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Chapter11 Communication LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: Describe the functions and process of communication. Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine. Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication. Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication method. Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages. Identify common barriers to effective communication. Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication. INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES Instructors may wish to use the following resources when presenting this chapter. Text Exercises Career Objectives: Isn’t This Disability Too Much To Accommodate? Myth or Science?: “Today, Writing Skills Are More Important than Speaking Skills” Personal Inventory Assessments: Communication Styles An Ethical Choice: Using Employees in Organizational Social Media Strategy Point/Counterpoint: We Should Use Employees’ Social Media Presence Questions for Review Experiential Exercise: An Absence of Nonverbal Communication Ethical Dilemma: BYOD Text Cases Case Incident 1: Organizational Leveraging of Social Media Case Incident 2: An Underwater Meeting Instructor’s Choice This section presents an exercise that is NOT found in the student's textbook. Instructor's Choice reinforces the text's emphasis through various activities. Some Instructor's Choice activities are centered on debates, group exercises, Internet research, and student experiences. Some can be used in class in their entirety, while others require some additional work on the student's part. The course instructor may choose to use these at anytime throughout the class—some may be more effective as icebreakers, while some may be used to pull together various concepts covered in the chapter. Web Exercises At the end of each chapter of this Instructor’s Manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching OB topics on the Internet. The exercises “Exploring OB Topics on the Web” are set up so that you can simply photocopy the pages, distribute them to your class, and make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class. Summary and Implications for Managers You’ve probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes for each communication better ensures that the message is properly interpreted by the receiver. Specific implications for managers are below: Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness. Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages—however they are communicated—are understood. Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible. Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending. Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture. This chapter begins with a discussion of communication according to Brian Grazer, co-founder of Imagine Entertainment. As Brian Grazer found, good communication makes organizations successful. Communication is powerful: no group or organization can exist without sharing meaning among its members. In this chapter, we’ll analyze communication and ways we can make it more effective. Communication must include both the transfer and the understanding of meaning. Communicating is more than merely imparting meaning; that meaning must also be understood. It is only thus that we can convey information and ideas. In perfect communication, if it existed, a thought would be transmitted so the receiver understood the same mental picture the sender intended. Though it sounds elementary, perfect communication is never achieved in practice, for reasons we shall see. BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE Functions of Communication Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: Management Feedback Emotional sharing Persuasion Information exchange The Communication Process (Exhibit 11-1) Before communication can take place, a purpose expressed as a message to be conveyed is needed. The message is encoded (converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is transference of meaning from one person to another. The communication process is made up of eight parts: the sender, encoding, the message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise, and feedback. The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product of the sender’s encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the message. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and subject to individual choice. The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. The final link in the communication process is feedback. Feed back is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved. Direction of Communication Downward Communication Communication that flows from one level of a group organization to a lower level is downward communication. Its purpose is to assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and procedures, provide feedback, etc. When engaging in downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Evidence indicates that explanations increase employee commitment and support of decisions. Another problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise. Upward Communication Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay current problems. Managers also rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved. To engage in effective upward communication, try to communicate in headlines not paragraphs, support your headlines with actionable items, and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well. Lateral Communication When communication takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel, it is called lateral communication. Lateral communications save time and facilitate coordination. In some cases, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. They can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, or when bosses find out that actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge. Organizational Communication Formal Small-Group Networks (Exhibit 11-2) Formal organizational networks can be complicated, including hundreds of people and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels. To simplify, we’ve condensed these networks into three common small groups of five people each: chain, wheel, and all-channel. (Exhibit 11-2) The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization. The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it’s most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role. As Exhibit 11-3 demonstrates, the effectiveness of each network depends on the dependent variable that concerns you. The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important. Exhibit 11-3 leads us to the conclusion that no single network will be best for all occasions. The Grapevine The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine. Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, when there is ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety. The fact that work situations frequently contain these three elements explains why rumors flourish in organizations. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication network. It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important, and helps tap into employee anxieties. The grapevine also serves employees’ needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the “out” group. There is also evidence that gossip is driven largely by employee social networks that managers can study to learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through their organization. Managers should minimize the negative consequences of rumors by limiting their range and impact. (Exhibit 11-4) Modes of Communication Oral Communication Oral communication is the primary means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication. Advantages are speed and feedback. A major disadvantage arises when the message must be passed through a number of people: the more people, the more the potential for distortion. Meetings – can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue. Videoconferencing – permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations. Telephone – offers many of the benefits of meetings (formal and informal), and can prompt immediate response. Written Communication Written communications include memos, letters, e-mail, instant messaging, periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or symbols. Letters – the oldest and most enduring form of written communication. PowerPoint – can be an excellent mode of communication because it combines words with visual elements to engage the reader and help explain complex ideas. E-mail – has become so persuasive it’s hard to imagine life without it. Many managers report that they spend too much time on e-mail. (Exhibit 11-5) Instant Messaging – a synchronous technology, meaning that you need to be there to receive the message. Text Messaging – usually done via cell phone and often as a real-time alternative to phone calls. Social Media – transformed communication. Many organizations have their own in-house social networking applications. Blogs – short for web log – a website about a single person or company. Others – Flickr, Pinterest, Google+, and so on. Nonverbal Communication Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart a nonverbal message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone. No discussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of nonverbal communication—which includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. (Exhibit 11-6) We could argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is accidental (though some are unconscious). Physical distance also has meaning. It’s important to be alert to these nonverbal aspects of communication and look for nonverbal cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words. Choice of Communication Channel People choose one channel of communication over another for several reasons. A model of media richness has been developed to explain channel selection among managers. Channel Richness Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they have the ability to: Handle multiple cues simultaneously. Facilitate rapid feedback. Be very personal. As Exhibit 11-7 illustrates, face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode—multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present. Others are lean in that they score low on these factors. Choosing Communication Methods The choice of one channel over another depends on whether the message is routine. Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity. When tough times hit Manpower Business Solutions during the recent economic contraction, the company elected to communicate with employees daily in a variety of media to ensure that everyone remained informed. Whenever you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. Written communication is generally the most reliable more for complex and lengthy communications, and can be the most efficient for short messages as well. Choose written communication when you want the information to be tangible and verifiable. People are usually forced to think more thoroughly about what they want to convey in a written message than in a spoken one, so your written communication can also be well thought out, logical, and clear. Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when signatures need to be authentic. Some issues to consider when using e-mail: Risk of misinterpreting the message. Fallout from negative messages. Time-consuming nature. Limited expression of emotions. Privacy concerns. Professionalism. In general, respond to instant messages only when they are professional, and initiate them only when you know they will be welcome. There are significant gains and challenges from the introduction of text messaging in business settings. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business. However, some users view text messaging as intrusive and distracting. Many organizations are also concerned about the security of texting. It is best to severely limit personal text messages during work hours and be cautious about using texting for business purposes. On the corporate level, the returns on using social media are mixed. If you want to use social media for business purposes as a manager, make certain you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort. Use discretion about which social media platforms are acceptable for business communications. Make sure you know your company’s social media policies about corporate confidentiality and your company’s view on your privacy. As an individual, you may choose to post a blog to your own blog page, or you may choose to comment on another person’s blog. If someone in the company happens to read a critical or negative blog entry or post, there is nothing to keep him or her from sharing that information with others. It’s important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication and look for nonverbal cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words. Information Security Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or proprietary information about clients, customers, and employees. Organizations worry about the security of the electronic information they seek to protect, such as hospital patient data, the physical information they still keep in file cabinets, and the security of the information they entrust their employees with knowing, such as Apple’s need-to-know-only information sharing. The recent adoption of cloud-based electronic data storage has brought a new level of worry; 51 percent of managers in a recent survey were considering cloud-based human resources software. Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some even use video surveillance and record phone conversations. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal information is used. Persuasive Communications Automatic and Controlled Processing To understand the process of communication, it is useful to consider two relatively different ways that we process information. We often rely on automatic processing, a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics, like those we discussed in Chapter 6. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don’t care much about. The disadvantage is that it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo. Now consider the last time you chose a place to live. You probably did some independent research among experts who know something about the area, gathered information about prices from a variety of sources, and considered the costs and benefits of renting versus buying. This is called controlled processing, a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic. Controlled processing requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone who has taken the time and effort to engage in it. There are a few rules of thumb for determining what types of processing an audience will use. Interest Level One of the best predictors of whether people will use an automatic or controlled process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it. Interest levels reflect the impact a decision is going to have on your life. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they’re more likely to process information carefully. Prior Knowledge People who are very well informed about a subject area are also more likely to use controlled processing strategies. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence. Personality Are you the type of person who always likes to read at least five reviews of a movie before deciding whether to see it? If so, you are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts. Message Characteristics Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, tend to encourage automatic processing. Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels, like a long magazine article, tend to encourage more deliberative processing. The most important implication of all this research is to match your persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. When the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they’ll be more likely to use automatic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case. Barriers to Effective Communication Filtering Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so it will be seen as more favorable by the receiver. For example, telling the boss what he/she wants to hear. The more levels in an organization’s structure, the more opportunities there are for filtering. Being reluctant to give bad news, or trying to please one’s boss distorts upward communications. Selective Perception Receivers in their communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. Information Overload When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information overload. The result is they tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information. Or they may put it aside until the overload situation is over. The result is lost information and less effective communication. Employees must balance the need for constant communication with their own personal need for breaks from work, or they risk burnout from being on call 24 hours a day. Emotions How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how he or she interprets it. Extreme emotions are likely to hinder effective communication. During those times, we are most likely to disregard objective thinking and substitute emotions for judgments. Language Words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. Senders tend to incorrectly assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the receiver as to them. Silence It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication, precisely because it is defined by the absence of information. Research suggests silence and withholding communication are both common and problematic. Communication Apprehension An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population suffers from communication apprehension, or social anxiety. Oral-communication apprehensive avoid situations, such as teaching, for which oral communication is a dominant requirement. Lying The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, or lying. People differ in their definition of what constitutes a lie. Evidence also shows that people are more comfortable lying over the phone than face-to-face and more comfortable lying in e-mails than when they have to write with pen and paper. Research generally suggests most people are not very good at detecting deception in others. Cultural Factors Introduction Effective communication is difficult under the best of conditions. Cross-cultural factors clearly create the potential for increased communication problems. A gesture that is well-understood and acceptable in one culture can be meaningless or lewd in another. Only 18 percent of companies have documented strategies for communicating with employees across cultures, and only 31 percent require that corporate messages be customized for consumption in other cultures. Cultural Barriers: First, there are barriers caused by semantics. Words mean different things to different people. Some words do not translate between cultures. Second, there are barriers caused by word connotations. Words imply different things in different languages. Third, there are barriers caused by tone differences. In some cultures, language is formal; in others, it is informal. The tone changes depending on the context. Fourth, there are differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts. Cultural Context (Exhibit 11-8) Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences meaning. In high-context cultures such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communicating with others. People from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. Communication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-text cultures. Who you are—your age, seniority, rank in the organization—are highly valued and heavily influence your credibility. In low-context cultures, enforceable contracts will tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly legalistic. Similarly, low-context cultures value directness. A Cultural Guide Know yourself. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy. State facts, not your interpretation. Consider the other person’s viewpoint. Proactively maintain the identity of the group. Summary and Implications for Managers You’ve probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes for each communication better ensures that the message is properly interpreted by the receiver. Specific implications for managers are below: Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness. Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages—however they are communicated—are understood. Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible. Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending. Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture. EXPANDED CHAPTER OUTLINE Functions of Communication Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: management, feedback, emotional sharing, persuasion, and information exchange. Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines employees are required to follow. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies, communication performs a management function. Informal communication controls behavior too. When workgroups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they are informally communicating and managing the member’s behavior. Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance. Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs. For example, after a white police officer shot an unarmed black man in Ferguson, Missouri in2015, software engineer Carl Jones wanted to process his feelings through talking with his coworkers at his corporation. As a second example, Starbucks had baristas write “Race Together” on coffee cups to start conversations about race relations. In both cases, the initial communications were awkward—so awkward that Starbucks pulled the campaign—but Jones and others have forged solid relationships from their emotional sharing. Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is trying to persuade a workgroup to believe in the organization’s commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to meet an organizational goal. The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices. Almost every communication interaction that takes place in a group or organization performs one or more of these functions, and none of the five is more important than the others. To perform effectively, groups need to maintain some control over members, provide feedback to stimulate members to perform, allow emotional expression, monitor the persuasive efforts of individuals, and encourage information exchange. The Communication Process (Exhibit 11-1) Before communication can take place, a purpose expressed as a message to be conveyed is needed. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is transference of meaning from one person to another. The communication process is made up of eight parts: the sender, encoding, the message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise, and feedback. The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product of the sender’s encoding. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it, determining whether to use a formal or informal channel. Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. They traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices. The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved. Direction of Communication Downward Communication Communication that flows from one level of a group organization to a lower level is downward communication. This is typically what we think of when managers communicate with workers. Its purpose is to assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and procedures, provide feedback, etc. When engaging in downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Evidence indicates that explanations increase employee commitment and support of decisions. Another problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise. Upward Communication Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay current problems. Managers rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved. To engage in effective upward communication, communicate in headlines not paragraphs, support your headlines with actionable items, and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well. Lateral Communication When communication takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel, it is called lateral communication. Lateral communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination. In some cases, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. They can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, or when bosses find out that actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge. Formal Small-Group Networks Formal organizational networks can be complicated, including hundreds of people and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels. To simplify, we’ve condensed these networks into three common small groups of five people each: chain, wheel, and all-channel. (Exhibit 11-2) The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization. The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it’s most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role. As Exhibit 11-3 demonstrates, the effectiveness of each network depends on the dependent variable that concerns you. The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important. Exhibit 11-3 leads us to the conclusion that no single network will be best for all occasions. The Grapevine The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication network. It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important, and helps tap into employee anxieties. The grapevine also serves employees’ needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the “out” group. There is also evidence that gossip is driven largely by employee social networks that managers can study to learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through their organization. Managers should minimize the negative consequences of rumors by limiting their range and impact. (Exhibit 11-4) Modes of Communication Oral Communication Oral communication is the primary means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication. Advantages are speed and feedback. A major disadvantage arises when the message must be passed through a number of people: the more people, the more the potential for distortion. Meetings – can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue. Videoconferencing and Conference Calling – permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations. Telephone – offers many of the benefits of meetings (formal and informal), and can prompt immediate response. Written Communication Written communications include memos, letters, e-mail, instant messaging, periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or symbols. Letters – the oldest and most enduring form of written communication. PowerPoint – can be an excellent mode of communication because it combines words with visual elements to engage the reader and help explain complex ideas. E-mail – has become so persuasive it’s hard to imagine life without it. Many managers report that they spend too much time on e-mail. (Exhibit 11-5) Instant Messaging – a synchronous technology, meaning that you need to be there to receive the message. Text Messaging – usually done via cell phone and often as a real-time alternative to phone calls. Social Media – transformed communication. Many organizations have their own in-house social networking applications, known as enterprise social software. Blogs – short for web log – a website about a single person or company. Others – Flickr, Pinterest, Google+, and so on. Nonverbal Communication Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart an unspoken message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone. No discussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of nonverbal communication—which includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. We could argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is accidental (though some are unconscious). We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language. A body position or movement can communicate something of the emotion behind a message, but when it is linked with spoken language, it gives fuller meaning to a sender’s message. If you read the verbatim minutes of a meeting, you wouldn’t grasp the impact of what was said the same way as if you had been there or could see the meeting on video. There is no record of nonverbal communication. The emphasis given to words or phrases is missing. Exhibit 11-6 illustrates how intonations can change the meaning of a message. Facial expressions also convey meaning. Physical distance also has meaning. What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. A businesslike distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if farther away, it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said. Choice of Communication Channel People choose one channel of communication over another for several reasons. A model of media richness has been developed to explain channel selection among managers. Channel Richness Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they have the ability to: Handle multiple cues simultaneously. Facilitate rapid feedback. Be very personal. As Exhibit 11-7 illustrates, face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode—multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present. Others are lean in that they score low on these factors. Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness. Choosing Communication Methods The choice of one channel over another depends on whether the message is routine. Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity. Nonroutine messages tend to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Routine messages can efficiently be communicated through channels that are lower in richness. However, nonroutine messages can effectively be communicated only by selecting rich channels. Whenever you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. Written communication is generally the most reliable more for complex and lengthy communications, and can be the most efficient for short messages as well. Choose written communication when you want the information to be tangible and verifiable. People are usually forced to think more thoroughly about what they want to convey in a written message than in a spoken one, so your written communication can also be well thought out, logical, and clear. Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when signatures need to be authentic. In general, respond to instant messages only when they are professional, and initiate them only when you know they will be welcome. There are significant gains and challenges from the introduction of text messaging in business settings. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business. However, some users view text messaging as intrusive and distracting. On the corporate level, the returns on using social media are mixed. If you want to use social media for business purposes as a manager, make certain you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort. Use discretion about which social media platforms are acceptable for business communications. Make sure you know your company’s social media policies about corporate confidentiality and your company’s view on your privacy. As an individual, you may choose to post a blog to your own blog page, or you may choose to comment on another person’s blog. If someone in the company happens to read a critical or negative blog entry or post, there is nothing to keep him or her from sharing that information with others. It’s important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication and look for nonverbal cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words. Information Security Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or proprietary information about clients, customers, and employees. Organizations worry about the security of the electronic information they seek to protect, such as hospital patient data, the physical information they still keep in file cabinets, and the security of the information they entrust their employees with knowing. Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some even use video surveillance and record phone conversations. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal information is used. Persuasive Communications Automatic and Controlled Processing To understand the process of communication, it is useful to consider two relatively different ways that we process information. We often rely on automatic processing, a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics, like those we discussed in Chapter 6. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don’t care much about. The disadvantage is that it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo. Now consider the last time you chose a place to live. You probably did some independent research among experts who know something about the subject, gathered information about prices from a variety of sources, and considered the costs and benefits of renting versus buying. This is called controlled processing, a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic. Controlled processing requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone who has taken the time and effort to engage in it. There are a few rules of thumb for determining what types of processing an audience will use. Interest Level One of the best predictors of whether people will use an automatic or controlled process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it. Interest levels reflect the impact a decision is going to have on your life. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they’re more likely to process information carefully. That’s probably why people look for so much more information when deciding about something important (like where to live) than something relatively unimportant (like which soda to drink). Prior Knowledge People who are very well informed about a subject area are also more likely to use controlled processing strategies. They have already thought through various arguments for or against a specific course of action, and therefore they won’t readily change their position unless very good, thoughtful reasons are provided. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence. In other words, a better informed audience is likely to be much harder to persuade. Personality Are you the type of person who always likes to read at least five reviews of a movie before deciding whether to see it? If so, you are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts. Those who are lower in need for cognition are more likely to use automatic processing strategies, relying on intuition and emotion to guide their evaluation of persuasive messages. Message Characteristics Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, tend to encourage automatic processing. Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels, like a long magazine article, tend to encourage more deliberative processing. Choosing the Message The most important implication of all this research is to match your persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. When the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they’ll be more likely to use automatic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case. Barriers to Effective Communication Filtering Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so it will be seen as more favorable by the receiver. For example, telling the boss what he/she wants to hear. The more levels in an organization’s structure, the more opportunities there are for filtering. Being reluctant to give bad news, or trying to please one’s boss distorts upward communications. Selective Perception Receivers in their communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. Information Overload When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information overload. The result is they tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information. Or they may put it aside until the overload situation is over. The result is lost information and less effective communication. Employees must balance the need for constant communication with their own personal need for breaks from work, or they risk burnout from being on call 24 hours a day. Emotions How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how he or she interprets it. Extreme emotions are likely to hinder effective communication. During those times we are most likely to disregard objective thinking and substitute emotions for judgments. Language Words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. If we knew how each of us modified the language, we could minimize communication difficulties, but we usually don’t know. Senders tend to assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the receiver as to them. Silence It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication, precisely because it is defined by the absence of information. Research suggests silence and withholding communication are both common and problematic. One survey found that more than 85 percent of managers reported remaining silent about at least one issue of significant concern. Employee silence means managers lack information about ongoing operational problems. And silence regarding discrimination, harassment, corruption, and misconduct means top management cannot take action to eliminate this behavior. Communication Apprehension An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population suffers from communication apprehension, or social anxiety. They experience undue tension or anxiety in oral and/or written communication. They may find it difficult to talk with others face-to-face or on the telephone. Oral-communication apprehensive avoid situations, such as teaching, for which oral communication is a dominant requirement. But almost all jobs require some oral communication. Of greater concern is evidence that high oral-communication apprehensive distort the communication demands of their jobs in order to minimize the need for communication. Be aware that some people severely limit their oral communication and rationalize their actions by telling themselves communicating isn’t necessary for them to do their job effectively. Lying