CH-13 Cultural Resource Management and Public Archaeology – Archaeology: The Science of the Human Past : Exam Guide

Chapter 13: Cultural Resource Management and Public Archaeology True/False Questions 1) Human population growth is the single greatest threat to archaeological sites and related resources worldwide. Answer: True Rationale: Human population growth puts increasing pressure on land resources, leading to urban expansion, agricultural development, infrastructure projects, and industrial activities, all of which can directly impact archaeological sites and heritage resources. 2) Test excavations are often necessary to help determine whether a site should go on the national registry. Answer: True Rationale: Test excavations, along with other forms of archaeological investigation, are commonly used to assess the significance and integrity of archaeological sites. These investigations provide essential data to evaluate the eligibility of sites for inclusion on national registries or lists of protected cultural heritage sites. 3) Janet Spector found that the Dakota had different questions and conclusions about their own cultural resources than did the archaeologists. Answer: True Rationale: Janet Spector's research highlighted the importance of incorporating indigenous perspectives and indigenous knowledge systems in archaeological investigations. Her work demonstrated that indigenous communities often have different interpretations and priorities regarding their cultural heritage compared to archaeologists, emphasizing the need for collaboration and dialogue between archaeologists and descendant communities. 4) The market for illegal antiquities is primarily collectors in Third World countries. Answer: False Rationale: While illegal antiquities trafficking occurs globally, the market for illegal antiquities is not limited to collectors in Third World countries. Demand for illicit artifacts comes from collectors, museums, and dealers worldwide, including in developed countries, where there is often a lucrative market for rare and culturally significant antiquities. 5) Part of being a feminist archaeologist is taking into account multiple perspectives on the past. Answer: True Rationale: Feminist archaeology advocates for incorporating diverse perspectives, including those of women, marginalized groups, and indigenous communities, into archaeological research and interpretation. This approach challenges traditional archaeological narratives and seeks to address issues of gender bias, inequality, and representation in the study of the past. 6) Standards for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places vary from state to state. Answer: True Rationale: While the National Register of Historic Places is a federal program administered by the National Park Service, each state may have its own set of criteria and standards for nominating properties to the register. States may also have additional requirements or procedures for evaluating and nominating properties based on their cultural significance and historical importance. 7) The ARPA of 1979 protects archaeological resources on public lands. Answer: True Rationale: The Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979 is a federal law in the United States that protects archaeological resources on public lands managed by federal agencies. ARPA prohibits the excavation, removal, or alteration of archaeological resources without a permit and establishes penalties for the illegal trafficking of archaeological artifacts. 8) Public education and outreach is one of the ethical responsibilities of the professional archaeologist. Answer: True Rationale: Professional archaeologists have ethical responsibilities to engage in public education and outreach, sharing knowledge about archaeological research, cultural heritage, and preservation efforts with diverse audiences. Public education fosters appreciation for archaeology, promotes heritage conservation, and encourages community involvement in archaeological stewardship. 9) The National Register is administered by the National Park Service. Answer: True Rationale: The National Register of Historic Places is administered by the National Park Service (NPS) in the United States. The NPS oversees the nomination and listing process for properties on the National Register, maintains the official database of listed properties, and provides guidance on historic preservation and cultural resource management. 10) Every state must maintain an Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. Answer: False Rationale: While the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) is a federal agency in the United States responsible for advising the President and Congress on historic preservation policy, not every state is required to maintain its own advisory council. However, many states have established State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPOs) to manage historic preservation programs and activities at the state level. 11) NAGPRA applies to any site, on public or private land. Answer: False Rationale: The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) applies specifically to federal and tribal lands, as well as to museums and institutions that receive federal funding. It does not extend to archaeological sites on private lands unless those sites are subject to federal regulations or funding. 