CH-11 Interpreting Past Cultural Systems – Archaeology: The Science of the Human Past : Exam Guide

Chapter 11: Interpreting Past Cultural Systems True/False Questions 1) It is a simple task to recognize social and political boundaries in the archaeological record. Answer: False Rationale: Recognizing social and political boundaries in the archaeological record is often complex and challenging due to factors such as the fragmentary nature of the archaeological record, the ambiguity of material culture, and the varied interpretations of researchers. Social and political boundaries may not always leave clear material traces and can be obscured by factors such as erosion, site destruction, or cultural change over time. 2) Only complex societies have complex kinship systems. Answer: False Rationale: Kinship systems can vary in complexity across different societies, regardless of their level of social complexity. While complex societies may exhibit elaborate kinship systems, simpler societies can also have nuanced kinship structures that play important roles in social organization, marriage alliances, and inheritance practices. 3) Past symbolic systems are knowable. Answer: True Rationale: Past symbolic systems, including language, art, and ritual practices, can be investigated and understood to varying degrees through archaeological and anthropological research. By analyzing material culture, iconography, and written records (when available), researchers can infer aspects of past symbolic systems and gain insights into the beliefs, values, and social meanings of ancient societies. 4) It is now possible to determine whether palaeofeces came from a male or a female, using DNA analysis. Answer: True Rationale: Advances in DNA analysis techniques have made it possible to extract genetic material from palaeofeces (ancient human or animal feces) and determine the sex of the individual from whom the feces originated. This provides valuable insights into the demographics and behavior of past populations, including aspects of diet, health, and social roles. 5) Cognitive archaeology is practiced only by postprocessual archaeologists. Answer: False Rationale: While cognitive archaeology has been associated with postprocessual archaeology for its emphasis on understanding past human thought processes and symbolic behavior, it is not exclusively practiced by postprocessualists. Cognitive approaches to archaeology are also employed within other theoretical frameworks, including processual and evolutionary archaeology, as researchers seek to investigate aspects of cognition, perception, and symbolic representation in ancient societies. 6) It is easy to know the meaning of prehistoric art. Answer: False Rationale: Interpreting the meaning of prehistoric art poses significant challenges for archaeologists due to the absence of written records and the subjective nature of symbolic expression. Prehistoric art can convey complex and multifaceted messages that may be interpreted differently by researchers depending on their cultural backgrounds, theoretical perspectives, and contextual understandings. Deciphering the meaning of prehistoric art often requires careful consideration of its cultural and environmental contexts, as well as cross-cultural comparisons and interdisciplinary approaches. 7) Representational art is most visible in the archaeological record. Answer: True Rationale: Representational art, which depicts recognizable objects or figures, tends to be more visible and readily identifiable in the archaeological record compared to abstract or symbolic art forms. Representational art includes images of animals, humans, plants, and other familiar subjects that are depicted in a realistic or stylized manner, making them easier to recognize and interpret by archaeologists. 8) One measure of social and political organization within a chiefdom is the degree of craft specialization. Answer: True Rationale: Craft specialization, where individuals or groups focus on producing specific types of goods or services, can serve as an indicator of social and political organization within chiefdoms. In chiefdom societies, craft specialization may be controlled or regulated by elites to maintain social hierarchy and economic control, with specialized artisans producing prestige goods or serving as symbols of elite status and power. 9) It is possible to radiocarbon date organic materials used to make paint for certain rock art sites. Answer: True Rationale: Radiocarbon dating can be applied to organic materials such as charcoal, bone, or plant remains found in association with rock art sites to establish the age of the depicted images. If organic materials used in paint pigments or binders are present and can be sampled, radiocarbon dating can provide valuable chronological information about the creation of rock art, helping archaeologists understand the timing and cultural contexts of artistic production. 10) The organization of art in Benin society reflects a state-based social and political organization. Answer: True Rationale: The organization of art in Benin society, particularly in the context of the Benin Kingdom (in present-day Nigeria), reflects a state-based social and political organization characterized by centralized authority, royal patronage of the arts, and hierarchical social structures. Artistic production in Benin was closely tied to royal courts and religious institutions, with skilled artisans creating elaborate sculptures, metalwork, and architectural decorations to commemorate royal achievements, glorify the monarchy, and reinforce political legitimacy and authority. 