The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, or lying. People differ in their definition of what constitutes a lie. While the definition of a lie will continue to befuddle both ethicists and social scientists, there is no denying the prevalence of lying. The average person reported telling one to two lies per day, with some individuals telling considerably more. Compounded across a large organization, this is an enormous amount of deception happening every single day! Evidence also shows that people are more comfortable lying over the phone than face-to-face and more comfortable lying in e-mails than when they have to write with pen and paper. Research generally suggests most people are not very good at detecting deception in others. The problem is, there are no nonverbal or verbal cues unique to lying—averting your gaze, pausing, and shifting your posture can also be signals of nervousness, shyness, or doubt. Most people who lie take a number of steps to guard against being detected, so they might deliberately look a person in the eye when lying because they know that direct eye contact is (incorrectly) assumed to be a sign of truthfulness. Finally, many lies are embedded in truths; liars usually give a somewhat true account with just enough details changed to avoid detection. In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong barrier to effective communication in organizations. Cultural Factors Introduction Effective communication is difficult under the best of conditions. Cross-cultural factors clearly create the potential for increased communication problems. A gesture that is well-understood and acceptable in one culture can be meaningless or lewd in another. Only 18 percent of companies have documented strategies for communicating with employees across cultures, and only 31 percent require that corporate messages be customized for consumption in other cultures. Cultural Barriers First, there are barriers caused by semantics. Words mean different things to different people. Some words do not translate between cultures. Finnish—the word sisu is untranslatable into English. It means something akin to “guts” or “dogged persistence.” English terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulation are not directly translatable into Russian. Second, there are barriers caused by word connotations. Words imply different things in different languages. The Japanese word hai means “yes, ” but may mean “yes, I’m listening, ” not “yes, I agree.” Third, there are barriers caused by tone differences. In some cultures, language is formal; in others, it is informal. The tone changes depending on the context. Fourth, there are differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts. Individuals from individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflicts and will make the source of their disagreements overt. Collectivists are more likely to acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emotionally charged disputes. They may attribute conflicts to the situation more than to the individuals and therefore may not require explicit apologies to repair relationships, whereas individualists prefer explicit statements accepting responsibility for conflicts and public apologies to restore relationships. Cultural Context (Exhibit 11-8) Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences meaning. Countries like China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, are high-context cultures. They rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. A person’s official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight. People from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words. Communication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-text cultures. Who you are—your age, seniority, rank in the organization—is highly valued and heavily influence your credibility. In low-context cultures, enforceable contracts will tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly legalistic. Similarly, low-context cultures value directness. A Cultural Guide Know yourself. Recognizing your own cultural identity and biases is critical to then understanding the unique viewpoint of other people. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy. Clearly establish an environment of equality and mutual concern. This will be your “third culture” context for effective intercultural communication that transcends each person’s cultural norms. State facts, not your interpretation. Interpreting or evaluating what someone has said or done draws more on your own culture and background than on the observed situation. If you state only facts, you will have the opportunity to benefit from the other person’s interpretation. Delay judgment until you’ve had sufficient time to observe and interpret the situation from the differing perspectives of all concerned. Consider the other person’s viewpoint. Before sending a message, put yourself in the recipient’s shoes. What are his or her values, experiences, and frames of reference? What do you know about his or her education, upbringing, and background that can give you added insight? Try to see the people in the group as they really are first, and take a collaborative problem-solving approach whenever potential conflicts arise. Proactively maintain the identity of the group. Like any culture, the establishment of a common-ground “third culture” for effective intercultural communication takes time and nurturing. Remind members of the group of your common goals, mutual respect, and need to adapt to individual communication preferences. Summary and Implications for Managers You’ve probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes for each communication better ensures that the message is properly interpreted by the receiver. Specific implications for managers are below: Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness. Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages—however they are communicated—are understood. Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible. Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending. Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture. Career Objectives Isn’t this disability too much to accommodate? I thought it was a good, responsible move when my manager hired a guy who is hearing-impaired . ., but now I'm not so sure. We do okay communicating with him, mostly thanks to email and texting. None of us know sign language, but sometimes we spell out words with our hands. The problem is that the guy makes a lot of inappropriate noises—farts, burps, coughs, moans, you name it. Isn’t this too much to put up with? — Jackie Dear Jackie: In short, no. Workplace accommodation means more than simply tolerating a disabled worker’s presence. Perhaps you might consider this from your deaf coworker’s point of view (by the way, “deaf” is the preferred term, according to the National Association of the Deaf): How are the communication conditions for him to work? Are you sure to include him in discussions by, say, assigning one of you to write down the important points for him and ask his opinions in meetings? Search for “10 Annoying Habits of Hearing People” online to get a glimpse of his perspective. Do you know what he thinks about your “hand spelling?” You may not know that American Sign Language (ASL) is not simply English. Your coworker probably doesn’t appreciate your “pigeon” sign language and may be offended by your attempts, but he would likely appreciate an effort for the group to learn some ASL and/or use a translator. There are apps and online translators where you can type in a phrase and see someone sign your words on the screen, for instance. Similarly, new technology from Motion Savvy translates signals into written speech. It