CH-11-12 The Changing Family – Social Problems in a Diverse Society : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 12 CHAPTER 11 The Changing Family CHAPTER SUMMARY In preindustrial societies, the primary kinship unit often is the extended family. In industrialized nations, the typical family pattern often is the nuclear family, instead. Today, the definition of families must be broad enough to take into account the diversity of living arrangements and relationships that exist. Functionalists emphasize the importance of the family in maintaining the stability of society and the well-being of individuals. Conflict and feminist analysts focus on unequal political, economic, and social relationships that family members play. Interactionists primarily examine how marital partners and children act out their own roles and react to the parts played by others. Many people today postpone marriage for economic or other reasons. Cohabitation has increased in the past two decades, and many gay and lesbian couples have taken advantage of the newly legalized ability to get married. Over 60 percent of all Canadian marriages today are dual-earner marriages in which the wife often works a second shift. The number of lone-parent families is increasing and teenage pregnancies remain a major concern. Although the divorce rate is high, most people get remarried, often creating blended families. In the 21st century, all of these factors must be taken into account. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 11, students should be able to: 1. Identify several reasons why notions of the “traditional family” are problematic when defining families in contemporary Canada. 2. Compare and contrast the sociological perspectives on family-related problems. 3. Discuss whether cohabitation is likely to lead to a successful marriage and define domestic partnership. 4. Explain the consequences of dual-earner marriages and compare one-parent and two-parent families. 5. Describe the factors that lead to many divorces and the consequences of remarriage for both adults and children. KEY TERMS blended family extended family monogamy common-law and cohabitation family nuclear family dual-earner marriages kinship second shift CHAPTER OUTLINE I. THE NATURE OF FAMILIES A. Changing Family Structure and Patterns 1) Traditionally, the family has been defined as a group of people related to one another by blood, marriage, or adoption and who live together, form an economic unit, and bear and raise children. Some analysts have modified the traditional definition of family to incorporate the wide diversity of relationships found in many contemporary families-such as single-parent households, cohabitation of unmarried couples, domestic partnerships of lesbian and gay couples, and multiple generations of family members residing together. The text therefore uses a broad definition of families. 2) Through kinship networks, people in preindustrial societies were able to acquire basic necessities of life such as food, clothing, and shelter. In some—but not all— preindustrial societies, the primary kinship unit is the extended family, which typically includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, or other relatives who live in close proximity, allowing family members to share resources. Having a large number of family members participate in food production often is essential for survival. Although extended families are less common in Canada, this pattern is found in some countries in Latin America, Africa, Asia, India, and some parts of Eastern and Southern Europe. 3) With the advent of industrialization, other social institutions begin to fulfill functions formerly carried out by the kinship network. In contemporary industrialized nations, families are primarily responsible for regulating sexual activity, socializing children, and providing family members with affection and companionship. The typical family pattern in industrialized nations is the nuclear family. Although many people view the two-parent nuclear family as the “ideal family” pattern, lone-parent families have existed in the past, often because of a death of one of the parents. B. Are Canadian Families in Decline? 1) Sociologist David Popenoe believes that the family is in a state of decline because North American society is experiencing important changes that mark the beginning of the end of the nuclear family: a. The divorce rate has increased sharply (it is currently 2.3 per 1000), and parents increasingly forgo marriage, with the consequence that a sizable number of children are being raised in lone-parent households, apart from other relatives. b. A smaller percentage of people are married. c. There is a higher percentage of single-parent families. d. Large numbers of married women have left the role of full-time mother and housewife to go into the labour market. e. The focus of many families has shifted from childbearing to the psychological well-being and self-development of the adult members. 2) Some analysts say the family is not declining, it is simply changing: families are becoming more complex and diverse. Sociologist Andrew Cherlin suggests that the family will last as a social institution because it is able to change its form and adapt to social change. C. Changing Views on Marriage and Families 1) Marriage refers to a legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement between two individuals that carries certain rights and obligations and usually involves sexual activity. The only legal form of marriage in Canada is monogamy. The marriage rate (number of marriages per 1000 population) in Canada is 4.7, down from 9.2 in 1972. 2) Marriage was once a cultural imperative: there was “something wrong” with a person who didn’t marry. Today, cultural rules on marriage and childbearing have grown weaker as our society has experienced a broader cultural shift toward autonomy and personal growth. By the 1970s, marriage was much less of an economic necessity, particularly for women, because of new job opportunities and rising incomes. 3) In a recent national study, two-thirds of Canadian adults strongly agreed that their families were the greatest joy in their lives. Most people in marriages and in common-law unions feel that a long-term relationship is important for their happiness. 4) In June of 2005 Bill C-38, the same sex marriage Bill, was passed in the House of Commons. Same sex marriages are now legal in Canada. According to the 2001 Census, there are 34, 200 same sex couples in Canada: 0.5 percent of all couples are same sex couples. 5) During the twentieth century, the divorce rate (number of divorces per 1000 population) varied from almost non-existent in 1900 to a high of 3.6 in 1987; by 2000 it had stabilized at 2.3. Through a pattern of marriage, divorce, and remarriage, many people reaffirm their belief in the institution of marriage, but not to the individual they initially married. This pattern is referred to as serial monogamy, a succession of marriages in which a person has several spouses over a lifetime but is legally married to only one partner at a time. II. PERSPECTIVES ON FAMILY-RELATED PROBLEMS A. Functionalist Perspectives 1) Functionalists emphasize the importance of the family in maintaining the stability of society and the well-being of individuals. According to Émile Durkheim, marriage is a microcosmic replica of the larger society; both marriage and society involve a mental and moral fusion of physically distinct individuals. Durkheim also believed that division of labour contributes to greater efficiency in marriages and families, as well as all other areas of social life. 2) Talcott Parsons concluded that the division of labour found in families can be grouped into two categories. The husband fulfills the instrumental role—meeting the family’s economic needs, making important decisions, and providing leadership—and the wife fulfills the expressive role—running the household, caring for children, and meeting family members’ emotional needs. In high-income nations, families serve at least four key functions: (a) regulation of sexual behaviour and reproduction; (b) socialization and education; (c) economic and psychological support; and (d) providing social status. 3) According to functionalists, problems in the family are a social crisis because the family provides both social order and economic stability. Changes in other social institutions such as the economy, religion, education, law, medicine, or the government may contribute to family-related problems. For example, changes in law (such as recognition of “no fault” divorce) contribute to high rates of divorce and dramatic increases in lone-parent households. B. Conflict and Feminist Perspectives 1) According to conflict theorists focusing on class relations in capitalist economies, families are similar to workers in a factory. Women are dominated by men in the home in the same manner that workers are dominated by capitalists and managers in factories. As wives and mothers, women contribute to capitalism by producing the next generation of workers and providing workers with food, clean clothes, and emotional support for their daily endeavours in the workplace. 2) Many feminist theorists think that male dominance and female subordination began long before capitalism. They see women’s subordination as being rooted in patriarchy, particularly in men’s control over women’s labour power. Men are often reluctant to relinquish their status as family breadwinner when women enter the paid workforce. 