12) Most CRM archaeologists are employed by universities. Answer: False Rationale: Cultural Resource Management (CRM) archaeologists are primarily employed by private consulting firms, government agencies, or nonprofit organizations involved in land development, environmental assessment, and heritage management. While some CRM archaeologists may have affiliations with universities, the majority work outside of academia. 13) Anyone interested in the field of archaeology could become a member of the Register of Professional Archaeologists. Answer: True Rationale: The Register of Professional Archaeologists (RPA) is an organization that certifies professional archaeologists based on their education, experience, and adherence to ethical standards. Membership is open to anyone who meets the qualifications, regardless of academic background or affiliation. 14) ARPA is often referred to as “the burial law” Answer: False Rationale: The Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979 is a federal law in the United States that protects archaeological resources on public lands from looting, vandalism, and destruction. While it does include provisions related to the protection of burials and human remains, it is not commonly referred to as "the burial law." 15) Mitigation includes measures designed to lessen adverse effects to sites. Answer: True Rationale: Mitigation refers to actions taken to minimize or offset the adverse impacts of development or other activities on archaeological sites or cultural resources. This may include excavation, documentation, preservation in place, or other forms of intervention to mitigate damage or loss. 16) Archaeologists are always against tourists visiting a site. Answer: False Rationale: While archaeologists may have concerns about the potential impact of tourism on archaeological sites, they generally recognize the importance of public engagement and education. Responsible tourism can contribute to the preservation and appreciation of archaeological heritage when managed appropriately. 17) Most indigenous people would rather let archaeologists and other cultural professionals manage their cultural heritage. Answer: False Rationale: Indigenous perspectives on cultural heritage management vary widely and cannot be generalized. While some indigenous communities may prefer to work collaboratively with archaeologists and cultural professionals, others may prioritize independent management and control of their cultural heritage resources. 18) It is a felony to destroy an archaeological site. Answer: True Rationale: In many jurisdictions, including the United States, the intentional destruction or vandalism of archaeological sites is considered a serious offense and may be prosecuted as a felony. Legal protections exist to safeguard archaeological resources and deter unauthorized disturbance or damage. 19) Laws to protect archaeological resources in the United States have been in existence since the early 1900s. Answer: True Rationale: The United States has a long history of enacting laws and regulations to protect archaeological resources. The Antiquities Act of 1906 was one of the earliest federal laws aimed at preserving archaeological sites and historic landmarks on federal lands. 20) Compliance is the process of meeting the standards set by federal antiquities law. Answer: True Rationale: Compliance refers to the process of ensuring that activities related to archaeology and cultural resource management adhere to applicable laws, regulations, and ethical guidelines. This includes meeting the standards set by federal antiquities law, such as obtaining permits for archaeological surveys or excavations and mitigating impacts on cultural resources. 21) Looting of archaeological sites has become less frequent since the passage of antiquities laws. Answer: False Rationale: Despite the existence of antiquities laws aimed at protecting archaeological sites, looting remains a significant problem worldwide. In many cases, the demand for antiquities in the global market continues to drive illegal excavation and looting activities, posing ongoing threats to archaeological heritage. 22) The National Historic Preservation Act was passed in reaction to the destruction of historic buildings that was resulting from a push to “clean up” American urban centers. Answer: True Rationale: The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 was indeed passed in response to concerns about the widespread destruction of historic buildings and neighborhoods in American cities during urban renewal projects of the mid-20th century. The NHPA established a framework for identifying, preserving, and protecting historic resources across the United States. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) Human activities that threaten archaeological sites and other cultural resources include __________. A) looting B) constructing housing C) off-road recreation D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: All of the options listed—looting, constructing housing, and off-road recreation—are examples of human activities that can pose significant threats to archaeological sites and cultural resources. Looting involves the illegal removal of artifacts from archaeological sites, construction projects such as housing developments can destroy or disturb archaeological sites, and off-road recreation can cause damage to fragile archaeological remains. 