resources to fund the construction and maintenance of affordable housing units, as well as provide subsidies for low-income individuals and families to access housing in the private market. 2. Incentives for Developers: Offer incentives such as tax breaks or expedited permitting processes for developers who commit to including affordable units in their projects, ensuring that new housing developments incorporate a mix of income levels. 3. Land Use Policies: Implement land use policies that prioritize affordable housing development, such as inclusionary zoning ordinances that require a percentage of units in new developments to be affordable to low-income residents. 4. Public-Private Partnerships: Foster partnerships between governments, non-profit organizations, and private developers to leverage resources and expertise in creating affordable housing solutions. 5. Rent Control and Tenant Protections: Strengthen rent control measures and introduce policies to protect tenants from eviction and rent hikes, ensuring housing stability for low-income individuals and families. 6. Supportive Housing Programs: Expand supportive housing programs that provide wraparound services such as mental health counseling, addiction treatment, and job training to help individuals experiencing homelessness transition into stable housing situations. 7. Community Land Trusts: Promote the creation of community land trusts that acquire and hold land for the purpose of developing and maintaining affordable housing in perpetuity, allowing communities to have greater control over their housing stock. 8. Housing First Approach: Prioritize a "Housing First" approach that focuses on providing immediate access to stable housing for individuals experiencing homelessness, with supportive services offered as needed to address underlying challenges. 9. Innovative Housing Solutions: Explore innovative housing solutions such as modular construction, tiny homes, co-housing arrangements, and adaptive reuse of existing buildings to increase the supply of affordable housing options. 10. Rental Assistance Programs: Expand rental assistance programs to provide direct financial support to low-income households, enabling them to afford housing in the private rental market and avoid homelessness. By implementing a combination of these initiatives and collaborating with stakeholders at all levels, governments can make significant strides in addressing the shortage of low-income and poverty-level housing, ensuring that all individuals have access to safe, stable, and affordable housing options. 7. Since Canada has not lived up to its commitments of the Kyoto Protocol, how would you suggest we deal with the growing issue of climate change and environmental devastation in this country? What political and economic climate is necessary for change to happen? Answer: Dealing with the growing issue of climate change and environmental devastation in Canada requires a multifaceted approach that addresses both mitigation and adaptation strategies. Firstly, Canada must commit to ambitious emissions reduction targets aligned with the latest scientific recommendations, such as those outlined in the Paris Agreement. This involves transitioning to renewable energy sources, investing in energy efficiency measures, and implementing policies to incentivize sustainable practices across sectors such as transportation, industry, and agriculture. Additionally, Canada needs to prioritize environmental protection and conservation efforts, including safeguarding natural habitats, promoting biodiversity, and transitioning to more sustainable land use practices. This could involve measures such as expanding protected areas, restoring ecosystems, and implementing regulations to prevent habitat destruction and species loss. Furthermore, Canada must take into account the needs and perspectives of Indigenous communities, who are often disproportionately affected by environmental degradation and have valuable traditional knowledge and stewardship practices that can contribute to effective solutions. Collaborating with Indigenous peoples in decision-making processes and respecting their rights to land and self-determination is essential for addressing environmental challenges in a just and equitable manner. Politically, there needs to be bipartisan support and cooperation across all levels of government to prioritize climate action and environmental sustainability. This requires leadership and political will to enact and enforce policies that prioritize the long-term health of the planet over short-term economic interests. Moreover, public awareness and engagement are crucial for mobilizing support for ambitious climate action and holding policymakers accountable for their commitments. Economically, transitioning to a low-carbon and sustainable economy requires investments in clean energy infrastructure, green technology innovation, and job training programs to support workers in transitioning to new industries. This transition presents opportunities for economic growth, job creation, and innovation, but it also requires careful planning and investment to ensure a just transition for workers and communities affected by the shift away from fossil fuels. Ultimately, addressing climate change and environmental devastation in Canada requires a holistic and collaborative approach that integrates environmental, social, and economic considerations. It requires political leadership, public engagement, and international cooperation to enact meaningful change and create a sustainable future for current and future generations. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 645 Wellington—A portrait of a building and its residents facing the conversion of low-rent property to high-priced condos in the name of neighbourhood development in Montreal. 2002. 54 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Fire-Energy—This video examines Canada’s rich energy resources. Wind, water, sun, oil, uranium, and natural gas are transformed into fuel for cars, heat for homes, and power for appliances. In fact, Canadians are the biggest consumers of energy on the planet. 2000. 21 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Flemingdon Park: The Global Village—Examines the change of a trendy, urban utopia for artists and young professionals into subsidized housing that attracted thousands of immigrants from around the globe. Flemingdon Park is often cited as the model for urban planning, while its negative aspects are rarely acknowledged. 2002. 47 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Forest Alert—This video breaks through the silence and ignorance surrounding the current forestry practices and questions our collective responsibility for the destruction of Quebec’s rich timberlands. 1999. 68 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. On the Edge—This documentary looks at the current state of human encroachment into mountain regions from recreation, to resource exploitation to residential development. 2005. 47 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Personal Space—This film documents a new gaming phenomenon played out by young urbanites in their 20s and 30s. It is a cross between tag and hide-and-seek and appeals to those who are interested in challenging notions of public space. 2006. 12 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Radiant City—This surreal documentary is all about life in the late suburban age. Urban sprawl, zombie monoculture, monster houses and strip malls beg the question, why do we live the way we do? 2006. 