11) The earliest known intentional burials are Neanderthal, dating from the middle Palaeolithic. Answer: True Rationale: Evidence from archaeological sites such as Shanidar Cave in Iraq suggests that Neanderthals practiced intentional burial of their dead, dating back to the Middle Palaeolithic period. These burials include the placement of bodies in specific positions, with grave goods or evidence of deliberate interment practices, indicating a degree of symbolic behavior and ritualistic treatment of the deceased. 12) Traditional African art is easier to interpret than that of other cultures. Answer: False Rationale: The interpretation of traditional African art, like that of any cultural expression, can be complex and multifaceted, influenced by factors such as cultural context, symbolism, religious beliefs, and artistic conventions. Traditional African art encompasses diverse styles, forms, and meanings, varying across different regions, ethnic groups, and historical periods. Interpreting African art requires careful consideration of its cultural and social contexts, often involving collaboration with local communities and specialists in African art history and anthropology. 13) It is always easy to determine the gender of individuals in the archaeological record. Answer: False Rationale: Determining the gender of individuals in the archaeological record can be challenging and is not always straightforward. While some skeletal features may provide clues about biological sex, such as pelvic morphology or cranial characteristics, these indicators are not always definitive and can vary due to factors like age, health, and population variation. In cases where skeletal remains are fragmentary or poorly preserved, or where cultural practices obscure gender markers, identifying the gender of individuals becomes even more difficult. 14) In some respects, the Mexican calendar was more accurate than our own. Answer: True Rationale: The ancient Mexican calendar systems, such as the Aztec and Maya calendars, were highly sophisticated and accurate in tracking time, seasons, and astronomical events. These calendars incorporated complex cycles of days, months, and years, along with intercalation and correction mechanisms to synchronize lunar and solar cycles. In certain aspects, such as the precision of astronomical observations and the incorporation of leap years, the Mexican calendars were indeed more accurate than the Gregorian calendar commonly used today. 15) The mortuary data at Moundville support the interpretation of its having been a ranked society. Answer: True Rationale: The mortuary data from Moundville, a Mississippian mound site in Alabama, indicate social differentiation and hierarchy within the society. Burial practices at Moundville show variations in grave goods, burial locations, and burial mound sizes, suggesting differential access to resources, status, and power among individuals or social groups. These patterns support the interpretation of Moundville as a ranked society, where individuals held varying degrees of social prestige and authority based on their lineage, wealth, or achieved status. 16) Images which have become simplified and generalized to stand for ideas rather than things are called pictographs. Answer: False Rationale: Images that have become simplified and generalized to represent ideas rather than specific objects are called ideographs or ideograms. Pictographs, on the other hand, are images or symbols that directly represent objects or concepts, often through visual resemblance or iconic representation. Ideographs are common in writing systems and symbolic communication, where they convey abstract meanings or concepts independently of spoken language. 17) The famous geometric lines in the Nasca Valley of Peru are an example of petroglyphs. Answer: False Rationale: The famous geometric lines in the Nasca Valley of Peru, known as the Nasca Lines, are large-scale geoglyphs created by removing surface materials to reveal lightercolored earth underneath, forming shapes and patterns visible from the air. While petroglyphs are rock engravings or carvings made on exposed rock surfaces, the Nasca Lines are terrestrial geoglyphs created by removing surface materials like stones or gravel to create designs on the desert floor. 18) There is evidence that some Palaeolithic rock art may be calendrical in nature. Answer: True Rationale: Some Palaeolithic rock art sites, such as those in Europe and Africa, show evidence of astronomical alignments, seasonal markers, or geometric patterns that may have served calendrical or astronomical purposes. Interpretations of Palaeolithic rock art as calendrical in nature are based on alignments with celestial phenomena, recurring motifs suggestive of seasonal events, or symbolic representations of time, suggesting an early human interest in marking and tracking time through art and ritual. 19) Cosmology and philosophy are based on religious beliefs, and rarely take into account empirical knowledge. Answer: False Rationale: Cosmology and philosophy encompass diverse intellectual traditions and philosophical inquiries that explore fundamental questions about the nature of the universe, human existence, and the nature of knowledge itself. While religious beliefs may influence cosmological and philosophical perspectives, these disciplines also incorporate empirical observations, rational inquiry, and critical thinking to develop theories and explanations about the cosmos, human existence, and the nature of reality. 