2) The threat to Abu Simbel was __________. A) the construction of an airport B) the construction of a large housing development C) the rising level of Lake Nasser, because of the construction of the Aswan Dam D) the construction of a major freeway bypass E) none of the above Answer: C Rationale: The rising level of Lake Nasser due to the construction of the Aswan Dam posed a significant threat to the temple site of Abu Simbel in Egypt. The rising waters threatened to submerge the temple complex, leading to an international effort to relocate the entire site to higher ground. 3) The temple site of Abu Simbel is in __________. A) Jordan B) Libya C) Israel D) Egypt E) India Answer: D Rationale: The temple site of Abu Simbel is located in Egypt. It is one of the most famous archaeological sites in Egypt, known for its massive rock-cut temples built during the reign of Pharaoh Ramses II. 4) The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 __________. A) reversed the Antiquities Act of 1906 B) protects archaeological resources on private land C) strengthened the Antiquities Act of 1906 D) has resulted in the prosecution of thousands of looters E) established the National Register Answer: C Rationale: The Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979 strengthened the provisions of the Antiquities Act of 1906 by providing additional legal protections for archaeological resources on public lands in the United States. ARPA establishes criminal penalties for unauthorized excavation, removal, or damage to archaeological sites on federal and tribal lands. 5) The two steps of an inventory are __________. A) survey and data entry B) recordation and mitigation C) flotation and excavation D) none of the above Answer: A Rationale: In archaeological terms, conducting an inventory typically involves two main steps: surveying an area to identify archaeological sites and recording relevant data about those sites. Survey and data entry are essential components of inventory work, helping to document and manage archaeological resources. 6) When making decisions regarding mitigation, archaeologists consider __________. A) only the area with the densest concentration of artifacts B) all land area that might be affected by a project C) only the area that contains human remains D) only those areas with obvious surface artifacts E) only those areas deemed historically unique Answer: B Rationale: When determining mitigation strategies for archaeological sites, archaeologists consider all land areas that might be affected by a project, not just those with the densest artifact concentrations or other specific criteria. Comprehensive planning and assessment are necessary to address potential impacts on cultural resources. 7) In compliance archaeology, the next step after nomination to the NRHP is __________. A) to redesign the proposed project so it will not endanger the site B) to design a data recovery program C) A or B D) none of the above Answer: C Rationale: In compliance archaeology, the next step after nomination to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) may involve either redesigning the proposed project to avoid impacts on the site or designing a data recovery program to mitigate adverse effects on significant cultural resources. The specific course of action depends on the circumstances and requirements of the project. 8) The UNESCO convention of 1970 __________. A) was convened to address the international problem of illegal import, export, and transfer of artifacts B) had the power to enforce its resolutions C) made it illegal to sell copies of antiquities D) concluded that there was no illegal international trade in antiquities E) legalized the sale of common antiquities Answer: A Rationale: The UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, adopted in 1970, was indeed convened to address the international problem of illegal trafficking in cultural artifacts. While UNESCO can promote adherence to the convention among member states, it does not have enforcement powers, but the convention serves as a framework for international cooperation in combating the illicit trade in cultural property. 9) The statute that makes it necessary for federal projects to cease and notify appropriate tribal representatives if human remains are encountered during archaeological investigations is __________. A) NARP B) ARPA C) SHPO D) NAGPRA E) NHPA Answer: D Rationale: The statute that requires federal agencies to cease activities and consult with appropriate tribal representatives when human remains are encountered during archaeological investigations is the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). NAGPRA mandates respectful treatment of Native American cultural items and human remains and facilitates their return to affiliated tribes and Native Hawaiian organizations. 10) If irreconcilable differences arise between state and federal agencies, the __________ can help adjudicate the contested issue. A) The CRM Council B) the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation C) NHPA D) NAGPRA E) SHPO Answer: B Rationale: The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) is a federal agency in the United States that advises the President and Congress on matters related to historic preservation. In cases of disputes or conflicts between state and federal agencies regarding historic preservation issues, the ACHP can provide mediation and assistance in resolving the contested issue. 