86 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. The British Columbia Forest Fires—This film documents the activities played out in BC in the summer of 2003, the worst forest fire season in over 100 years. 2006. 30 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Toxic Trespass —This documentary investigates the toxic environment around us, particularly around Windsor and Sarnia and is essential viewing for those concerned about the effects of pollutants on our health, on our very DNA. 2007. 80 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Was Malthus Right? Population and Resources in the 21st Century—Re-examining the dire predictions of Thomas Malthus about the population, this video analyzes the influence of technology in refuting his theory. 1999. 27 mins. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, http://ffh.films.com. CRITICAL READINGS Hannigan, John. 2006. Environmental Sociology. New York, NY: Routledge. Harper, Charles L. 2008. Environment and Society (4th Edition). Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall. Hutter, Mark. 2007. Experiencing Cities. Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Inoguchi, Tabashi, Edward Newman, and Glen Paoletto (Eds.). 2000. Cities and the Environment: New Approaches for Eco-Societies. New York: United Nations Publications. Layton, Jack. 2000. Homelessness: The Making and Unmaking of a Crisis. Toronto, ON: Penguin/McGill Institute. Macionis, John and Vincent Parillo. 2007. Cities and Urban Life (4th Edition). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. McNeill, J. R. 2000. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the TwentiethCentury World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Mies, Maria and Vandana Shiva. 1993. Ecofeminism. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing. Nelson, James G. 2009. Places: Linking Nature, Culture, and Planning. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary Press. Reed, Maureen G. 2003. Taking Stands: Gender and the Sustainability of Rural Communities. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Shiva, Vandana. 2000. Tomorrow’s Biodiversity. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER SUMMARY Social scientists define war as including not only declared wars between nations or parties but also covert operations and some forms of terrorism. War is a form of collective violence; societies that are prepared at all times for war have a war system. Early in Canada’s history, war took place at home or close to home (e.g., civil wars and rebellions). But in the 20th century, the two world wars transformed the nature of military action: they were fought on foreign soil and many more Canadian military personnel were involved. Compared with wars in previous centuries, wars (beginning with World War II) have been waged against civilians as well as against military forces. The direct consequences include millions of deaths (over 50 million in World War II). Many more suffer serious physical injuries or mental trauma. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a common reaction to war. Not only humans suffer from war – landscapes, water supplies and air are also negatively impacted by the activities of war. The devastation of a nuclear war is beyond description. War is conducted on the basis of the technology available in a given society at a specific point in time. Over the centuries, the particular type of weapons used has changed. As acts of collective violence, terrorism shares certain commonalities with war. There are three types of political terrorism: revolutionary, repressive, and state-sponsored terrorism. There are various different sociological explanations of war and terrorism. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 16, students should be able to: 1. Describe the characteristics and consequences of war. 2. Describe the war on ecology and discuss its’ costs. 3. Discuss the major forms of terrorism and give at least one example of each. 4. Discuss Canada’s role in global politics and the “war on terrorism”. 5. Discuss ethic and racialized profiling in the wake of 9/11. 6. Discuss the sociological explanations of warfare and terrorism from each of the four perspectives: functionalism, interactionism, conflict and feminism. 7. Discuss how war and terrorism coalesce into the ultimate category of social problems. KEY TERMS collective violence state-sponsored terrorism revolutionary terrorism environmental racism terrorism military-industrial complex war system repressive terrorism weapons of mass destruction CHAPTER OUTLINE I. WAR AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM A. Social scientists define war as including not only declared wars between nations or parties, but also undeclared wars, civil and guerrilla wars, covert operations, and some forms of terrorism. Thus, to social scientists, general warfare refers to violent armed conflict between nations, whereas regional warfare refers to conflict between rival factions located within a specific geographic area. Societies, like the USA, that are prepared for war at all times, have a war system. B. Peace is a less clearly defined concept, although most people state that it is a highly desirable state. II. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WAR A. War is an institution that involves violence— behaviour intended to bring pain, physical injury, and/or psychological stress to people or to harm or destroy property. Compared with violent crime and sexual assault, which are both forms of interpersonal violence, war is collective violence. B. War is an abstract concept to many Canadians because many (maybe most) of us have no firsthand experience with it. 1) Early in Canada’s history, war took place at home or close to home (e.g., civil wars and rebellions). But in the 20th century, the two world wars transformed the nature of military action: they were fought on foreign soil and many more Canadian military were involved. The two world wars were different from each other in a significant way: in World War I, killing civilians was considered unduly violent, but in the Second World War, civilians were intentionally targeted. Air power made the mass bombings of civilians possible, but it was the huge involvement of civilians in the industrial side of war that made it seem strategically necessary: in this situation, there were no ‘innocent’ civilians, except possibly children. C. Another characteristic of war is its persistence. 1) After the Second World War, Canada emerged as a leading “middle power”— assuming the role of peacekeeper and negotiator in international disputes. Today, Canada may be viewed as a “moral super power”—one that exercises a “soft power” when it comes to world affairs. In 2002, Canada committed peacekeepers to 14 operations in Europe, Asia, Africa, South America, and the Middle East. In 2007 160 Canadians were killed in peacekeeping missions worldwide. 2) Incidents in Somalia in 1993, where members of the Canadian Airborne Regiment tortured and killed a Somali teen and shot two other unarmed teens led to a crisis of confidence in Canadians as peacekeepers. Around the same time, Canadian peacekeeping troops in Rwanda on a UN mission, under Brigadier General Romeo Dallaire, were severely understaffed and were forced to watch as one million people were massacred in civil war. They did the best they could however, and were successful in saving tens of thousands of lives. The experience caused Dallaire and many others to experience PTSD. 3) Despite Canadians’ view of ourselves as primarily peacekeepers, only 55 of the 100,000 UN peacekeepers were Canadian in 2006. 