3) Conflict and feminist perspectives on family-related problems primarily focus on unequal political, economic, and social relationships between women and men in families and in the larger society. For example, wife battering and other forms of domestic violence may be conscious strategies men use to control women and perpetuate gender inequality. According to feminist theorists, family-related problems, including domestic violence and wife battering, can be solved only if all social institutions work to eliminate the subordination of women in society. C. Interactionist Perspectives 1) Some interactionists view the family communication process as integral to understanding the diverse roles that family members play; therefore, they examine how marital partners and children act out their own roles and react to the parts played by others. Although societies differ widely on rules and norms that shape family and kin relationships, people are socialized to accept their society’s form of the family as the acceptable norm. According to sociologists Peter Berger and Hansfried Kellner, marital partners develop a shared reality through their interactions with each other. Although newlyweds bring separate identities to a marriage, over time they construct a shared reality as a couple. In case of separation and divorce, the process is reversed: couples may start with a shared reality but become individuals with separate realities in the process of uncoupling their relationship. 2) Some interactionists explain family-related problems in terms of the subjective meanings and interpretations people give to their everyday lives. According to sociologist Jessie Bernard, women and men experience marriage differently. While the husband may see his marriage very positively, the wife may feel less positive about her marriage, and vice versa. 3) Other interactionists view family problems in terms of partners’ unrealistic expectations about love and marriage that later contribute to marital dissatisfaction and high rates of divorce. In Canada, the emphasis is on romantic love—a deep and vital emotion based on significant need satisfaction, caring for and acceptance of another person, and development of an intimate relationship. According to sociologist Francesca Cancian, women tend to express their feelings verbally, whereas men tend to express their love through nonverbal actions such as doing household repairs. Women may not always interpret these actions as a sign of love. III. DIVERSITY IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS AND FAMILIES A. Singlehood 1) Although some will eventually marry, 10 percent of the population will remain single for their lives. When this figure is combined with those who have been widowed, separated, or divorced, the proportion of the Canadian population that lives in one- or single-person households is 26.8 percent. Some people choose singlehood over marriage because it means greater freedom from commitments to another person, more opportunities for a career (especially for women), the availability of sexual partners without marriage, the belief that the single lifestyle is full of excitement, and the desire for self-sufficiency and freedom to change and experiment. 2) Some people are not single by choice: they remain single out of necessity. Because of structural changes in the economy, many young people cannot afford to marry and set up their own households. B. Postponing Marriage 1) The median age at which men first get married is about 29.5 years and the median age for women is about 26.9 years. 2) Sociologist Robin Wolf lists four factors in this trend: (a) economic uncertainty due to the changing job structure in Western societies; (b) increasing participation of women in the labour force; (c) the sexual revolution of the 1970s that made sexual relationships outside of marriage more socially acceptable; and (d) the rising divorce rate—young people watching their parents’ divorce might be less anxious to jump into marriage themselves. C. Common-Law, Cohabitation, and Domestic Partnerships 1) The popularity of cohabitation has increased in the past two decades. According to the 2001 Census, 1.158 million couples (14 percent of all couples) were living common-law, up from 5.6 percent in 1981. Now almost 40 percent of men and women aged 30 to 39 are expected to choose common-law as their first union. 2) For some couples, cohabitation is a form of trial marriage, constituting an intermediate stage between dating and marriage. Anthropologist Margaret Mead suggested that marriage should occur in two stages, each with its own ceremony and responsibilities. In the first stage, two people would make a serious commitment to each other but agree not to have children during this period. In the second stage, the couple would decide to have children and to share responsibility for their upbringing. Cohabitation is not a first step toward marriage for all unmarried couples living together. 3) Some studies have found that cohabitation has little or no effect on marital adjustment, emotional closeness, satisfaction, and intimacy, but other evidence suggests that couples who cohabit are more likely to divorce than those who do not. Apparently, those who had cohabited prior to marriage were less satisfied with their marriage and less committed to the institution of marriage than those who had not lived together prior to marriage. Length of time of cohabitating prior to marrying may be a factor however. D. Dual-Earner Marriages 1) Over 60 percent of all marriages in Canada are dual-earner marriages. Today, over half of all employed women hold full-time, year-round jobs. There are more married women with young children in the paid labour force today than ever before. 2) Many married women not only work at paid employment during the day but also go home to hours of domestic work and child care. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild refers to women’s dual-workday as the second shift. According to Hochschild, the unpaid housework women do on the second shift amounts to an extra month of work each year. In households with small children or many children, the amount of housework increases. 3) In recent years, more husbands have attempted to share some of the household and child-care responsibilities, especially in families in which the wife’s earnings are essential to family finances. Even when husbands share some of the household responsibilities, they typically spend much less time in these activities than do their wives. E. Comparing Two-Parent and One-Parent Households 1) When the mother and father in a two-parent household truly share parenting, children have the benefit of two primary caregivers. Some researchers have found that when men take an active part in raising the children, the effect is beneficial not only for mothers and children but also for the fathers, whose increased contact with their children provides more opportunities for personal and emotional gratification. But living in a two-parent family does not guarantee children a happy childhood. 2) There has been a significant increase in one-parent households due to factors such as divorce, death of a parent, or births outside of marriage. Many more children under 18 are living with just one parent than was true one generation ago. In 2006, lone-parent families made up 16 percent of the total of families in Canada. 3) Today 81 percent of one-parent families are headed by lone-parent mothers. Men are heads of about 19 percent of lone-parent families. 4) Researchers in one study concluded that children growing up with only one biological parent are disadvantaged across a broad array of factors. Among the children’s most pressing problems are poor academic achievement, high dropout rates, more drug and alcohol abuse, and higher rates of teen pregnancy, early marriage, and divorce. Living in a lone-parent family does not cause all of these problems. Factors such as poverty, discrimination, unsafe neighbourhoods, and high crime rates also exacerbate many family-related problems. 5) Some researchers have commented on the benefits of growing up in a one parent family. These include that children may be less pressured to conform to rigid gender roles. Rather than having chores assigned by gender, children in one parent homes may have to take on a wide variety of tasks and activities. Children in one parent homes also tend to exhibit high levels of maturity and self-sufficiency at earlier ages. 6) Some fathers remain closely involved with their children even when they do not have custody; others take them out only occasionally. Personal choice, workplace demands, and proximity to the children’s residence are all factors influencing how often these fathers see their children. Increasingly, both parents are being awarded joint custody, which may minimize the disruptions associated with divorce for children. IV. CHILD-RELATED FAMILY ISSUES A. Reproductive Freedom, Contraception, and Abortion 1) Introduction of the birth control pill in 1960 provided more women with the ability to control their fertility almost completely. Within a few years, the “Pill” became the most popular contraceptive among married women in Canada. 2) Today, many women spend about 90 percent of their fertile years attempting to avoid pregnancy. Since 1976, there has been a decline in the use of the pill and an increase in the use of condoms. More than one half of couples opt for surgical sterilization as a means of controlling fertility. 3) Although the law permitted abortions since 1967, it was not always easy to obtain one since some provinces were not sympathetic to abortions, and some hospitals did not have committees to judge the situation. 4) Opposition to abortion was strong into the mid-1990s. Extreme cases of opposition included the bombing of an abortion clinic (in Toronto) and the shooting of doctors who performed abortions (e.g., in Vancouver, Ontario and Manitoba). 