11) Mitigation can entail __________. A) avoiding the site B) simple recordation C) full data recovery D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Mitigation in cultural resource management can involve various strategies depending on the specific circumstances of a project. It may include avoiding impacts to the site altogether, conducting simple recordation such as documentation and mapping, or implementing full data recovery through excavation and analysis. All of these options fall under the umbrella of mitigation, aimed at minimizing adverse effects on cultural resources. 12) The Antiquities Act of 1906 __________. A) was the first legislation enacted to protect antiquities in the United States B) was repealed in the 1970s C) has made no difference in how archaeological resources are managed within the United States D) stopped the looting of archaeological sites for many years E) none of the above Answer: A Rationale: The Antiquities Act of 1906 was indeed the first significant legislation enacted in the United States to protect archaeological and cultural resources. It granted the President the authority to designate national monuments on federal lands to protect significant archaeological, cultural, and natural sites. The act marked an important step in the conservation and preservation of America's heritage. 13) In Cultural Resource Management, the APE is __________. A) the Archaeologist Providing Expertise B) the Archaeology of Potential Effort C) the Area of Potential Effect D) the Area of Political Expertise E) none of the above Answer: C Rationale: In Cultural Resource Management (CRM), the Area of Potential Effect (APE) refers to the geographic area within which an undertaking may directly or indirectly cause changes to cultural resources. It is a critical concept used in assessing and managing the impacts of development projects on archaeological sites and historic properties. 14) The federal law that states that each federal agency shall establish a formal historic preservation program is __________. A) NRHM B) Section 106 of NHPA C) NAGPRA D) CRM E) Section 110 of NHPA Answer: E Rationale: Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) requires each federal agency to establish and maintain a formal historic preservation program to identify, evaluate, and manage historic properties under its jurisdiction. This provision ensures that federal agencies integrate historic preservation considerations into their planning, decision-making, and project implementation processes. 15) What was the immediate danger to the site at Fort Hall? A) The Snake River was encroaching on the site B) It was going to be wiped out by a housing development C) SHPO needed it for a training ground D) The local Native American tribe wanted to remove it, to reclaim the land for ritual purposes E) The site was drying out Answer: A Rationale: The immediate danger to the site at Fort Hall was the encroachment of the Snake River. This posed a threat to the preservation of the archaeological site, highlighting the need for protective measures to mitigate the impact of environmental factors on cultural resources. 16) Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) __________. A) states that federal agencies are responsible for identifying sites that might be impacted by development B) may require archaeological survey to identify sites within areas of possible impact C) that the federal government take ownership of archaeological significant lands D) B and C E) A and B Answer: E Rationale: Section 106 of the NHPA mandates that federal agencies consider the effects of their undertakings on historic properties listed or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. This includes identifying sites that might be impacted by development and may require archaeological survey within areas of possible impact, ensuring that cultural resources are properly identified and protected. 17) Which of the following increases the likelihood for ethical breaches in archaeology? A) underfunded projects B) inadequate training C) lack of self-policing among professional archaeologists D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: Ethical breaches in archaeology can occur due to various factors, including underfunded projects, inadequate training of personnel, and a lack of self-policing mechanisms among professional archaeologists. These conditions may contribute to instances of negligence, misconduct, or conflicts of interest that compromise ethical standards in archaeological practice. 18) All of the following are criteria for evaluation of a place for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places except __________. A) the quality of significance B) whether it embodies the distinctive characteristics of a type C) whether it is associated with persons significant in the past D) the number of artifacts recovered during inventory Answer: D Rationale: The evaluation criteria for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places include the quality of significance, whether the property embodies the distinctive characteristics of a type, and its association with persons significant in the past. The number of artifacts recovered during inventory is not a criterion for evaluation but may contribute to the overall significance assessment of a property. 19) The federal law that states that federal agencies are responsible for identifying and evaluating all sites in areas to be developed, to determine eligibility for the National Register is __________. A) Section 106 of NHPA B) Section 110 of NHPA C) NAGPRA D) CRM E) The National Register Act Answer: A Rationale: Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) requires federal agencies to identify and evaluate all sites within areas to be developed to determine their eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places. This provision ensures that potential impacts on cultural resources are assessed and mitigated as part of the federal project planning and decision-making process. 