4) World War II not only provided the U.S. with the opportunity to declare itself the “leader of the free world,” it also gave political and economic leaders the impetus to perpetuate this nation as the world’s military superpower. The American Congress made defense spending a top national priority, and the U.S. military-industrial complex that initially emerged became a massive infrastructure that produces an array of war-related goods such as uniforms, tanks, airplanes, and warships. III. THE CONSEQUENCES OF WAR A. The Consequences of War 1) The major direct effect of war is loss of life and serious physical/ psychological effects on its survivors. According to social analyst Ruth Sivard, more lives were lost in wars during the 20th century than in all the other centuries combined. 2) The consequences of warfare today, even where more than 100,000 Iraqi people, mainly civilians have been killed since the beginning of 2003, pale in comparison to the devastation that nuclear war could wreak. a. Nuclear warheads commanded by some governments today are over 4000 times more powerful than those dropped by Americans on Japan. Scientists predict 160 million immediate deaths in a nuclear war, with an additional one billion within the first few hours as a result of radiation poisoning, environmental contamination and destruction, and massive social unrest. b. The USA, Britain, India, France, Russia, China, Pakistan and Israel together possess more than 23,000 nuclear warheads, 8000 of which are fully operational and thousands of which are on high alert, launched readily within moments. 3) Despite an international treaty banning nuclear testing underground, beliefs proliferate that some nations are secretly building and stockpiling weapons. This “rationale” was used by the Bush Administration as a justification for the US invasion of Iraq – the quest for so-called weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). None were found, leading to international criticism. 4) Civilians are not the only ones adversely affected by war. Veteran Affairs Canada provides benefits to all those who have been injured in wars Canada has been involved in. However, what about those who have experienced psychological trauma that affects them the remainder of their lives, including those with the disorder known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? Symptoms include difficulty sleeping and concentrating; anxiety; and recurring flashbacks or nightmares, many of which are triggered by loud, sudden noises such as thunder, automobiles backfiring, or other things that sound like gunshots or explosions. When some stimulus triggers a flashback, the individual re-experiences the horror of some deeply traumatic wartime event. In Canada, 20 percent of peacekeeping troops are believed to have symptoms of PTSD, plus many civilians who witnessed war firsthand such as medical personnel, war correspondents and so on. 5) The direct economic costs of war are astronomical. Canada occupies 6th place in terms of military spending out of 26 NATO nations. To put defense and war-related expenditures in perspective, 30 years ago, an analyst calculated that the cost of a single aircraft carrier would build 12 000 high schools and the cost of developing one new bomber would pay the annual salaries of 250 000 teachers. In 2008, Canada’s military spending budget was $18.2 billion, 27% higher than prior to 9/11. B. War on Ecology 1) Military activity affects ecological and human health. Human bodies and landscapes reveal a great deal about the long-term effects of violence, toxicity, and invasions. There is increasing recognition that, in this global era, citizens and their economies, health, and environment are interconnected. 2) Social and ecological debt is a product of military activity. The world’s military forces are responsible for more than two-thirds of the chlorofluorocarbon-113 released into the ozone layer. The cost to clean up military-related sites is estimated to be more than $500 billion. However, the total budgetary cost of the current war is estimated realistically at $2.655 trillion in social and ecological debt. 3) The effects of chemical and biological warfare, as well as waste products such as depleted uranium, are hazardous to human and ecological health. They devastate lands, rivers, lakes, and oceans, while damaging the integrity of drinking water, arable land, yards, school grounds, public parks, natural habitats, and ecological reserves. 4) Reasons why the military continues to contribute to the devastation of human ecological health include: an antiquated notion of maintaining national security through traditional military methods such as arms build-up and confrontation; an underlying ideological view of the earth as an infinite resource; and a refusal to see the military as a money-making “industry” and an unwillingness to submit armed forces to generally accepted levels of transparency and accountability. IV. GLOBAL TERRORISM A. Terrorist tactics include bombings, kidnappings, hostage taking, hijackings, assassinations, and extortion. Although terrorists sometimes attack government officials and members of the military, they more often target civilians as a way of pressuring the government. Terrorism is defined as the use of calculated, unlawful physical force or threats of violence against a government, organization, or individual to gain some political, economic or social objective. As acts of collective violence, terrorism shares certain commonalities with war. Both terrorism and war constitute major threats to world stability and domestic safety. Terrorism and war also extract a massive toll on individuals and societies by producing rampant fear, widespread loss of human life, and extensive destruction of property. Political terrorism uses intimidation, coercion, threats of harm, and other violent attempts in order to bring about a significant change in or overthrow an existing government. There are three types of political terrorism: 1) Revolutionary terrorism is where members of revolutionary movements engage in terrorist activities such as car bombings and assassinations of leading officials. The goal is generally to bring about desired political changes in a nation. For example, the al-Qaeda network has been accused of targeting sites associated with US interests and citizens. 2) Repressive terrorism has taken place in many countries around the world, including Haiti, the People’s Republic of China, and Cambodia where the Pol Pot regime killed more than one million people in the four years between 1975 and 1979. 