5) In 2005, 96, 615 abortions were performed for women from all provinces and territories, a decrease of 3.2 percent from 2004. This represents fewer than three abortions for every ten live births. B. Infertility and New Reproductive Technologies 1) Infertility is the inability to conceive after a year of sexual relations. In 40 percent of the cases, the woman is infertile, and in another 40 percent, the man is infertile; 20 percent of cases, the cause is impossible to determine. Sexually transmitted diseases are a leading cause of infertility. Some women, both married and unmarried, would like to have a child but are unable to do so due to disabilities. 2) Some analysts suggest that increasing demand for high-tech reproduction has been driven by the large number of prospective parents who have delayed childbearing into their 30s and 40s and recent advances in technology. About 50 percent of infertile couples can be helped by conventional, low-tech treatments such as fertility drugs, artificial insemination, and surgery to unblock fallopian tubes. The other 50 percent may obtain more advanced treatments, sometimes called assisted reproductive technology (ART). Despite the recent popularity of such treatments, at most, only one in five couples receiving ART actually become parents. C. Adoption 1) Adoption is a legal process through which rights and duties of parenting are transferred from a child’s biological and/or legal parents to new legal parents. This procedure gives the adopted child all of the rights of a biological child. In most adoptions historically, a new birth certificate was issued, and the child had no future contact with the biological parents. Today many adoption agencies are arranging for people to meet their biological parents or children and some provincial Acts have made disclosure a right. 2) Matching children who are available for adoption with prospective adoptive parents can be difficult. The available children have specific needs, and the prospective parents often set specifications on the type of child they want to adopt. Although thousands of children are available for adoption each year in Canada, many move from foster home to foster home rather than being adopted because prospective parents do not want to adopt children who are non-white (most prospective parents are White), are too old, or have disabilities or diseases. Most prospective parents want to adopt infants but these are in short supply today in Canada, forcing prospective parents to adopt infants from foreign countries. D. Parenting Style 1) The ways parents treat their children affect the children’s development. In studies on parenting style, parents are divided into four groups ranging from positive (warm and nurturing) to ineffective (very intolerant and erratic). From parenting style studies it has been concluded that parenting style has more effect on behavioural problems than family structure or income. E. Teen Pregnancies and Unmarried Motherhood 1) The birth rate among teenagers has declined substantially over the past few decades. Since the 1990s, teenage births have dropped from 18.6 to 11.1 per 1000 women under 20. 2) Most teen pregnancies are problematic because teenage mothers typically are less skilled at parenting, are much more likely to drop out of school, and have no social support other than relatives. Researchers have found that the overall level of family support is important in teen pregnancies. Young mothers frequently rely on their own mothers and grandmothers to help with childrearing, as well as for emotional and financial support. 3) During the 1990s, the birth rate for unmarried women between ages of 25 to 29, and 30 to 34 has doubled. It now accounts for 27 and 15 percent respectively. According to demographer Charles West-off, these rates reflect the declining significance of marriage as a social obligation or a social necessity for reproduction. Increasing proportions of White women who have not been married are deciding that having a child is more important than any kind of disapproval they might face. V. DIVORCE AND REMARRIAGE A. A number of factors contribute to a couple’s statistical likelihood of becoming divorced, including: (1) getting married during the teenage years; (2) getting married after a short acquaintanceship; (3) relatives and friends disapproving of the marriage; (4) having limited economic resources and earning low wages; (5) both partners having a high school education or less; (6) parents of the couple being divorced or having unhappy marriages themselves; and/or (7) children already being present at the beginning of the marriage. B. Because these factors are interrelated with such other factors as class, racialization, and age, determining the likelihood of divorce is complicated. Also, religion may affect the divorce rate of some. C. Most divorces today are granted on the grounds of irreconcilable differences, meaning a breakdown has occurred in the marital relationship. Under no-fault divorce laws, proof of someone being responsible is no longer necessary. Divorce often has dramatic economic and emotional impacts on family members. An estimated 60 percent of divorcing couples have one or more children. By age 15, 8 percent of all Canadians experience change in parental structure. D. Most people who divorce get remarried; in 1997 more than 34 percent of all marriages are between previously married brides and/or grooms. Most divorced people marry others who have been divorced. At all ages, a greater proportion of men than women remarry, often relatively soon after the divorce. Among women, the older a woman is at the time of divorce, the lower her likelihood of remarrying. E. As a result of divorce and remarriage, blended families often are created. One recent study found that approximately nine percent of children under age 12 were living in a blended family. At least initially, stress in blended families may be fairly high because of rivalry among the children and hostilities directed toward stepparents or babies born into the family. In some cases, when parents divorce and marry other partners, the children become part of a binuclear family, living with one biological parent and a stepparent part of the time but with the other biological parent and another stepparent the rest of the time. VI. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE A. Child Abuse 1) Child abuse and neglect is the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, or negligent treatment of a child by a person responsible for the child’s welfare, where the child’s health or welfare is harmed or threatened. Parental violence can lead to battered child syndrome, a psychological disorder in which a child experiences low self-esteem and sometimes clinical depression. 2) Physical abuse of children in Canada is a serious social problem that remains largely hidden. Some researchers have found that children are most likely to be victims of physical assault in their own homes if their parents have a history of being abused, neglected, or deprived as children, and if the parents are socially isolated as adults. 3) When parents lack a support network and undergo some major crisis, children tend to be the targets of their frustration and sometimes their aggression. Other researchers have found that abusive parents characteristically feel unloved and unworthy and totally unprepared to cope with their circumstances. 4) One of the most disturbing forms of child maltreatment is sexual abuse. Two-thirds of the sexual abuse cases involved female children and one-third involved males. It appears that between 10 and 15 percent of girls and boys experience some form of sexual contact as children. The vast majority of perpetrators of maltreatment are parents and relatives. 5) Today more attention is being focussed on the abuse of middle aged parents, most frequently mothers, especially lone parent mothers, by their teenage children. Types of abuse typically include physical, psychological and financial. B. Spouse Abuse 1) In Canada, rates of spousal assault and homicide have both declined for both sexes. Unfortunately, many abused women end up as homicide victims, killed by their former partners. Spouse abuse ranges in intensity from slapping, kicking, and hitting with a closed fist to inflicting critical injuries or death. Women are more than seven times as likely as men to be killed by their spouses or intimate partners. C. Social Responses to Domestic Violence 1) Historically, in Canada, there has been an ideology of non-intervention—a strong reluctance on the part of outsiders to interfere in family matters—that has contributed to the non-involvement of many citizens and police officers in situations of violent conduct. 