20) Most archaeologists agree that early states were formed as a result of warfare. Answer: False Rationale: The formation of early states, characterized by centralized political authority, social stratification, and bureaucratic institutions, was influenced by multiple factors, including economic development, environmental conditions, population growth, trade networks, and ideological shifts in addition to warfare. While conflict and competition may have played a role in state formation processes, not all archaeologists agree that warfare was the primary or sole driving force behind the emergence of early states. Alternative theories propose that cooperation, resource management, and social integration also contributed to state formation dynamics. 21) Exogamy, marrying outside one’s group, is a rare feature of hunter-gatherers. Answer: False Rationale: Exogamy, or marrying outside one's social group, is a common practice observed in many hunter-gatherer societies. Exogamous marriage practices often serve to strengthen social ties, promote alliances between groups, and prevent inbreeding within small kinship networks. By marrying individuals from neighboring or distant groups, hunter-gatherers can establish social connections, exchange goods and resources, and enhance their social and economic networks. 22) All societies have some kind of social structure. Answer: True Rationale: Social structure refers to the organized patterns of social relationships, roles, and hierarchies that characterize human societies. Regardless of their size, complexity, or cultural differences, all societies exhibit some form of social organization and structure. This may include kinship systems, political institutions, economic divisions, religious hierarchies, and other social frameworks that govern interactions, allocate resources, and regulate behavior within a society. Social structure provides stability, order, and cohesion to human communities, facilitating cooperation, coordination, and collective action. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) Most material culture recovered from the archaeological record __________. A) contains some symbolic expression of cultural meaning B) is purely utilitarian C) consists of faunal remains D) cannot be interpreted E) none of the above Answer: A Rationale: Material culture recovered from the archaeological record often contains symbolic expressions of cultural meaning. This includes artifacts such as pottery, tools, and art objects, which frequently exhibit decorative motifs, religious symbolism, or other forms of cultural significance that reflect the beliefs, values, and social practices of past societies. While utilitarian aspects are common in material culture, many artifacts also carry symbolic meanings or serve ritual purposes, underscoring the importance of symbolism in human material expressions. 2) The performance of formalized, repetitive acts that others identify as meaningful is called __________. A) symbolic B) religion C) ritual D) faith E) none of the above Answer: C Rationale: Ritual refers to the performance of formalized, repetitive acts that others identify as meaningful. Rituals play a crucial role in shaping social behavior, reinforcing group identity, and expressing cultural values and beliefs. By following established ceremonial practices, individuals and communities engage in shared symbolic actions that reflect their worldview, religious beliefs, and social norms, fostering cohesion and collective meaning-making within societies. 3) The theory of state formation that suggests control of irrigation led to increased complexity is called __________. A) the water hypothesis B) the hydraulic theory C) the flotation manifesto D) the irrigation hypothesis E) none of the above Answer: B Rationale: The theory of state formation that suggests control of irrigation led to increased complexity is called the hydraulic theory. According to this hypothesis, the development and management of large-scale irrigation systems played a crucial role in fostering agricultural productivity, population growth, and social stratification, ultimately leading to the emergence of centralized states in ancient societies reliant on hydraulic infrastructure for their sustenance and control. 4) States are characterized by all of the following except __________. A) large populations B) formal record-keeping C) controlled storage facilities D) high mobility E) social stratification Answer: D Rationale: States are characterized by large populations, formal record-keeping, controlled storage facilities, and social stratification. High mobility, however, is not typically associated with states. Instead, states often feature sedentary populations residing in urban centers, with administrative bureaucracies, centralized authority, and infrastructure supporting economic, political, and social complexity. 5) Polities with populations with up to tens of thousands of people, with large permanent settlements and a centralized political structure are called __________. A) chiefdoms B) bands C) tribes D) states E) lineages Answer: A Rationale: Polities with populations up to tens of thousands of people, large permanent settlements, and a centralized political structure are called chiefdoms. Chiefdoms represent intermediate forms of social organization between tribes and states, featuring centralized leadership under a hereditary chief or elite lineage, social stratification, and some degree of political authority over subordinate communities. 6) Tribes are characterized by all of the following except __________. A) leaders commonly called chiefs B) social segmentation based on criteria other than kinship C) ascribed status D) a highly mobile lifestyle Answer: D Rationale: Tribes are characterized by leaders commonly called chiefs, social segmentation based on criteria other than kinship, and ascribed status. However, a highly mobile lifestyle is not typically associated with tribes. Instead, tribes often exhibit varying degrees of sedentism, with communities residing in semi-permanent or permanent settlements while engaging in subsistence activities such as agriculture, pastoralism, or hunting and gathering. 