3) An example of state-sponsored terrorism is Libya’s Colonel Muammar Gaddafi having provided money and training for terrorist groups such as the Arab National Youth Organization, which was responsible for skyjacking a Lufthansa airplane over Turkey and forcing the Bonn government to free the surviving members of Black September (the terrorist group responsible for killing the Israeli Olympic athletes in the 1970s). The United States has engaged in state sponsored terrorism as well, in supporting the Contras against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. B. In Canada we have had very few incidents of domestic terrorism. Domestic terrorism is perpetrated by citizens of a nation in order to achieve some political goal. The most famous incident of domestic terrorism in Canada was the FLQ bombings and the kidnapping and murder of government officials in the 1970s. The only recent act that is referred to by RCMP as domestic terrorism is the EnCana natural gas pipeline explosions in 2008-2009. On September 11, 2001, the face of terrorism close to home changed when an attack was launched in the U.S. The U.S. reaction to the event was to declare a “war on terrorism.” The Canadian government was quick to show its support to the US in their war. V. CANADIAN POLITICS AND TERRORISM A. Canada was quick to show its support for the “war on terrorism” declared by the U.S. in the form of infrastructural, citizen, and military backing; freezing the assets of suspected terrorists; and working with the U.S. to improve security along its common border. B. In 2001, then Prime Minister Jean Chretien committed Canadian troops to the S led war in Afghanistan. Despite the fall of the Taliban regime in late 2001, Canadian involvement there increased, costing each Canadian household up to $1500 by 2011 – a minimum of $1.8 billion. C. Historically, wars and periods of national crisis have resulted in serious and unjustified losses of civil rights for many. This is because war is not simply a fight for justice; rather, war is an institution that shapes the economic, environmental, civic, ideological, and political activities and practices of civilians and governments. Examples of this are the passing of the controversial Bill C-36, Bill C-18, Bill C-11, and Bill C-42 by the federal government. The impact of these bills is already being felt by many people, most significantly, those involved in immigration processes, those who belong to “visible minorities,” and those citizens who are the victims of racialized or ethnic profiling. 1) Ethnic or racialized profiling is an increasingly common, yet controversial policing technique that involves identifying and pursuing suspects on the basis of their ethnicity or racialization. While proponents of the technique say that it can provide a tool for risk analysis, they acknowledge that it inevitably involves injustices. 2) In a post 9/11 Canada, racial profiling is an increasingly used tactic. People may now be searched, fingerprinted, detained, photographed, registered, and even deported with no evidence of wrongdoing (except “ethnic background”). This occurred with one of Canada’s most celebrated writers, Rohinton Mistry, while he was on a book release tour in the US. He experienced such humiliating treatment at the hands of US immigration officials he cancelled his tour. The most notorious case of ethnic profiling involving a Canadian was that of Maher Arar, a Canadian engineer on his way home to Montreal after a family vacation in Zurich. Arar, who had to transit through a US airport, was determined (incorrectly) to have ties to al-Qaeda and was deported to Syria without the Canadian officials even being informed, where he was then tortured, refused contact with family or a lawyer, and forced to make a false confession. After a year of imprisonment, he was released back to Canada and in 2006 was finally cleared of all allegations. D. Ethnic/racialized profiling exacerbates the racism found throughout Canada by giving people formal, or state-sanctioned, justifications for their prejudices. “Racial” profiling accompanies racist attitudes and structures and is dangerous in a nation that has not divested itself of racism. VI. EXPLANATIONS OF WAR AND TERRORISM A. Sociological Explanations 1) Functionalist Perspective. Some functionalist explanations focus on the relationship between social disorganization and warfare or terrorism. Militia members believe that governments no longer serve the purposes for which they were intended, namely: to protect the individual’s rights and freedom. In their eyes, governments have become dysfunctional, and they engage in acts of terrorism to undermine a particular government in the hopes that it will radically change or be abolished. Other functionalists focus on the functions that war serves: war can settle disputes between nations. Some functionalists believe that we will always have wars because of other important functions they serve in societies. First, war demonstrates that one nation or group has power over another. Second, war functions as a means of punishment in much the same manner that the Canadian government uses sanctions against other nations to force them to comply with our stance on certain issues. Third, war is a way to disseminate ideologies, usually political or religious. For example, the U.S. has fought its largest wars in defense of a democratic form of government, under the slogan of “making the world safe for democracy.” Finally, there is an economic function of war: war benefits society because it stimulates the economy through increased war-related production and provides jobs for civilians who otherwise might not be able to find employment. 2) Conflict and Interactionist Perspectives. Conflict theorists view war from the standpoint of how militarism and aggressive preparedness for war contribute to the economic well-being of some, but not all, people in society. a. According to sociologist Cynthia Enloe, people who consider capitalism the moving force behind the military’s influence “believe that government officials enhance the status, resources, and authority of the military in order to protect the interests of private enterprises at home and overseas.” In other words, the origins of war can be traced to corporate boardrooms, not to governmental war rooms. In addition, workers and business owners come to rely on military spending for jobs. b. A second conflict explanation focuses on the role of the nation and its inclination toward coercion in response to perceived threats. From this perspective, nations inevitably use force to ensure compliance within their societies and to protect themselves from outside attacks. c. A third conflict explanation is based on patriarchy and the relationship between militarism and masculinity. Across cultures and over time, the military has been a male institution, and the meanings attached to masculinity appear to be so firmly linked to compliance with military roles that it is often impossible to disentangle the two. d. Interactionists would call this last perspective the social construction of masculinity. That is, certain assumptions, teachings, and expectations that serve as the standard for appropriate male behaviour—in this case, values of dominance, power, aggression, and violence—are created and recreated. Presumably, such values are learned through gender socialization, and particularly in military training. Historically, the development of manhood and male superiority has been linked to militarism and combat—the ultimate test of a man’s masculinity. 