2) One major change is the growth of shelters for abused women. In Canada, 569 shelters admitted 101,000 women and children between April 1, 2007 and March 31, 2008. Emotional and physical abuse were most cited as reasons for seeking shelter. VII. FAMILY-RELATED PROBLEMS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY A. Some people believe that the family as we know it is doomed. Others believe a return to traditional family values will save this social institution and create greater stability. Sociologist Lillian Rubin suggests that clinging to a traditional image of families is hypocritical in light of our society’s failure to support the family, whether with family allowances or decent public-sponsored child care facilities. B. Sociologist Demi Kurz asserts that society should make a commitment to helping all families. This would require reducing poverty, making special efforts to end institutionalized discrimination against minorities, and promoting equality between men and women. ACCESS THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE CHANGING FAMILY Focus on Community Action Put students into groups of three of four. Each group is to investigate the issue of family violence (spousal and child abuse) in their community. They should find out the prevalence of different kinds of abuse and the legal mechanism for dealing with this crime. At least one person per group should visit an organization in their community that assists people who are dealing with family violence and find out what resources are available. Organizations could include women’s shelters, sexual assault centres, victim services, John Howard societies, emergency medical services, or Aboriginal organizations that deal with family violence. It is important that they investigate the services available for both the victims and the perpetrators of family violence. Have each group prepare a report on what family violence looks like in their communities and the resources available for helping people deal with this issue. Ask students to discuss their findings with the class. Then engage students in a discussion about the social, ethical, economic, and political ramifications of family violence in their communities. Are there adequate resources for people who need them? What would the students suggest changing to better address the myriad issues surrounding family violence? Focus on Theoretical Analysis Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to research Canadian sociologist Dorothy Smith’s concept of the “standard North American Family” (the “SNAF”). A link to an article on the SNAF can be found at: http://jfi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/14/1/50. She defines the SNAF as: It is a conception of the family as a legally married couple sharing a household. The adult male is in paid employment; his earnings provide the economic basis of the family household. The adult female may also earn an income, but her primary responsibility is to the care of the husband, household, and children. Adult male and female may be parents (in whatever legal sense) of children also resident in the household” (Smith, 1993: 52). Have students discuss in small groups, first, what Smith’s critique of the SNAF is. Then have them discuss how their families (both family of procreation - those families that married or cohabitating couples create by having or adopting children, and family of orientation, those families into which a person is born) reflect the SNAF. Do they find Smith’s critique useful when analyzing contemporary Canadian families? Have each group report back to the class what they discovered. Focus on Media Engagement Ask students to watch and take notes on at least four television entertainment programs such as sit-coms, soap operas, and children’s cartoon to determine what common myths and stereotypes about family life are perpetuated in these shows. If re-runs of older shows, such as The Partridge Family, The Brady Bunch, Happy Days, The Jefferson’s, The Cosby’s, and Family Matters are available locally you may want students to compare earlier depictions with contemporary characterizations of families on television. Have students bring their examples to class for discussion. You may wish to tape brief segments of several shows so that you can highlight some of the comments students make about how fathers, mothers, children of various ages, and extended family member are depicted and how these compare with the Canadian families today. What are the class-based, racialized, and gendered dynamics of the families depicted on popular television shows? How does this compare with real life In their community in Canada? APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. Why are notions of the “traditional family” problematic when defining contemporary Canadian families? Answer: Notions of the "traditional family" can be problematic when defining contemporary Canadian families for several reasons. Firstly, the concept of a "traditional family" often implies a nuclear family structure consisting of a heterosexual couple with children, which fails to acknowledge the diversity of family arrangements present in modern Canadian society. In reality, Canadian families come in various forms, including single-parent households, same-sex parent households, blended families, multi-generational households, and families without children. These diverse family structures challenge the narrow definition of the "traditional family" and highlight the fluidity and complexity of familial relationships. Moreover, the notion of a "traditional family" tends to prioritize certain family configurations over others, reinforcing heteronormative and gendered expectations about family roles and responsibilities. This can marginalize families that do not conform to traditional norms, leading to stigma and discrimination. Additionally, defining families based on outdated notions of tradition fails to recognize the evolving social and cultural dynamics shaping contemporary family life. Factors such as increased gender equality, changing attitudes towards marriage and divorce, advancements in reproductive technologies, and immigration patterns have contributed to the diversification of family structures and practices. By embracing a more inclusive and expansive understanding of family, policymakers, researchers, and society as a whole can better address the diverse needs and realities of Canadian families. This includes developing policies and programs that support families of all types, promoting equality and inclusion, and challenging stereotypes and biases associated with traditional family ideals. 2. Sociologist Andrew Cherlin says that the family is a highly social institution, but we can minimize the costs of change in the family unit by modifying other social institutions of daily life, such as the economy and workplace. What specific suggestions can you give for modifications in work-family arrangements? Answer: To modify work-family arrangements and minimize the costs of changes in the family unit, several specific suggestions can be implemented: 1. Flexible Work Policies: Encouraging employers to offer flexible work hours, telecommuting options, and compressed workweeks can provide parents with greater control over their schedules, allowing them to balance work and family responsibilities more effectively. 2. Paid Family Leave: Implementing paid family leave policies ensures that parents have the financial support and job security to take time off to care for newborns, adoptive children, or ill family members without risking their livelihoods. 3. Subsidized Childcare: Investing in affordable and high-quality childcare services helps alleviate the burden on working parents, enabling them to pursue their careers while ensuring their children receive proper care and education. 4. Supportive Workplace Culture: Fostering a supportive workplace culture that values work-life balance, promotes inclusivity, and offers resources such as employee assistance programs and parental support groups can reduce stress and enhance employee well-being. 5. Equal Parental Leave: Encouraging equal parental leave for both mothers and fathers promotes gender equality in caregiving responsibilities and allows fathers to be more involved in their children's upbringing. 6. Promotion of Part-Time and Job Sharing: Promoting part-time work options and job-sharing arrangements allows individuals to maintain employment while accommodating their caregiving responsibilities. 7. Career Advancement Opportunities: Ensuring that caregiving responsibilities do not hinder career advancement by providing opportunities for flexible career paths, mentorship programs, and leadership training for parents. 8. Subsidized Elder Care Services: Recognizing the growing need for elder care, providing subsidies or tax incentives for elder care services can support employees in balancing work and caring for aging relatives. 9. Remote Work Infrastructure: Investing in remote work infrastructure, such as technology and training, facilitates remote work arrangements, enabling employees to work from home when necessary, particularly during emergencies or family-related situations. By implementing these modifications in work-family arrangements, society can help alleviate the challenges faced by families while promoting a more equitable and supportive environment for individuals to thrive both in their careers and personal lives. 3. Some say polygamy is just another form of marriage. Do you agree with this? Why or why not? Should the Charter of Rights and Freedoms be allowed to support bigamy and polygamy? Answer: The question of whether polygamy should be considered just another form of marriage is complex and contentious, with various cultural, ethical, and legal perspectives to consider. Some argue that polygamy, like monogamy, represents a valid form of consensual adult relationships and should be recognized as such. They advocate for the rights of individuals to choose their own marital arrangements without interference from the state, emphasizing principles of personal autonomy and freedom of association. However, others contend that polygamy raises significant ethical concerns, particularly regarding gender equality and the potential for exploitation within such relationships. Traditional forms of polygamy have often been associated with patriarchal structures, where men hold disproportionate power and women may experience unequal treatment or lack of agency. Critics argue that endorsing polygamy could perpetuate harmful gender dynamics and undermine efforts to achieve equality and justice in intimate relationships. From a legal standpoint, the question of whether the Charter of Rights and Freedoms should support bigamy and polygamy is complex. While the Charter protects fundamental freedoms such as the right to liberty and security of the person, it also recognizes the importance of limiting these freedoms in certain circumstances to protect the rights of others and uphold societal values. The legality of polygamy in Canada is currently contested, with some arguing that criminalizing consensual adult polygamous relationships violates individuals' rights to freedom of religion and association, while others maintain that such relationships can pose harms to individuals and communities, particularly in terms of gender equality and the welfare of children. Ultimately, the question of whether polygamy should be recognized as a legitimate form of marriage and whether the Charter should support it involves balancing competing interests, including individual freedoms, gender equality, and societal welfare. It's essential to engage in informed and nuanced discussions that consider the diverse perspectives and potential implications of legalizing polygamy, while also upholding principles of justice, equality, and human rights. 