7) An example of an ancient state-level society is __________. A) the Aka B) Moundville C) the Han Dynasty D) the San people of Africa E) the Chumash Answer: C Rationale: An example of an ancient state-level society is the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) was a powerful imperial dynasty in ancient China known for its centralized governance, bureaucratic administration, extensive territorial expansion, and cultural achievements. As one of the early dynastic states in Chinese history, the Han Dynasty established a centralized imperial government, implemented Confucian ideologies, and oversaw significant economic, social, and technological advancements, making it a prototypical example of a state-level society. 8) Band societies are characterized by all of the following except __________. A) seasonal mobility B) informal leadership C) small scale population D) formal ranking E) egalitarian social system Answer: D Rationale: Band societies are characterized by seasonal mobility, informal leadership, smallscale population, and an egalitarian social system. Formal ranking, however, is not typically associated with band societies. Bands are small, kin-based social groups consisting of a few dozen to a few hundred individuals, where leadership is often based on personal qualities, experience, or knowledge rather than formal institutionalized authority or hereditary status. 9) Social groups with mixed economies, social segmentation based on criteria other than kinship, and a few thousand members are called __________. A) tribes B) chiefdoms C) bands D) states E) cities Answer: A Rationale: Social groups with mixed economies, social segmentation based on criteria other than kinship, and a few thousand members are called tribes. Tribes represent intermediate forms of social organization between bands and chiefdoms, featuring larger populations, more complex social structures, and diversified subsistence strategies such as horticulture, pastoralism, or small-scale agriculture. 10) Chiefdoms are characterized by all of the following except __________. A) leaders authorized to use force B) formal ranking C) centralized political structure D) a foraging subsistence system Answer: D Rationale: Chiefdoms are characterized by leaders authorized to use force, formal ranking, and a centralized political structure. However, a foraging subsistence system is not typically associated with chiefdoms. Chiefdoms often rely on more intensive forms of subsistence such as horticulture, agriculture, or pastoralism to support larger populations, surplus production, and social stratification within hierarchical societies. 11) A group with an independent political organization is known as __________. A) stratified B) non-stratified C) polity D) egalitarian E) state Answer: C Rationale: A polity refers to a group with an independent political organization. Unlike stratified societies where social hierarchy and inequality exist, or non-stratified societies characterized by egalitarianism, a polity may exhibit varying degrees of political complexity, centralized authority, and formal governance structures, often associated with the administration of territories, resources, and social order within a defined political entity. 12) Polities with cities, some form of formal record-keeping, a full-time military, and a system of taxation are called __________. A) states B) bands C) tribes D) chiefdoms E) empires Answer: A Rationale: Polities with cities, formal record-keeping, a full-time military, and a system of taxation are called states. States represent complex political entities characterized by centralized authority, bureaucratic administration, territorial control, and a range of social, economic, and political institutions supporting large-scale societies with urban centers, specialized labor, and hierarchical governance structures. 13) In stratified societies __________. A) there are no differences in access to resources B) social roles are often inherited C) labor is rarely divided by age or sex D) there is little differentiation among individuals in terms of social status E) populations are highly mobile Answer: B Rationale: In stratified societies, social roles are often inherited, leading to the transmission of wealth, power, and social status from one generation to the next within privileged lineages or social classes. Stratification results in hierarchical social structures where individuals occupy distinct positions based on factors such as birthright, wealth, or prestige, leading to unequal access to resources, privileges, and opportunities within society. 14) Egalitarian societies __________. A) are also referred to as non-stratified B) are highly stratified C) usually have a chief D) usually have elaborate mortuary goods E) never have leaders Answer: A Rationale: Egalitarian societies are also referred to as non-stratified societies. In egalitarian societies, there is a lack of pronounced social hierarchy or significant differences in wealth, power, or status among individuals. Leadership roles, when they exist, are often informal and temporary, based on individual merit, experience, or expertise rather than inherited privilege or centralized authority. Consequently, egalitarian societies tend to exhibit more equitable distribution of resources and access to decision-making processes. 