3) Feminist Perspectives a. While war and gender are connected, a cohesive “feminist theory” of war does not exist. Instead, scholarship and debate about women and war are presented as part of a “polyphonic chorus of female voices.” Most feminists are concerned with changing “masculinism” in both scholarship and political-military practice, where masculinism is defined as an ideology justifying male domination. In espousing approaches that present detailed knowledge about complex social relationships, some feminists challenge knowledge generated through methods that are based on masculine qualities, such as objectivity, control, and theoretical parsimony. b. There are four main currents of feminist perspectives: i. Liberal feminists, with their emphasis on classical individual rights to full participation in all social and political roles, maintain that women should be able to assume war roles without facing discrimination. ii. Materialist feminists draw upon a Marxist approach to class differences and their role in the perpetuation of power inequalities in and between societies. They have studied the construction of productive and reproductive roles for women and men from horticultural societies to post-capitalist economies. They argue that warfare across the ages is most often linked to battles for control over resources and power than it is about adaptive protection and preservation tactics. iii. Multicultural feminism, from the perspective of “Third World” and Indigenous women, shows how globalization and colonization are rooted together, and calls for self-determination for Indigenous people, and bridging the divide between the North and the South. iv. Ecofeminists argue that forms of oppression are deeply connected, although they pay particular attention to the types of violence that are created by patriarchal systems of rule and anthropocentrism, which permit people to exploit the natural world based on an ideology of human supremacy. War is seen as an extension of the aggressive and exploitative relationships embodied in sexism, racism, and the “rape” of the environment. VII. OVERCOMING WAR AND TERRORISM IN THE 21st CENTURY A. What will happen in the twenty-first century? How will nations deal with the proliferation of arms and nuclear weapons? What should be done with the masses of nuclear waste being produced? No easy answers are forthcoming. B. But most social analysts are not totally pessimistic about the future, believing that human resistance to war could still provide a means to spare this nation and the world from future calamities. According to social critic Barbara Ehrenreich, the anti-war movements of the late 20th and early 21st century show that “the passions we bring to war can be brought just as well to the struggle against war.” But people must be willing to educate, inspire, and rally others to the cause. Like other forms of warfare, the people fighting for peace must be willing to continue the struggle even when the odds seem hopeless. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO WAR AND TERRORISM Focus on Community Action Have some students go to a toy store and others to a computer store or electronic games store to find out about war toys and games. Ask them to make a list of the names and accoutrements that go with some of the toys and games. If possible, get pictures of the toys or computer software so that they can bring it to class to share with others. Ask students to report on their findings about the toys and computer programs focusing on the following questions: How many games tend to emphasize militarism and war (e.g. of all the toys in the store, approximately what proportion are linked to military / war themes)? What computer programs are based on killing enemies or destroying their transportation? To whom do these toys and games have the most appeal? Why? What kinds of promises do the toys and games implicitly make to potential consumers? What themes are highlighted? How do both the toys and their packaging look? Is there a particular gender, ethnicity, class, or age that the toys are marketed to? Focus on Theoretical Engagement Divide the class in to two groups. One will be experts on a conflict theory analysis of war and peace, the other on functionalist theory analysis. Have the students research their perspective and the war in Iraq and Afghanistan in preparation for a class debate. Is armed conflict ever justified? Who benefits from armed conflict? Should peace be the ultimate goal for nations? If so, how should peace be reached and maintained? How are war and peace gendered, racialized, and classed? Each student in the class should get an opportunity to present at least one point from their assigned perspective. Focus on Media Engagement Students should watch television news reports of acts of armed conflict or war to determine how journalists typically describe such behaviour. CNN, CBC Newsworld, MSNBC, and other “all news” channels typically have the most extensive coverage of armed conflict and military action in nations around the world. Encourage students to take notes while they watch. Have a class discussion about what the students observed. What images are most frequently used by the news media to show war and / or peace? Do they think media coverage of war and terrorism affects public perception of who is “right” or “wrong” in a specific conflict? How does the perception of a potential for terrorist attacks or war influence people’s attitudes? How could the news journalists more accurately report on issues of war and peace? CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. By far, most people killed in warfare are civilians. This represents a shift from pre-20th century warfare. What are the factors behind this significant shift in targets? How do you see this changing, if at all, in future? Answer: The significant shift towards civilian casualties in warfare can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, technological advancements, particularly in weaponry and warfare tactics, have increased the lethality and precision of military operations, making it easier for combatants to target civilian populations. The widespread use of aerial bombing, artillery shelling, and long-range missiles in modern warfare has resulted in unintended civilian casualties due to the difficulty of distinguishing between military and civilian targets. Additionally, the nature of modern conflicts has evolved, with many conflicts occurring in densely populated urban areas where civilians are inevitably caught in the crossfire. Furthermore, non-state actors and terrorist organizations often deliberately target civilians as part of their asymmetric warfare strategies, aiming to instill fear, undermine government legitimacy, and garner international attention. Moreover, the erosion of traditional rules of warfare, such as the Geneva Conventions and norms against targeting non-combatants, has contributed to the blurring of distinctions between military and civilian targets. The rise of insurgency, terrorism, and hybrid warfare has challenged the traditional rules and principles governing armed conflict, leading to an increase in indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations. In the future, the trend of civilian casualties in warfare may continue unless concerted efforts are made to strengthen international humanitarian law, enforce accountability for violations of human rights and humanitarian norms, and promote conflict resolution and peacebuilding initiatives. Technologies such as autonomous weapons systems and cyber warfare raise new ethical and legal challenges regarding civilian protection, highlighting the need for updated legal frameworks and ethical guidelines to govern emerging forms of warfare. Furthermore, addressing the root causes of conflicts, such as political instability, social inequality, and resource scarcity, can help reduce the likelihood of civilian harm by addressing the underlying drivers of violence. Enhancing the capacity of international organizations, such as the United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross, to monitor, report, and respond to violations of humanitarian law is also essential in protecting civilians in conflict zones. Ultimately, ensuring the protection of civilians in armed conflict requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the complex interplay of political, legal, ethical, and humanitarian factors. By prioritizing the safety and well-being of civilians, the international community can work towards a future where civilian casualties in warfare are minimized, and respect for human dignity and rights is upheld. 