20) In Australian archaeology __________. A) Aborigines are rarely consulted B) Aborigines have attempted to stop any archaeological research C) there are so few artifacts that mitigation is rarely an issue D) there have been increasing initiatives to foster cooperation among Aboriginal groups and archaeological researchers E) none of the above Answer: D Rationale: In Australian archaeology, there have been increasing initiatives to foster cooperation among Aboriginal groups and archaeological researchers. This trend reflects efforts to engage Indigenous communities in archaeological research, respect Indigenous perspectives, and collaborate on projects that address mutual interests and concerns regarding cultural heritage management. Short Answer Questions 1) Describe the various ways that human activity can impact cultural resources. Answer: Human activity can impact cultural resources in several ways. This includes direct destruction through construction activities such as building roads, housing developments, or industrial facilities. Additionally, human activities like agriculture, mining, logging, and urbanization can lead to habitat destruction, which may encompass archaeological sites. Looting and vandalism also pose significant threats, where individuals disturb or remove artifacts from archaeological sites for personal gain or malicious intent. Environmental factors like pollution, climate change, and natural disasters can also adversely affect cultural resources by causing erosion, degradation, or inundation. 2) What does CRM stand for, and what role does archaeology play within it? Answer: CRM stands for Cultural Resource Management. Archaeology plays a crucial role within CRM by contributing to the identification, assessment, and preservation of cultural resources. In CRM, archaeologists conduct surveys and excavations to identify archaeological sites within proposed development areas. They assess the significance of these sites and provide recommendations for their management and preservation. Archaeologists also undertake data recovery efforts to mitigate impacts on significant sites, ensuring that valuable cultural resources are documented and preserved for future generations. Overall, archaeology serves as a vital component of CRM, helping to balance development needs with the protection of cultural heritage. 3) What are mitigation and compliance, and what role do they play in CRM? Answer: Mitigation and compliance are essential components of Cultural Resource Management (CRM). Mitigation refers to measures taken to minimize or offset adverse impacts on cultural resources resulting from development activities. This may involve modifying project plans to avoid or reduce impacts on archaeological sites, conducting archaeological excavations to recover data before site destruction, or implementing protective measures to preserve significant resources in situ. Compliance, on the other hand, involves ensuring that development projects adhere to relevant laws, regulations, and guidelines governing the management of cultural resources. This includes compliance with federal, state, and local historic preservation laws, environmental regulations, and consultation requirements with Indigenous groups or other stakeholders. Mitigation and compliance strategies are integral to CRM, as they help balance the needs of development projects with the protection and preservation of cultural heritage. 4) What are some of the factors, economic and political, that can get in the way of mitigation and compliance? Answer: Economic factors such as budget constraints or financial interests of developers can hinder mitigation and compliance efforts in Cultural Resource Management (CRM). Limited funding may restrict the resources available for conducting comprehensive archaeological surveys or implementing effective mitigation measures. Political factors, including conflicting priorities, lobbying pressure, or lack of regulatory enforcement, can also impede compliance with cultural resource protection laws. Additionally, vested interests, such as profit-driven development agendas or political expediency, may prioritize short-term economic gains over long-term preservation goals, leading to inadequate mitigation efforts or non-compliance with regulatory requirements. 5) What are the standards that define a professional archaeologist? Answer: Professional archaeologists are defined by adherence to established standards of education, training, ethics, and practice within the discipline. These standards typically include obtaining a relevant academic degree (usually at the undergraduate or graduate level) in archaeology or a related field, such as anthropology. Professional archaeologists often undergo additional training through fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and specialized workshops or certifications in archaeological methodologies and techniques. Ethical standards, such as those outlined by the Register of Professional Archaeologists or similar professional organizations, govern the conduct of archaeologists, emphasizing integrity, respect for cultural heritage, and responsible stewardship of archaeological resources. Continuing education and participation in professional development activities further contribute to maintaining the high standards of professionalism expected in the field of archaeology. 