15) The study of past ways of thought as inferred from material remains is called __________. A) ecological archaeology B) social archaeology C) cognitive archaeology D) processual archaeology E) post-processual archaeology Answer: C Rationale: The study of past ways of thought as inferred from material remains is called cognitive archaeology. Cognitive archaeology focuses on understanding the cognitive processes, symbolic meanings, and cultural beliefs of past societies through the analysis of archaeological evidence, including artifacts, art, architecture, and ritual practices. By examining material culture and spatial patterns, cognitive archaeologists seek insights into the mental frameworks, worldviews, and symbolic systems that shaped human behavior and social organization in prehistoric and ancient contexts. 16) Which of the following is an example of an ancient site built with significant astronomical alignments? A) Egyptian pyramids B) Maya palaces C) Stonehenge D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: All of the above options are examples of ancient sites built with significant astronomical alignments. The Egyptian pyramids, Maya palaces, and Stonehenge are renowned archaeological sites known for their architectural alignments with celestial phenomena such as solstices, equinoxes, and stellar events. These alignments suggest that ancient societies possessed sophisticated astronomical knowledge and incorporated astronomical observations into the design and orientation of their built environments for ritual, calendrical, or symbolic purposes. 17) Small-scale, non-stratified societies with foraging as their primary subsistence, and informal leadership are called __________. A) bands B) tribes C) chiefdoms D) states E) polities Answer: A Rationale: Small-scale, non-stratified societies with foraging as their primary subsistence, and informal leadership are called bands. Bands represent the simplest form of social organization, consisting of small kin-based groups of hunter-gatherers who reside in temporary or seasonal camps, practice flexible mobility, and rely on shared knowledge, reciprocity, and egalitarian principles for social cohesion and decisionmaking. 18) A state that dominates other polities is __________. A) a chiefdom B) a super-state C) an empire D) a complex chiefdom E) a kingdom Answer: C Rationale: A state that dominates other polities is called an empire. Empires are expansive political entities characterized by territorial conquest, imperial rule, and hegemonic control over multiple regions, polities, and ethnic groups. Empires often arise through military conquest, diplomatic alliances, or economic dominance, exerting political authority and cultural influence over subject territories and populations within their spheres of influence. 19) When archaeologists assume that the earliest ethnographic or historically known group in an area is the direct descendant of the latest archaeological group in the same area, this is called __________. A) synchratic culture B) ethnographic analogy C) historical archaeology D) the direct historical approach E) none of the above Answer: D Rationale: When archaeologists assume that the earliest ethnographic or historically known group in an area is the direct descendant of the latest archaeological group in the same area, this is called the direct historical approach. This approach involves extrapolating backward from ethnographic or historical data to interpret archaeological findings, assuming continuity between past and present cultural groups based on shared geographic locations or cultural traits. 20) The use of artistic images to represent information and aspects of belief systems is generally referred to as __________. A) iconography B) pictographs C) ideograms D) art E) ritual Answer: A Rationale: The use of artistic images to represent information and aspects of belief systems is generally referred to as iconography. Iconography involves the study and interpretation of visual symbols, motifs, and representations found in art, artifacts, architecture, and other material culture. By analyzing iconographic elements and their cultural contexts, archaeologists and art historians can gain insights into the symbolic meanings, religious beliefs, social values, and cultural practices of ancient societies represented through visual imagery. Short Answer Questions 1) What is the difference between culture and society? Answer: Culture refers to the beliefs, customs, arts, and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement within a particular society, whereas society refers to a group of people who share a common territory and culture. 2) What characterizes an anthropological question? Answer: Anthropological questions typically involve the study of human societies, cultures, behaviors, and evolution, often with a focus on understanding the diversity and similarities among different groups of people. 3) What were the differences between male and female skeletal pathologies in the Great Basin? How does that reflect possible activities that men and women engaged in? Answer: In the Great Basin, male skeletal pathologies often exhibited signs of injuries related to hunting and warfare, while female skeletal pathologies showed evidence of activities such as gathering and child-rearing. This reflects the division of labor between genders, with men primarily engaged in activities requiring physical strength and women involved in tasks related to domestic and subsistence activities. 