seems you might be attributing emotions to your coworker when he makes noises—emotions he may not feel. Do you think he is uncaring about his listening coworkers? It’s much more likely that he simply doesn't realize he is making noises or thinks they are quieter than they are. Consider what it’s like when you are in a loud room; you’re probably less aware of your sounds than when you’re in a quiet room where everyone can react. If you can get past the barrier of thinking about how he should adapt himself to your environment and instead show him how your group is willing to work to communicate with him, you may begin to develop an understanding of one another. Then, and only then, would it make sense to approach the noise problem respectfully and kindly, with a non-offensive one-on-one. But before you do, search the Internet for tips on communicating with the deaf, and show him some respect. Sources: C. Swinbourne, “The 10 Annoying Habits of Hearing People, ” The Huffington Post, September 17, 2013, http: //www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-swinbourne/the-10-annoying-habits-of_b_3618327.html; National Association of the Deaf website, www.nad.org, accessed June 30, 2015; and R. Walker, “An Office Distraction, ” The New York Times, March 22, 2015, 8. Myth or Science? “Today, Writing Skills Are More Important than Speaking Skills” Never before have the writing skills of managers and employees been more on display. Whether we are tapping a keyboard or thumbing a screen, our communication with others is also often unedited. (Thank goodness for spellcheck.) With all the written communication methods we currently employ, it would be easy to think upper management values writing skills over speaking skills. However, evidence suggests this is not the case. As we discussed inChapter1, soft skills matter most to employers, regardless of industry. According to Nick Schultz of the American Enterprise Institute, “Considerable evidence suggests that many employers would be happy just to find applicants who have the sort of ‘soft’ skills that used to be almost taken for granted.” Though soft skills refer to all interpersonal skills evident through speaking and writing, they are most on display in one-on-one discussions, interviews, meetings, and presentations. The ability to speak well, particularly English, has become a job prerequisite for many multinational corporations. The good news is that speaking ability—knowledge of when to speak, how to speak, how to sound, what to say—can be improved through training. According to leadership coach and author Kristi Hedges, most people can train on their own and do not need formal presentation classes. Speaking well hinges on clarity and sincerity of expression, so you can make significant improvements by researching speaking techniques, watching videos of practice sessions, and practicing new techniques in meetings. If learning to speak a foreign language fluently is a problem, full immersion through overseas assignments to native-speaking territories can be helpful if it is an option, as well as listening to and mimicking television and radio broadcasts in the other language. Speaking well hinges on clarity and sincerity of expression. Therefore, while it is a mistake to believe writing skills have become more important than speaking skills, we can all make significant improvements in our verbal communications relatively quickly. Sources: R. J. Aldrick and J. Kasuku, “Escaping from American Intelligence: Culture, Ethnocentrism and the Anglosphere, ” International Affairs (September 2012), pp. 1009–-1028; K. Hedges, “Confessions of a Former Public Speaking Trainer: Don't Waste Your Money, ” Forbes (April 19, 2012), http: //www.forbes.com/sites/work-in-progress/2012/04/19/public-speaking-trainer-confesses-dont-waste-your-money-on-this/; and N. Schultz, “Hard Unemployment Truths About ‘Soft’ Skills, ” The Wall Street Journal (September 20, 2012), p. A15. Class Exercise Divide students into small groups of three to five. Ask students to recall situations in which they have observed poor written communications in a business setting. Then ask each group to find courses on business writing at their university, online universities, and other universities nearby or in their hometowns. Each group should explore the topics covered in the classes and develop a presentation of why the topics are relevant in the business world. Have each group present their findings to the class. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http: //www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Personal Inventory Assessments Communication Styles What is your preferred communication style? Take this PIA to learn more about our communication styles. An Ethical Choice Using Employees in Organizational Social Media Strategy Social media are good for business communication, but their use is an ethical minefield for employers and employees. In a recent study of 24 industries in 115 countries, 63 percent of managers believed social media will be important to their businesses in 3 years. Research suggests that social media use is an indicator of profitability firm equity value. Companies at the forefront include McDonald’s, IBM, Salesforce, SAP, and Yammer. Social media can turn oblivious customers into fans through increased, personalized communication, and quick and appropriate response to customers’ communication can turn those fans—and employees—into spokespeople for the brand. The key is forming emotional bonds or capitalizing on current relationships to spread the good word about the company to potential clients. Social media sites pose a host of ethical concerns. Employees with a huge online presence who use it for both personal and company promotion (known as co-branded employees) become a liability if they leak corporate information, present a bad image, or leave the company. There are also ethical concerns about employees’ privacy and right to free speech: if an employee who monitors the company Twitter feed and wins a customer over later tweets from her personal account, “Score for us: another happy customer, ” that may present no concern. But she would hurt the company if she tweeted instead, “Epic fail: we blew it again.” Other employer tasks with few tested ethical guidelines include ensuring employees make proper use of company time, compensating them for time they spend promoting the company through their personal social media connection, clarifying who should own the personal devices used for company promotion, setting limits on company expectations of employees’ promotion, dealing with permissions/attributions, and clearing any legal hurdles. Experts advise organizations to draft social media policies that reflect their company ethics rather than seek to “cover all the bases” of their potential liability. While an organization could require job applicants to share their online passwords, for instance, this may violate trust and personal privacy rules. Policies that define ethical expectations for employee online behavior, discuss monitoring, define consequences for nonconformance, and explain the logic of the guidelines will be the most effective. Even still, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) finds many corporate policies aimed at the ethics of social media usage violate the National Labor Relations Act. A good social media policy can affirm the ethical expectations of the corporation and improve organizational culture. Sources: S. F. Gale, “Policies Must Score a Mutual Like, ” Workforce Management (August 2012), p. 18; B. Giamanco and K. Gregoire, “Tweet Me, Friend Me, Make Me Buy, ” Harvard Business Review (July–-August 2012), pp. 88–-93; D. Kiron, D. Palmer, A. N Phillips, and N. Kruschwitz, “What