6) What are some of the potential benefits to archaeology from cultural tourism? Answer: Cultural tourism can provide numerous benefits to archaeology, including increased public awareness and appreciation of archaeological sites and heritage. By attracting visitors to archaeological sites, cultural tourism can generate revenue that can be reinvested into conservation efforts, site maintenance, and research projects. Tourism-related activities, such as guided tours, educational programs, and interpretive exhibits, offer opportunities for archaeologists to engage with the public, share their research findings, and promote cultural understanding. Cultural tourism can also stimulate economic development in local communities surrounding archaeological sites, supporting small businesses, hospitality services, and cultural initiatives. Furthermore, tourism can foster collaboration between archaeologists, tourism professionals, and local stakeholders, facilitating community involvement in heritage preservation and sustainable tourism practices. 7) What were some of the alternative solutions to the problem of the Aswan Dam’s impact on Abu Simbel? Which solution was implemented and why? Answer: Some alternative solutions to mitigate the impact of the Aswan Dam on Abu Simbel included relocating the entire temple complex to higher ground, dismantling and reconstructing the temple at a new location, or constructing a protective barrier around the site to shield it from rising waters. Ultimately, the solution implemented was the dismantling and reconstruction of the temple complex at a higher elevation. This decision was made because it offered the most feasible means of preserving the archaeological site while still allowing for the development of the dam project. By relocating the temple, it could remain accessible to tourists and continue to serve as a cultural heritage site, mitigating the loss of this significant archaeological resource. 8) Define ethics. How do they come into play in the practice of archaeology? Answer: Ethics refers to moral principles or standards that guide behavior and decision-making, encompassing concepts such as honesty, integrity, respect, and responsibility. In the practice of archaeology, ethics play a crucial role in ensuring the responsible conduct of research, the protection of cultural heritage, and the ethical treatment of stakeholders. Archaeologists must adhere to ethical guidelines established by professional organizations, regulatory agencies, and the archaeological community to uphold the integrity of their work and mitigate potential harm to cultural resources or affected communities. Ethical considerations in archaeology include issues such as the treatment of human remains, engagement with Indigenous peoples and local communities, the responsible management of archaeological sites, and the ethical conduct of fieldwork, analysis, and dissemination of research findings. 9) What is the intent of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA)? Answer: The intent of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) is to ensure that federal agencies consider the potential impacts of their actions on historic properties, including archaeological sites, and to provide for the identification, evaluation, and protection of these resources. Section 106 requires federal agencies to take into account the effects of their projects on properties listed or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and to consult with State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs), Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPOs), Native Hawaiian organizations, and other stakeholders to address these impacts. The goal of Section 106 is to balance federal agency responsibilities with the preservation of the nation's cultural heritage by integrating historic preservation considerations into federal planning, decision-making, and project implementation processes. 10) What is the Society for Professional Archaeologists? Answer: The Society for Professional Archaeologists (SOPA) is a professional organization dedicated to promoting excellence in the practice of archaeology and advocating for the highest ethical standards within the discipline. SOPA provides a forum for archaeologists working in cultural resource management (CRM), academia, government agencies, and other sectors to exchange ideas, share best practices, and address professional issues relevant to the field. The society offers guidance on ethical conduct, professional development opportunities, and resources for career advancement. SOPA also serves as a platform for archaeologists to engage in public outreach, education, and advocacy efforts to raise awareness about the importance of archaeological heritage and the role of archaeologists in its preservation and stewardship. Essay Questions 1) What role did archaeology play in the case of Fort Hall, Idaho? What were some of the complicating factors in attempts to protect and manage the Fort Hall cultural resource? Answer: In the case of Fort Hall, Idaho, archaeology played a critical role in identifying, documenting, and assessing the cultural significance of archaeological sites associated with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes. These archaeological investigations helped to inform decisions regarding the management and protection of the Fort Hall cultural resource. However, several complicating factors arose in attempts to protect and manage the Fort Hall cultural resource. These included competing interests between development and preservation, jurisdictional issues involving federal, state, and tribal authorities, limited resources for conducting comprehensive archaeological surveys and mitigation efforts, and challenges in balancing the needs and priorities of multiple stakeholders, including developers, government agencies, and tribal communities. 