4) What is the difference between petroglyphs and geoglyphs? Include an archaeological example of each. Answer: Petroglyphs are rock engravings or carvings made by removing part of a rock surface, while geoglyphs are large designs or motifs produced on the ground, typically by arranging stones or shaping the earth itself. An example of a petroglyph is the rock art at Newspaper Rock in Utah, USA, depicting various symbols and images. An example of a geoglyph is the Nazca Lines in Peru, which are large designs etched into the desert floor. 5) What is the direct historical approach? Answer: The direct historical approach in archaeology involves using written records, documents, and other historical sources to directly interpret archaeological findings and understand past cultures and societies within their historical contexts. 6) What are some examples of ritual artifacts that would be preserved in the archaeological record? Answer: Examples of ritual artifacts that could be preserved in the archaeological record include ceremonial objects, religious symbols, votive offerings, ritualistic figurines, sacrificial remains, and items associated with burial rituals, such as grave goods or funerary masks. 7) What are some of the pitfalls in the investigation of the archaeology of ethnicity? Answer: Pitfalls in the investigation of the archaeology of ethnicity include the difficulty of identifying ethnic groups solely based on material culture, the potential for bias in interpreting archaeological data through a modern ethnic lens, and the challenge of distinguishing ethnic identity from other social, economic, or political factors influencing material remains. 8) How can individuals be identified in the archaeological record? Answer: Individuals can be identified in the archaeological record through various means, including the analysis of skeletal remains for age, sex, and health indicators, the presence of personal artifacts associated with specific burials, and the use of forensic techniques such as DNA analysis for genetic identification. 9) What role did archaeology play in the Vatican’s decision to change criteria for sainthood? Answer: Archaeology played a role in the Vatican's decision to change criteria for sainthood by providing evidence related to the lives and deeds of historical figures proposed for canonization. Archaeological discoveries, such as relics or evidence of miracles associated with potential saints, could influence the Vatican's decisionmaking process regarding their canonization. 10) What criteria are considered in defining a society as complex? Answer: Criteria considered in defining a society as complex include factors such as the presence of social stratification, specialized labor roles, centralized political organization, economic specialization, long-distance trade networks, urbanization, monumental architecture, and sophisticated systems of writing or record-keeping. These characteristics indicate a higher level of organizational complexity within a society. Essay Questions 1) What are the four levels of political organization recognized by anthropologists, and how are they identified in the archaeological record? Answer: The four levels of political organization recognized by anthropologists are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states. In the archaeological record, these levels are identified through various means such as settlement patterns, the presence of monumental architecture, evidence of centralized control or leadership, and the distribution of resources and wealth within a society. 2) How do the lifestyle changes associated with the transition from the Early Copper Age to the Middle Copper Age show up in the mortuary data? How is this related to gender? Answer: The lifestyle changes associated with the transition from the Early Copper Age to the Middle Copper Age can be observed in mortuary data through shifts in burial practices, grave goods, and the treatment of the deceased. Changes related to gender may include differences in the types and quantities of grave goods accompanying male and female burials, indicating shifts in social roles, status, or division of labor within the society. 3) How do archaeologists recognize ritual objects and sacred places in the archaeological record? Answer: Archaeologists recognize ritual objects and sacred places in the archaeological record through various indicators such as the presence of specialized artifacts with symbolic or ceremonial significance, architectural features associated with religious or ritual activities, patterns of deposition or arrangement of objects within a site, and ethnographic analogies from contemporary or historical societies. 4) Describe the various theories of the origin of states. Answer: The various theories of the origin of states include hydraulic theory, ecological-evolutionary theory, warfare and conquest theory, trade and economic specialization theory, and ideological or religious factors theory. These theories propose different explanations for the emergence of states, focusing on factors such as environmental conditions, economic development, social organization, and ideological or political processes. 5) What are some of the factors that must be considered by archaeologists when interpreting artistic representations from the past? Answer: When interpreting artistic representations from the past, archaeologists must consider factors such as cultural context, symbolism, religious or ritual significance, stylistic conventions, technological capabilities, patronage, audience, and potential biases or agendas of the artists or commissioners. Additionally, comparative analysis with other archaeological evidence and ethnographic studies can help provide insights into the meanings and functions of artistic representations. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311