2. Think of the role Canada has historically played, as ally and supporter of the US. What do you think would happen if the Canadian government did not go along with initiatives like the US “war on terror”? Answer: If the Canadian government chose not to support initiatives like the US "war on terror," it could have significant implications for Canada's relationship with the United States and its standing within the international community. Historically, Canada has been a close ally and partner of the US, cooperating on various military, security, and diplomatic fronts. If Canada were to diverge from US-led initiatives, it might strain bilateral relations, potentially leading to diplomatic tensions and reduced cooperation on shared security concerns. The US could perceive Canada's refusal to participate as a betrayal of trust and solidarity, impacting collaboration on mutual defense agreements, intelligence sharing, and border security measures. Furthermore, Canada's decision could affect its credibility and influence on the global stage. By aligning with the US, Canada has often bolstered its position within international alliances and forums. Choosing to distance itself from US initiatives could diminish Canada's diplomatic leverage and weaken its ability to shape international agendas. Domestically, the Canadian government's stance on issues like the "war on terror" could provoke debate and division among citizens, particularly regarding questions of national security, human rights, and foreign policy. Opposition parties, civil society organizations, and Indigenous groups may express dissent, leading to political polarization and public scrutiny of the government's decisions. Ultimately, the ramifications of Canada's divergence from US initiatives would depend on the specific context, including the nature of the initiative, geopolitical dynamics, and Canada's strategic interests. While asserting independence and sovereignty is important, Canadian policymakers must carefully consider the potential consequences and weigh them against the country's broader strategic objectives and values. 3. Why have social scientists had an easier time defining war and terrorism than peace? Answer: Social scientists have encountered challenges in defining peace compared to war and terrorism due to several factors. Firstly, war and terrorism are often characterized by overt acts of violence and conflict, which provide tangible and observable events for analysis and classification. In contrast, peace is a multifaceted and dynamic concept that encompasses various dimensions, including the absence of violence, the presence of social justice, and the promotion of human rights. Moreover, the definition of peace can vary significantly depending on cultural, historical, and political contexts, making it inherently subjective and elusive. What constitutes peace for one society or individual may differ from another, leading to divergent interpretations and approaches to peacebuilding and conflict resolution. Furthermore, the study of war and terrorism has been shaped by longstanding traditions within disciplines such as political science, sociology, and criminology, which have developed theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and research paradigms for understanding these phenomena. In contrast, peace studies as a distinct field has emerged more recently and remains interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from various disciplines and perspectives. Additionally, war and terrorism often garner more attention and resources from policymakers, media, and the public due to their immediate and visible impacts on security and stability. In contrast, peacebuilding efforts may receive less visibility and support, leading to a relative lack of consensus and clarity in defining and conceptualizing peace. Despite these challenges, efforts to define peace have evolved over time, with scholars increasingly recognizing the need for holistic and context-specific approaches that consider not only the absence of violence but also the underlying structural, systemic, and cultural factors that contribute to sustainable peace. By engaging in interdisciplinary dialogue and drawing on diverse perspectives, social scientists can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of peace and inform effective strategies for promoting peace and resolving conflicts in diverse contexts. 4. What factors have contributed to the decline of Canada’s reputation as a nation of peacekeepers? Do you think we will ever regain that image? Why or why not? Answer: Several factors have contributed to the decline of Canada's reputation as a nation of peacekeepers: 1. Shift in Military Priorities: Canada's military focus has shifted from traditional peacekeeping to more combat-oriented missions, such as Afghanistan, Libya, and Iraq, reflecting changes in global security dynamics and international priorities. 2. Decreased Participation: Canada's involvement in UN peacekeeping missions has declined significantly over the years, with fewer deployments and contributions compared to previous decades, leading to perceptions of disengagement from peacekeeping efforts. 3. Changing International Landscape: The nature of conflicts has evolved, with many modern conflicts characterized by complex intra-state dynamics, terrorism, and non-state actors, challenging the traditional peacekeeping model and necessitating different approaches to conflict resolution. 4. Budgetary Constraints: Budgetary constraints and competing domestic priorities have limited Canada's capacity to contribute to peacekeeping missions, resulting in reduced funding for military operations and foreign aid. 5. Shift in Foreign Policy: Changes in Canadian foreign policy priorities and alliances have influenced Canada's approach to peacekeeping, with greater emphasis on security cooperation, counterterrorism, and regional stability rather than traditional peacekeeping activities. 6. Criticism of Effectiveness: Some critics argue that traditional peacekeeping missions have become less effective in addressing contemporary conflicts and protecting civilians, leading to skepticism about the utility of peacekeeping as a tool for conflict resolution. 7. Lack of Multilateral Support: Canada's ability to effectively engage in peacekeeping efforts may be hampered by a lack of multilateral support and cooperation, as well as geopolitical tensions and divisions among key international actors. Whether Canada will regain its image as a nation of peacekeepers depends on various factors: 1. Political Leadership: Strong political leadership and commitment to multilateralism, diplomacy, and conflict prevention can help Canada reaffirm its role as a champion of peacekeeping and international cooperation. 2. Investment in Peacekeeping: Increased investment in training, equipment, and personnel for peacekeeping operations can enhance Canada's capacity to contribute effectively to UN peacekeeping missions and support global peace and security efforts. 3. Diplomatic Engagement: Active diplomatic engagement and collaboration with other countries and international organizations are essential for promoting peace, resolving conflicts, and addressing the root causes of instability and violence. 