2) What are the three primary components of compliance archaeology? What are some of the problems created by the workloads related to Section 106 compliance? Answer: The three primary components of compliance archaeology are identification, assessment, and mitigation of cultural resources to ensure compliance with relevant laws, regulations, and guidelines. Problems created by the workloads related to Section 106 compliance include resource constraints, such as limited funding and staffing for conducting archaeological surveys and assessments within tight deadlines. Additionally, the volume of projects subject to Section 106 review can overwhelm regulatory agencies and consulting archaeologists, leading to delays in project approvals, backlogs in processing permits, and challenges in adequately addressing the cultural resource management needs of affected communities and stakeholders. 3) What is the relationship between the feminist perspective and respect for indigenous people’s interpretations of their own cultural resources? How is that illustrated in Janet Spector’s work with the Dakota? Answer: The feminist perspective emphasizes the importance of recognizing diverse voices, experiences, and perspectives, including those of Indigenous peoples, in archaeological research and cultural heritage management. This perspective advocates for collaboration, equity, and empowerment in archaeological practice, with a focus on challenging traditional power structures and promoting social justice. Janet Spector's work with the Dakota illustrates the intersection of the feminist perspective and respect for Indigenous people's interpretations of their own cultural resources. Spector's research engaged with Dakota communities to understand their perspectives on cultural heritage, acknowledging their sovereignty and rights to self-determination. By incorporating Indigenous knowledge, oral histories, and perspectives into her archaeological interpretations, Spector demonstrated a commitment to decolonizing archaeology and fostering mutual respect and cooperation between archaeologists and Indigenous communities. This approach highlights the importance of centering Indigenous voices and perspectives in archaeological practice and advocating for ethical and collaborative approaches to cultural heritage management. 4) What is the difference between informing indigenous peoples about archaeology and including them in archaeological endeavors? How is this illustrated in the case of Australia and the Koori? Answer: The difference between informing indigenous peoples about archaeology and including them in archaeological endeavors lies in the level of engagement, collaboration, and empowerment afforded to Indigenous communities in the research process. Simply informing indigenous peoples about archaeology involves disseminating information about archaeological findings, methods, and goals to Indigenous communities without actively involving them in decision-making or research activities. On the other hand, including indigenous peoples in archaeological endeavors entails meaningful participation, consultation, and partnership throughout all stages of the research process, from project design and implementation to interpretation and dissemination of results. In the case of Australia and the Koori, this difference is illustrated by efforts to move beyond mere consultation and engage Koori communities as active participants and stakeholders in archaeological research. This approach recognizes Koori rights to self-determination, cultural heritage stewardship, and collaborative engagement with archaeologists to ensure that research objectives align with community priorities and perspectives. 5) What are the major ethical issues facing archaeologists today? Answer: The major ethical issues facing archaeologists today encompass a range of challenges related to cultural heritage preservation, community engagement, Indigenous rights, and professional conduct. These include issues such as the ethical treatment of human remains and burial sites, respect for Indigenous knowledge and cultural protocols, equitable representation and participation of diverse communities in archaeological research, responsible stewardship of archaeological resources, transparency and accountability in research practices, and addressing the legacies of colonialism and cultural appropriation in archaeology. Additionally, ethical considerations extend to issues of intellectual property rights, data sharing and dissemination, collaborative decision-making, and the ethical responsibilities of archaeologists towards the communities they study and engage with. Navigating these ethical complexities requires archaeologists to uphold principles of integrity, respect, equity, and social justice in their professional conduct and interactions with stakeholders, while also advocating for ethical standards and best practices within the discipline. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311