Managers Really Think About Social Business, ” MIT Sloan Management Review (Summer 2012), pp. 51–-60; X. Luo, J. Zhang, and W. Duan, “Social Media and Firm Equity Value, ” Information Systems Research (March 2013), pp. 146–-163; C. M. Sashi, “Customer Engagement, Buyer-Seller Relationships, and Social Media, ” Management Decision, 50 (2012), pp. 253–-272; and A. Smith, “NLRB Finds Social Media Policies Unlawful, ” HR Magazine (August 2012), p. 18. Class Exercise Divide the class into small groups of about five students. Then ask students to use the following links to explore legal and ethical issues related to the use of social media in the workplace. http: //www.chron.com/opinion/outlook/article/Social-media-in-the-workplace-4106313.php http: //www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20130415114432-17102372-social-media-etiquette-in-the-workplace http: //www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2012/06/10/social-media-in-the-office-two-truths-and-a-lie/ Ask students to choose an issue from one of the three websites and prepare a case both supporting and criticizing the use of social media in the particular situation. Each group should present their cases to the class. As a class, draw some conclusions about each case and discuss the benefits and drawbacks of social media in the workplace. Teaching Notes This exercise is applicable to face-to-face classes or synchronous online classes such as Black Board 9.1, Breeze, WIMBA, and Second Life Virtual Classrooms. See http: //www.baclass.panam.edu/imob/SecondLife for more information. Point/Counterpoint We Should Use Employees’ Social Media Presence Point Everyone uses social media. Well, almost everyone. A recent Pew Research Study found that the highest percentage of adults who use social networking sites was in Israel at 53 percent, followed by 50 percent in the United States, 43 percent in Russia and Britain, and 42 percent in Spain. Business is social, and using employees’ social contacts to increase business has always been a facet of marketing. Organizations that don’t follow their employees’ social media presence are missing an opportunity to expand their business and strengthen their workforce. Employees are key representatives of their companies to the outside world. With social media, the potential scope of that influence is hugely increased, and the company can monitor and identify employees with the best endorsement potential. The Honda employee who once told 30 friends that Honda is best can now tell 300 Facebook friends and 500 Twitter followers about the latest model. Employees savvy about social media can have a substantial positive effect on the bottom line. Monitoring employees’ social media presence can also strengthen the workforce by identifying the best talent. Managers can look for potential online celebrities—frequent bloggers and Twitter users with many followers—to approach for co-branding partnerships. Scrutiny can also help employers spot problems. For example, consider the employee who is fired one day and turns violent. A manager who had been monitoring the employee’s social media posts may have been able to detect warning signs. A human resources department monitoring employees’ social media activity may be able to identify a substance abuse problem and provide help for the employee through the company’s intervention policies. A job candidate’s social media presence provides one more input to hiring and retention decisions that many companies already take advantage of. In reality, there is no difference between the employee and the person – they are one and the same, on or off working hours. Employers that monitor social media can also identify employees who use their platforms to send out bad press or who leak proprietary information. For this reason, managers may someday be required to monitor employees’ social media postings, and to act upon infringements of company policies. Many do so already. Managers should therefore develop enforceable social media policies and create a corporate infrastructure to regularly research and monitor social media activity. The potential increase in business and limit on liability is ample return for dedicating staff and work hours to building a successful monitoring program. Counterpoint There is little to be gained and much to be lost when organizations follow candidates’ and employees’ presence on social media. Managers may be able to learn more about individuals through their online activity, and organizations may be able to catch some good press from employee postings, but the risk of liability for this intrusion on privacy is inescapable. Managers are ill-equipped to monitor, interpret, and act upon employees’ social media postings, and few have any experience with relating the medium to business use. Managers may also easily misinterpret information they find. Few companies have training programs for the proper use of social media; only 40 percent have social media policies of any kind. Those that do are skating on thin ice because monitoring policies can conflict with privacy regulations. An employee’s online image doesn’t reveal much that is relevant to the job, certainly not enough to warrant the time and money a business would spend on monitoring. Most users view social media as a private, recreational venue, and their membership on Facebook and other sites should be regarded with the same respect as would membership in a club. In this light, monitoring employees’ social media accounts is an unethical violation of their right to privacy. Equal Employment Opportunity laws require companies to hire without respect to race, age, religion, national origin, or disability. But managers who check into candidates’ social media postings often find out more than the candidate wanted to share, and then there is no way to keep that information from affecting the hiring decision. Searching through social media can, therefore, expose a company to a costly discrimination claim. Using employees’ personal social media presence as a marketing tool through company-supportive postings is unethical from many standpoints. First, it is unethical to expect employees to expand the company’s client base through their personal contacts. Second, it is unreasonable to expect them to endorse the company after working hours. And the practice of asking employees for their social media passwords is an obvious intrusion into their personal lives. In sum, people have a right to a professional and a private image. Unless the employee is offering to “friend” the company in a social media partnership, there is no question that employers should stay out of their personal business. Sources: S. F. Gale, “Policies Must Score a Mutual Like, ” Workforce Management (August 2012); R. Huggins and S. Ward, “Countries with the Highest Percentage of Adults who Use Social Networking Sites, ” USA Today (February 8, 2012), p. 1A; A. L. Kavanaugh et al., “Social Media Use by Government: From the Routine to the Critical, ” Government Information Quarterly (October 2012), pp. 480–-491; and S. Johnson, “Those Facebook Posts Could Cost You a Job, ” San Jose Mercury News (January 16, 2012), http: //www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_19754451. Class Exercise Divide the class into paired teams of three to five students each. Ask one of each pair to take the Point view and the other to take the Counterpoint view. Have each group develop addition support for its viewpoint. Have representatives from each paired group debate the Point/Counterpoint before the class. Ask the class to vote on the view that was most successfully supported. Instructor Manual for Organizational Behavior Timothy A. Judge Stephen P. Robbins 9781292146300, 9780133507645, 9780136124016