4. Adapting to New Challenges: Canada must adapt its approach to peacekeeping to address evolving security threats, including terrorism, organized crime, and cyber warfare, while upholding human rights, humanitarian principles, and the rule of law. 5. Public Support: Maintaining public support and awareness of the importance of peacekeeping and international engagement is crucial for sustaining Canada's reputation as a nation committed to peace, security, and global cooperation. Overall, while Canada's reputation as a peacekeeper may have declined in recent years, there is still potential for Canada to regain that image through proactive engagement, leadership, and investment in peacekeeping efforts on the global stage. 5. Ecological devastation from warfare is astoundingly vast. Why is there so little attention paid to this? Should we talk about this more often? Why or why not? Answer: The ecological devastation caused by warfare is indeed vast and profound, yet it often receives relatively little attention compared to other aspects of conflict. Several factors contribute to this lack of focus: 1. Immediate Human Impact: During times of war, the immediate human suffering and loss of life understandably take precedence in public discourse and media coverage. The destruction of ecosystems and environmental degradation may be overlooked in the face of more urgent humanitarian crises. 2. Complexity and Invisibility: Ecological devastation from warfare is often complex and multifaceted, making it challenging to quantify and address. Environmental damage may not be immediately visible or easily attributed to specific military actions, leading to its underreporting and understatement. 3. Prioritization of Security Concerns: Governments and military institutions prioritize security and strategic objectives during times of conflict, often overlooking the long-term environmental consequences of warfare. Environmental protection and conservation may be perceived as secondary concerns compared to achieving military objectives. 4. Limited Resources for Environmental Remediation: Post-conflict reconstruction efforts typically prioritize infrastructure rebuilding and humanitarian aid, leaving limited resources for environmental remediation and restoration. As a result, ecosystems affected by warfare may remain degraded for years, exacerbating long-term environmental and public health risks. Despite these challenges, there is a compelling case for discussing the ecological impacts of warfare more often: 1. Environmental Security: Ecological devastation from warfare poses significant long-term risks to environmental sustainability, public health, and regional stability. By raising awareness about these issues, we can advocate for policies and practices that prioritize environmental protection and minimize the environmental footprint of armed conflicts. 2. Humanitarian Concerns: Environmental degradation resulting from warfare can have profound humanitarian consequences, including displacement, food and water insecurity, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters. Addressing these issues requires greater attention to the ecological dimensions of conflict. 3. Preventive Measures: By acknowledging the environmental consequences of warfare and integrating environmental considerations into military planning and conflict resolution efforts, we can work towards preventing or mitigating future environmental catastrophes. 4. Global Responsibility: The ecological impacts of warfare transcend national borders and affect ecosystems and communities worldwide. Recognizing our collective responsibility to protect the environment in times of conflict is essential for promoting global environmental sustainability and resilience. In conclusion, while the ecological devastation from warfare may not always receive the attention it deserves, discussing these issues more often is crucial for addressing the long-term environmental and humanitarian consequences of armed conflicts and promoting sustainable peacebuilding efforts. 6. Are the Encana pipeline explosions really examples of domestic terrorism? What would a conflict theorist say about these incidents? Answer: Whether the Encana pipeline explosions constitute domestic terrorism depends on the intent behind the incidents and the broader context in which they occur. Domestic terrorism typically involves acts of violence or sabotage carried out by individuals or groups with political or ideological motivations aimed at instilling fear or advancing a particular agenda. If the pipeline explosions were deliberately orchestrated with the intent to cause harm or disrupt infrastructure for political or ideological reasons, they could be considered acts of domestic terrorism. From a conflict theory perspective, these incidents would be analyzed in the context of power dynamics and social inequalities. Conflict theorists would likely focus on the underlying socioeconomic and environmental grievances that may have contributed to the pipeline explosions. They would critique the concentration of power and wealth within the energy industry, highlighting how corporate interests often prioritize profit over environmental and community concerns. Moreover, conflict theorists would emphasize the role of systemic injustices, such as environmental racism and the exploitation of marginalized communities for resource extraction projects. They would argue that incidents like the Encana pipeline explosions are symptomatic of broader social conflicts rooted in unequal distribution of resources, environmental degradation, and resistance against corporate dominance. Conflict theorists would also scrutinize the response of authorities and corporate entities to such incidents, questioning whether they prioritize protecting corporate interests over addressing the root causes of social discontent. They would advocate for structural changes that address underlying grievances, promote environmental justice, and empower marginalized communities to have a voice in decision-making processes related to resource extraction and infrastructure development. Ultimately, while conflict theorists may not necessarily label the Encana pipeline explosions as examples of domestic terrorism, they would analyze them within the broader framework of social conflict and power dynamics, highlighting the need for systemic change to address underlying inequalities and injustices. 7. What are the arguments for and against Bills C-36 and C-42? What is your stance on these bills and on the issue of racialized/ethnic profiling, especially given the high profile issues that have come up since their implementation? Answer: Bills C-36 and C-42 are both pieces of legislation in Canada that have generated significant debate due to their implications for national security and civil liberties. Bill C-36, also known as the Anti-Terrorism Act, was introduced in response to concerns about terrorism threats. Proponents argue that it provides law enforcement agencies with necessary tools to prevent and respond to terrorist activities, such as enhanced surveillance powers and expanded investigative authority. They contend that it strengthens national security and protects Canadians from potential threats. However, critics of Bill C-36 argue that it grants excessive powers to government agencies at the expense of civil liberties and privacy rights. They raise concerns about the potential for abuse of power, erosion of due process, and infringement on freedom of expression and association. Critics also point out that the vague and broad definitions of "terrorism" and "terrorist