4. What suggestions can you offer to help offset the potentially detrimental effects of single-parent households, especially when the parent is employed full-time? Are there any advantages to living in a single-parent family? Answer: To offset the potential challenges of single-parent households, especially when the parent is employed full-time, several suggestions can be helpful: 1. Support Networks: Encourage the building of strong support networks, including friends, family members, neighbors, and community organizations, to provide assistance with childcare, emotional support, and practical help when needed. 2. Flexible Work Arrangements: Advocate for flexible work arrangements, such as telecommuting, flexible hours, or job-sharing options, to allow single parents to balance work and family responsibilities more effectively. 3. Childcare Assistance: Seek out affordable and reliable childcare options, including daycare centers, after-school programs, and trusted caregivers, to ensure that children are well-cared for while their parent is at work. 4. Financial Support: Explore available financial assistance programs, such as child support, government subsidies, and tax credits, to alleviate the financial burden on single-parent households and provide resources for essential expenses. 5. Time Management Skills: Develop effective time management skills to prioritize tasks, allocate time for both work and family commitments, and maintain a healthy work-life balance. 6. Open Communication: Foster open communication with children, discussing the challenges of single parenting and encouraging them to express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns in a supportive environment. 7. Self-Care Practices: Prioritize self-care practices, including exercise, relaxation techniques, hobbies, and social activities, to maintain physical and mental well-being despite the demands of parenting and employment. 8. Seeking Professional Help: Don't hesitate to seek professional help if needed, including counseling, therapy, or support groups, to address any emotional or psychological challenges that may arise for both the parent and the children. Advantages of living in a single-parent family can include: 1. Close Bond: Single-parent households often foster close and strong bonds between the parent and children, as they rely on each other for emotional support and companionship. 2. Resilience: Children raised in single-parent families may develop resilience and independence, as they learn to navigate challenges and take on responsibilities from an early age. 3. Role Modeling: Single parents can serve as positive role models for their children, demonstrating resilience, perseverance, and determination in the face of adversity. 4. Stronger Parent-Child Relationship: With the absence of conflict between parents, the parent-child relationship may be more focused and positive, allowing for deeper connections and communication. 5. Flexibility and Adaptability: Single-parent families often develop flexibility and adaptability in managing household tasks and schedules, fostering problem-solving skills and resourcefulness in both parents and children. By implementing these strategies and recognizing the potential advantages of single-parent families, society can better support these households and ensure positive outcomes for both parents and children. 5. Which theory do you think most accurately represents the realities faced by contemporary Canadian families and why? Answer: In contemporary Canada, the theory that most accurately represents the realities faced by families is likely the ecological systems theory, proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. This theory emphasizes the interconnectedness between individuals and their environments, suggesting that various systems, from the microsystem (individual relationships and interactions) to the macrosystem (cultural and societal values), influence human development and behavior. In the context of Canadian families, this theory acknowledges the diverse and dynamic nature of family structures, including nuclear families, single-parent families, blended families, and LGBTQ+ families. It recognizes the influence of various environmental factors such as socio-economic status, cultural background, geographical location, and government policies on family dynamics and well-being. Moreover, the ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of support networks and resources available to families, highlighting the role of community organizations, social services, and government programs in addressing the needs of families across Canada. This perspective resonates with the realities faced by contemporary Canadian families, who navigate a complex web of social, economic, and cultural factors in their daily lives. By recognizing the interconnectedness between individuals and their environments, the ecological systems theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the diverse needs and challenges faced by Canadian families today. It emphasizes the importance of holistic approaches to supporting families, which consider the broader context in which they exist and strive to create environments that nurture their well-being and resilience. 6. Why are more and more people postponing marriage, staying single or choosing to not marry at all? Answer: Several factors contribute to the trend of more people postponing marriage, staying single, or choosing not to marry at all. One significant factor is societal shifts toward individualism and personal fulfillment. As people prioritize their own goals, careers, and personal development, marriage may not be a top priority. Additionally, changing gender roles and increased opportunities for women in education and the workforce have empowered individuals to pursue independent lifestyles without feeling societal pressure to marry. Economic considerations also play a role. High living costs, student loan debt, and precarious job markets can make it financially challenging to commit to marriage and starting a family. Furthermore, evolving social norms have destigmatized alternative lifestyles, such as cohabitation, single parenthood, or non-traditional family structures, providing individuals with more options outside of marriage. Technology and globalization have expanded social networks and opportunities for connection, allowing people to explore different relationships and lifestyles without feeling constrained by geographic or cultural boundaries. Moreover, the rise of online dating platforms has transformed the way people meet and form relationships, offering more choices and flexibility in romantic partnerships. Cultural shifts toward valuing personal autonomy and self-expression have also influenced attitudes toward marriage. Many individuals prioritize personal growth, experiences, and fulfillment over traditional notions of partnership and commitment. Additionally, concerns about divorce rates and the challenges of maintaining long-term relationships in a rapidly changing world may lead some to opt for alternative relationship models or remain single. Overall, the decision to postpone marriage, stay single, or choose not to marry at all is influenced by a complex interplay of societal, economic, cultural, and personal factors. As attitudes and norms continue to evolve, the landscape of relationships and family structures will likely continue to diversify, reflecting the diverse needs and aspirations of individuals in contemporary society. 7. What is Arlie Hochschild’s definition of the “second shift” and why is this an important concept when investigating families in Canada? Answer: Arlie Hochschild coined the term "second shift" to describe the unpaid domestic and caregiving work that typically falls on women's shoulders after they finish their paid employment. This concept highlights the unequal distribution of household and caregiving responsibilities based on gender, with women often shouldering the majority of these tasks despite their participation in the workforce. In Canada, where women have increasingly entered the labor force over the past few decades, the concept of the second shift is particularly relevant for understanding family dynamics and gender roles. Investigating families in Canada through the lens of the second shift reveals disparities in the division of labor within households, as well as the impact of these disparities on women's well-being, career opportunities, and overall quality of life. Women's disproportionate responsibility for domestic work can limit their ability to advance in their careers, leading to lower earnings, reduced job satisfaction, and increased stress and burnout. Moreover, the unequal distribution of household and caregiving responsibilities can contribute to strained relationships, marital dissatisfaction, and challenges in achieving work-life balance. Understanding the second shift is crucial for addressing gender inequality and promoting gender equity within families and society as a whole. It underscores the need for policies and practices that support equal sharing of household and caregiving responsibilities between partners, such as parental leave policies, flexible work arrangements, and affordable childcare options. By recognizing and challenging traditional gender roles and expectations around caregiving and domestic work, Canada can work towards more equitable and sustainable family dynamics, where both partners have the opportunity to thrive in both their professional and personal lives. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION A Place Between: The Story of an Adoption—This is the story of a man’s struggle to reconcile his two families (birth and adopted) across two countries and across cultures. 2007. 74 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Behind Closed Doors: A Multicultural Documentary on Family Violence—In their own languages, three women, from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds discuss how violence has affected them and their children. 1998. 23 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Black-Eyed Susan—This film shows the effects of family violence, but shows that help is available. 1994. 46 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Cosmic Current—This film follows the story of a family trying to reconnect. Ultimately, the family members are seeking answers to questions of ethnicity, home and self while transforming a family that had grown apart. 2004. 50 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Democracy on Trial: The Morgentaler Affair—Paul Cowan's film captures the spirit of the legal battle over abortion waged by Dr. Henry Morgentaler in Quebec and in federal courts between 1970 and 1976. 1984. 58 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Life with Dad—This film examines the growing phenomenon of lone-parent men raising children. 2002. 43 mins. National Film board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. The Motherhood Manifesto—This film looks at the obstacles facing working mothers and families and the employer and public policy changes needed to restore work-life balance. 2007. 58 mins. Bullfrog Films, www.bullfrogfilms.com. Multiple Choices: Forever After?—This film examines divorce and its consequences on families and children. 1995. 14 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. My Father, My Teacher—This is an eloquent reflection of the bonds and tensions faced by all families. It is also an extraordinary look at the handing down of a precious family legacy from a father to his son. 2005. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Young Mother’s Voices—A sympathetic portrait of four young mothers. 2005. 35 mins. French with English subtitles. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. CRITICAL READINGS Baker, Maureen. 2007. Choices and Constraints in Family Life. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Bezanson, Kate and Meg Luxton. 2006. Social Reproduction: Feminist Political Economy Challenges Neo-Liberalism. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Cheal, David (Ed.). 2007. Canadian Families Today: New Perspectives. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Covell, Katherine and R. Brian Howe. 2008. Children, Families, and Violence: Challenges for Children’s Right. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Mandell, Nancy and Ann Duffy. 2005. Canadian Families: Diversity, Conflict and Change (3rd edition). Toronto, ON: Thomson Nelson. Marshall, Barbara A. 2009. Family Matters: An Introduction to Family Sociology in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars Press. Paul, Pamela. 2002. The Starter Marriage and the Future of Matrimony. New York, NY: Random House. Peters, H. Elizabeth and Claire M. Kamp Dush. 2009. Marriage and Family: Perspectives and Complexities. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press. Smith, Dorothy. 1993. The Standard North American Family: SNAF as an ideological code. Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson Journal of Family Issues. 14: 50-65. Trocme, Nico, Bruce MacLaurin, Barbara Fallon, Joanne Daciuk, Diane Billingsley, Marc Tourigny, Micheline Mayer, John Wright, Ken Barter, Gale Burford, Joe Hornick, Richard Sullivan, and Brad McKenzie. 2001. Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect: Final Report. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Public Works and Government Services. CHAPTER 12 Problems in Education CHAPTER SUMMARY Canada and other industrialized nations value education highly. Functionalists believe that education is one of the most important social institutions because it contributes to the smooth functioning of society and provides individuals with opportunities for personal fulfillment and upward social mobility. Education has both manifest functions and latent functions. Conflict analysts believe that education in fact is used to reproduce existing class relationships, among other things through the hidden curriculum. Interactionists study classroom dynamics and how practices such as labelling can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Feminists study the inequalities in education based on gender, first focussing on how females were disadvantaged relative to males and now looking at how males are increasingly disadvantaged. There are several problems with Canada’s education system. Among the problems in education in Canada are the extent of low-level literacy, even among people who have graduated from high school; problems for immigrants and others disadvantaged by racialization/ethnicity, class, and gender, and school violence. Although support for elementary and secondary education in Canada is among the highest in the developed world, the contribution by governments per pupil has declined since the mid-1990s. Higher education faces problems, as well such as the rapidly increasing cost of a college/university education and the increasing corporatization of the university. Many different solutions have been proposed for these problems, and to maintain its position among the nations of the world, Canada needs to work on making educational opportunities for all students better. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 12, students should be able to: 1. State the sociological definition of education. 2. Compare and contrast the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist perspectives on education. 3. Explain how racialization/ethnicity, class, and gender affect educational opportunities. 4. Describe some of the major problems in education in the Canada and what means have been proposed for resolving them. 5. Describe the major problems with higher education. KEY TERMS education latent functions tracking functionally illiterate low-level literate hidden curriculum manifest functions CHAPTER OUTLINE I. PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION A. Educational practices such as tracking can have a positive effect on some students’ educational achievements and aspirations, but a negative effect on others. The harm isn’t intentional: Canada and other industrialized nations highly value education. But a wide gap exists between the ideals of Canadian education and the realities of daily life in many schools. B. Functionalist Perspectives 1) Education is one of the most important social institutions because it contributes to the smooth functioning of society and provides individuals with opportunities for personal fulfillment and upward social mobility. When problems occur, they can usually be traced to educational institutions (schools, colleges, universities) not fulfilling one of their manifest functions: a. Socialization. Schools teach students the student role, specific academic subjects, and political socialization. b. Transmission of culture. Schools transmit cultural norms and values to each new generation and play a major role in assimilation, the process whereby recent immigrants learn dominant cultural values, attitudes, and behaviour. c. Social control. Schools are responsible for teaching values such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging young people to be good students, conscientious future workers, and law-abiding citizens. d. Social placement. Schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill available positions in society. Graduates receive the appropriate credentials for entering the paid labour force. e. Change and innovation. To meet the needs of student populations at particular times, new programs are created. College and university faculty are expected to conduct research and publish new knowledge that benefits the overall society. 2) Education also fulfills a number of latent functions. Compulsory school attendance keeps children and teenagers off the streets (and, by implication, out of trouble) and out of the full-time job market for a number of years (controlling the flow of workers). By bringing people of similar ages, racialized/ethnic groups, and social class backgrounds together, schools establish social networks. 3) A major dysfunction in education is that our public schools are not adequately preparing students for jobs and global competition. In comparative rankings of students across countries on standardized reading, mathematics, and science tests, Canadian students are lagging. C. Conflict Perspectives: Schools—which are supposed to reduce social inequality in society—actually perpetuate inequalities based on class, racialization, and gender. 1) According to Pierre Bourdieu, students from middle- and upper-income homes have considerable cultural capital because their parents have taught them about books, art, music, and other forms of culture. Children from low-income and poverty-level families, however, often have not had the same opportunities to acquire cultural capital. 