activity" could lead to the targeting of marginalized communities, including racialized and ethnic minorities, based on stereotypes and profiling. Bill C-42, also known as the Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act, aims to streamline the process of revoking citizenship for dual citizens convicted of terrorism, treason, or espionage offenses. Proponents argue that it strengthens Canada's ability to protect its national security by deterring individuals who pose a threat to the country from exploiting their citizenship status. They contend that citizenship is a privilege that should not be extended to those who engage in activities that betray the country's values and endanger its citizens. Critics of Bill C-42 raise concerns about the potential for statelessness and the erosion of fundamental rights, particularly the right to citizenship and equal treatment under the law. They argue that revoking citizenship based on criminal convictions sets a dangerous precedent and undermines the principles of fairness, justice, and rehabilitation. Critics also warn against the potential for discriminatory application of the law, particularly against racialized and ethnic minorities who may be disproportionately targeted for prosecution and citizenship revocation. Regarding the issue of racialized/ethnic profiling, especially since the implementation of these bills, there have been high-profile cases and concerns raised about the potential for discriminatory practices by law enforcement and security agencies. Racial profiling involves targeting individuals based on their race, ethnicity, or religion rather than on reasonable suspicion or evidence of wrongdoing. This can result in unjust treatment, harassment, and violations of rights, exacerbating social tensions and undermining trust in law enforcement. My stance on Bills C-36 and C-42 is that while it's important to address legitimate security concerns, particularly in the context of evolving terrorism threats, it must be done in a manner that upholds fundamental rights and values, including due process, equality, and non-discrimination. Any legislation aimed at enhancing national security should be carefully crafted to ensure accountability, transparency, and respect for human rights. Additionally, measures to address terrorism threats should focus on addressing root causes, promoting social inclusion, and addressing grievances rather than relying solely on punitive measures that may disproportionately impact marginalized communities. Efforts to combat terrorism must not come at the expense of civil liberties or perpetuate systemic inequalities, including racialized/ethnic profiling. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION Aftermath: The Remnants of War—This film shows that the devastation of war lingers long after a war is “finished.” The 20th century is shown as the most violent in all human history, with a death toll of more than one hundred million. 2001. 73 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. A Balkan Journey: Fragments from the Other Side of the War—This film explores the vital role women have played in opposing militarism and nationalism throughout an entire region. 1996. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Blind Spot: Peak Oil & the Coming Global Crisis- In this haunting portrait of America's oil-fueled excesses, director Adolfo Doring explores the inextricable link between the energy we use, the way we run our economy, and the multiplying threats that now confront the environmental health and stability of our planet. 2009. 54 mins. Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org Fahrenheit 911- Michael Moore's view on what happened to the United States after September 11 2001; and how the Bush Administration used the tragic event to push forward its agenda for unjust wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. 2004. 122 mins. Fellowship Adventure Group. Hijacking Catastrophe- This film places the Bush Administration's original justifications for war in Iraq within the larger context of a two-decade struggle by neo-conservatives to dramatically increase military spending while projecting American power and influence globally by means of force. 2006. 76 mins. Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org Our Hiroshima—A haunting look at the effects of war, this video looks at the politics involved in the development and use of the atomic bomb. The video was made by Setsuko Nakamuro Thurlow, who was 13 when the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, killing most of her family. 1996. 43 mins. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, http://ffh.films.com Refuge: A Film About Darfur- In this alternately enraging and heartbreaking documentary, Canadian student Jonathan Pedneault and filmmaker Alexandre Trudeau travel to Darfur to try to make sense of reports of genocide in the region. 2009. 52 mins. Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org The Hurt Locker- During the early months of the post-invasion period in Iraq, Sergeant First Class William James becomes the new team leader of an Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) unit with the U.S. 2009. 132 mins. Voltage Pictures. War Hospital- Shot in cinema-vérité style, this feature documentary immerses the viewer in the sights and sounds of the world's largest field hospital, the International Committee of the Red Cross in Sudan. The ICRC allowed filmmakers David Christensen and Damien Lewis unprecedented access to the surgical hospital and local medical staff as they go about their duties, caring for wounded Sudanese soldiers and women and children, all casualties of the civil war. 2005. 89 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. War Made Easy- Brings to the screen Norman Solomon's insightful analysis of the strategies used by administrations, both Democratic and Republican, to promote their agendas for war from Vietnam to Iraq. By familiarizing viewers with the techniques of war propaganda, War Made Easy encourages viewers to think critically about the messages put out by today's spin doctors - messages which are designed to promote and prolong a policy of militarism under the guise of the "war on terror." 2007. 72 mins. Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org. CRITICAL READINGS Bertell, Rosalie. 2001. Planet Earth—The Latest Weapon of War. Toronto: Black Rose Books Burleigh, Michael. 2008. Blood & Rage: A Cultural History of Terrorism. UK: HarperPress. Cancian, Francesca M., and James William Gibson. 1990. Making War, Making Peace: The Social Foundations of Violent Conflict. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Goldstein, Joshua. 2001. War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press Klare, Michael T. 2002. Resource Wars: The New Landscape of Global Conflict. NY: Holt Paperbacks. Shiva, Vandana. 2005. Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. Turner, Chris. 2008. The Geography of Hope: A Tour of the World We Need. Ontario: Vintage Canada. Vetter, Harold J. and Gary R. Perlstein. 1991. Perspectives on Terrorism. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Ware, Helen (ed.). 2007. The No-Nonsense Guide to Conflict and Peace. UK: New Internationalist Publications, Ltd. Wilding, Jo. 2006. Don’t Shoot the Clowns: Taking a Circus to the Children of Iraq. New Internationalist Publications, Ltd. Instructor Manual for Social Problems in a Diverse Society Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, Edward G. Thompson 9780205663903, 9780205718566, 9780205885756