2) Other conflict theorists suggest that elites manipulate the masses and maintain their power in society through a hidden curriculum that teaches students to be obedient and patriotic—values that uphold the status quo in society and turn students into compliant workers. Although students from all social classes experience the hidden curriculum to some degree, working-class and poverty-level students are the most adversely affected. a. Schools for working-class students emphasize procedures and rote memorization without much decision-making, choice, or explanation of why something is done a particular way. Schools for middle-class students stress the processes involved in getting the right answer. Elite schools develop students’ analytical powers and critical thinking skills, teaching them how to apply abstract principles to problem solving. Elite schools also emphasize creative activities so that students can express their own ideas and apply them to different areas of study. b. The hidden curriculum makes working-class and poverty-level students aware that they will be expected to arrive at work on time, follow bureaucratic rules, take orders from others, and experience high levels of boredom without complaining. Furthermore, the limitations on what and how they are taught mean many of these students do not get any higher education and therefore never receive the credentials they need to enter high-paying professions. Our society emphasizes credentialism—a process of social selection that gives class advantage and social status to people who possess academic qualifications. Credentialism is closely related to meritocracy—a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort. According to conflict theorists, however, the hidden curriculum determines in advance that credentials will stay in the hands of the elites. D. Interactionist Perspectives: Education is an integral part of the socialization process. Through the formal structure of schools and interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers, students develop a concept of self that lasts long beyond their schooling. When students learn, develop, and function effectively, their experience in school is positive. But for many students, the school environment and peer group interactions leave them discouraged and unhappy. When students who might do better with some assistance from teachers and peers are instead labelled “losers,” they come to view themselves as “losers” as well, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy. According to interactionists, labels such as learning disabled, stigmatize students and marginalize them-put them at the lower or outer limits of a group-in their interactions with parents, teachers, and other students. Labelling students gifted-and-talented may also create a self-fulfilling prophecy: Students identified as having above-average intellectual ability, academic aptitude, etc. may achieve at a higher level because of the label. But girls identified as gifted may deny their intelligence because of stereotypical cultural norms about the proper roles of women and men. E. Feminist Perspective: Recent work has shown that it is no longer easy to show which gender is the most disadvantaged. Women have higher rates of educational attainment than men except at the doctoral and some professional (e.g., engineering) degree levels and women are doing better in math and science at the secondary level. Feminists have traditionally emphasized the disadvantaged situation of women and girls. In the future, they may conduct research that focuses on anyone with a disadvantage. II. PROBLEMS IN CANADIAN EDUCATION A. What Can Be Done About Illiteracy? 1) Some reports suggest that a high percentage of Canadians are functionally illiterate. In 2003, the International Adult Literacy Survey found that 1 in 6 Canadians scored in the lowest level. However, people at this level may still be able to maintain their jobs. Therefore, instead of “functionally illiterate,” a more useful term would be low-level literate. The main trouble with low level literacy is that Canadians need to be functioning at higher levels of literacy to adapt to new challenges. 2) The percentage of people completing secondary school is now almost 90 percent. Thus, the proportion of people who are low-level literate might be expected to decrease in the future. B. Educational Opportunities and Ascribed Statuses: Ascribed statuses, such as family structure and socioeconomic status, children’s gender or racialized/ethnic status, and geographic region lived in, have a significant effect on educational outcome. 1) Primary education: Past research has shown that girls and boys differed in important ways in their readiness to learn as they entered school at age 5. Girls outperformed boys in several areas; however, recent studies show that boys and girls do not differ in mathematics achievement by the time they were aged 9. In addition, children form very low-income households scored somewhat lower than those in higher-income households. 2) Secondary Education: According to Statistics Canada analysts, children from families living with both biological parents are more likely to complete high school than children from either blended or lone-parent families. However, if the lone-parent had high school or higher educational attainment, then the chances of their children completing high school increased. Therefore, as family structure has an effect on educational outcomes, parents’ education appears to be even more influential. The social class of parents is also influential: the higher the parents’ socioeconomic status, the higher the children’s educational attainment. A higher percentage of men than women drop out of high school, although drop out rates for both males and females are decreasing.. Drop outs were three times more likely as graduates to have parents who had not finished high school. 3) Postsecondary Education: Over the past few decades there has been a steady improvement in the percentage of young people, especially women, taking postsecondary education. Results of a study conducted in 2002 showed children of immigrants tend to achieve higher levels of education than children of Canadian-born parents, but there are wide differences in rates of completing university among young people of different national origins. Also, commuting distance to universities had a greater negative impact on university access, especially for students with lower family incomes. C. Bullying, Cyber Bullying, and School Violence 1) Bullying is common at schools. In a 2001 study of Ontario students from grade 7 to Ontario Academic Credit (OAC, or grade 13—now abolished), it was found that 24.7 percent of students admitted to bullying others while 29.9 percent of students reported being bullied. 2) School violence is also a concern for Canadians. Edward Adlaf and his colleagues found that in 2007, 15.8 percent of students had been in a fight with someone in the past year, and 8.7 percent admitted carrying a weapon to school. 3) A new type of bullying, cyber bullying (bullying online), has become a growing concern for parents and educators. Some extreme examples of cyber bullying have resulted in death, and subsequent high profile media coverage. A study of 2186 students in the Greater Toronto Area showed that in the past three months, 21 percent reported being bullied, mostly by friends, and 35 percent reported having bullied other kids online, mostly attempting to make them feel bad. 4) Attempted Solutions: Most educational analysts acknowledge that technology (metal detectors, searches, and armed guards) alone will not rid schools of violence and crime. In Canada, a wide variety of programs has been developed—from zero tolerance of violence, to Alberta’s Safe and Caring School Project, to the creation of the Canadian Safe Schools Network. D. Residential Schools 1) In June 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper made a formal apology in the House of Commons to former (about 80,000) students of residential schools operated by churches and government. Compensation of $4 billion was offered and an Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established. a) Set up to assimilate Indigenous youth into Euro-Canadian culture, these residential schools generated widespread misery among the Indigenous population. Deplorable conditions that included poor facilities, poor teaching methods, physical and psychological abuse, and sexual violence, were commonplace at these schools. b) Indigenous people began to organize, and the last school was closed in 1996. c) Another revelation in 2008 was that many of the thousands of children who went missing from the schools were buried in unmarked or anonymous graves. Neither the federal government nor Indigenous leaders know how many students of the residential schools died, let alone where they are buried. d) Another ominous consequence of residential schools is their long-term effect. A 2006 survey indicated that off-reserve Indigenous children whose parents had attended residential schools were less likely to do as well or very well than those whose parents had not attended residential schools. III. PROBLEMS IN FINANCING EDUCATION A. Although support for elementary and secondary education in Canada is among the highest in the world, the contribution by governments per pupil has declined since the mid-1990s.. B. Postsecondary education has also seen a decline in governmental support. In order to make up for the shortfall, universities and colleges increased tuition substantially during the 1990s, a trend that continues today. As a result, a great increase in fees and expenses occurred, on average from $1464 in 1990-1991 to $4172 in 2004-2005. According to the Global Higher Education Rankings of 2005, Canada ranked 11th out of 16 countries in the affordability of university education. C. Commercialization can take the form of corporate advertisements, or exclusive product placement rights, or forming partnerships with corporations. Universities are increasingly being encouraged to form partnerships with corporations in order to seek alternate avenues of funding as government funding declines. However, these relationships, some argue, may cause universities to “operate in ways contrary to other legitimate interests and groups in society.” IV. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN THE 21ST CENTURY A. Given the difficulties we are facing in the current economic downturn, we need to remember the importance of maintaining or increasing all forms of learning to weather this storm and prepare for the future. Governmental support is also crucial for support not only of teachers and educational institutions but also of cultural workers, including curators, actors, musicians, and institutions such as museums, art galleries, theatres, and concert halls. ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROBLEMS RELATED TO EDUCATION Focus on Community Action Have students get information on literacy programs in their community, province or territory. If your community has a centre that teaches reading to adults, encourage students to volunteer as a term project and write a short report on what they learned in the process. Ask students to discuss, as a class, the “human face” of low-level literacy and their experience working with literacy programs in the community. How does being unable to read adequately affect people’s lives and life chances? Why is literacy an important issue for everyone in society? Focus on Theoretical Analysis Have students keep a journal for a given period of time in which they record observations about their college classes. Encourage them to observe professor-student interactions, how people are depicted in their textbooks, and the general environment in which courses take place. Ask students to apply the concepts associated with higher education from the conflict and interactionist perspectives: hidden curriculum, credentialism, meritocracy, and self-fulfilling prophecy to their observations. What are the class-based, racialized and gendered dynamics of higher education? Do they feel one theory better explains their observations than others? Focus on Media Engagement Have students investigate the prevalence of cyber bullying in their communities. They should look in newspapers, online media sources, and television news programs to find out about incidences of cyber bullying. Students should ask friends and family if they have had a problem with cyber bullying and find out how it was dealt with. Where is it most likely to happen— social networking sites (such as Facebook or myspace), online instant messaging, or through cell phone texting? Students should prepare a short report on their findings. Next, have a class discussion about how new technology has impacted bullying. Has new technology made bullying more severe? Are people more likely to engage in bullying if it is over the internet than when it is face to face? Is cyber bullying happening among university students? If so, what does it look like and how does it differ from that of younger students? What can be done to prevent cyber bullying? s APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION 1. Based on the information in this chapter and your own experiences, do you believe that the Canadian education system can overcome its current problems? Why or why not? Answer: The potential for the Canadian education system to overcome its current challenges depends on various factors, including political will, adequate resources, stakeholder collaboration, and adaptability to changing societal needs. While the system faces issues such as funding constraints, disparities in educational outcomes among different demographic groups, and the need to modernize curriculum and teaching methods, there are reasons for optimism. Canada has a history of investing in education and prioritizing access to quality schooling for all citizens. Efforts to address equity gaps, support marginalized communities, and foster inclusive learning environments demonstrate a commitment to continuous improvement. Moreover, the presence of dedicated educators, innovative educational initiatives, and ongoing research in pedagogy offer opportunities for positive change. However, overcoming entrenched challenges requires sustained effort and systemic reforms. This includes addressing funding inequities, promoting diversity and inclusion in curriculum development and teacher training, leveraging technology to enhance learning outcomes, and fostering community engagement in education. Additionally, the education system must adapt to the evolving needs of a rapidly changing world, preparing students for future careers and citizenship in a globalized society. While overcoming all current problems may be ambitious, progress is achievable through concerted efforts by stakeholders at all levels – from policymakers and educators to parents and students. By prioritizing collaboration, equity, and innovation, the Canadian education system can evolve to better serve the needs of all learners and contribute to the country's social, economic, and cultural prosperity. 2. How do racialization/ethnicity, class, and gender affect educational opportunities? Answer: Racialization/ethnicity, class, and gender significantly impact educational opportunities, creating disparities that persist across various stages of the education system. 1. Racialization/Ethnicity: Marginalized racial and ethnic groups often face systemic barriers in education, including unequal access to quality schools, underfunded districts, and discriminatory disciplinary practices such as harsher punishment for students of color. Cultural biases in standardized testing and curriculum can also disadvantage minority students. Additionally, language barriers and lack of representation in educational materials further hinder academic success. These factors contribute to lower graduation rates, limited access to advanced courses, and decreased opportunities for higher education among marginalized racial and ethnic groups. 2. Class: Socioeconomic status profoundly affects educational opportunities, with children from low-income families facing disadvantages such as inadequate school resources, unstable home environments, and limited access to extracurricular activities and educational enrichment programs. High costs associated with college tuition and preparation further widen the gap, leading to disparities in college attendance and completion rates. The cycle of poverty perpetuates as individuals struggle to access the education necessary for social mobility. 3. Gender: Gender stereotypes and biases influence educational opportunities, with girls historically facing discrimination in certain fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Gender-based expectations may discourage girls from pursuing academic interests or leadership roles, limiting their educational and career options. Additionally, issues such as sexual harassment and gender-based violence can create hostile learning environments, affecting academic performance and retention rates for female students. Overall, the intersectionality of racialization/ethnicity, class, and gender exacerbates educational inequalities, reinforcing systemic barriers that hinder academic achievement and limit opportunities for marginalized individuals. Addressing these disparities requires comprehensive strategies that address institutionalized discrimination, promote equitable access to resources, and foster inclusive learning environments that empower all students to thrive academically. 3. Are you for or against support of schooling outside the public system (e.g., home, private, or charter schooling)? Why? Answer: Support for schooling outside the public system, such as home, private, or charter schooling, is a nuanced issue with both advantages and drawbacks. Advocates argue that alternative schooling options provide greater flexibility and choice for parents, allowing them to tailor education to the specific needs and values of their children. Private and charter schools, in particular, may offer specialized curricula, smaller class sizes, and innovative teaching methods that cater to diverse learning styles. However, detractors raise concerns about equity and access, suggesting that alternative schooling options can exacerbate educational inequalities by catering to privileged families who can afford tuition or have the resources to homeschool effectively. There are also questions about accountability and quality assurance, as private and charter schools may operate with less oversight than public schools, potentially leading to disparities in educational standards and outcomes. Supporters of alternative schooling argue that competition from these options can drive innovation and improvement in the broader education system, prompting public schools to adapt and innovate in response. They emphasize the importance of empowering parents to make decisions about their children's education and fostering a diverse educational landscape that reflects the varying needs and preferences of families. On the other hand, critics caution that the proliferation of alternative schooling options could weaken public education by draining resources and talent from the public system, exacerbating segregation and inequities. They stress the importance of investing in and strengthening public schools as a cornerstone of a democratic society, ensuring that all children have access to high-quality education regardless of their background or circumstances. Ultimately, the debate over support for schooling outside the public system involves balancing principles of choice, equity, and quality in education. While alternative schooling options can offer benefits in terms of customization and innovation, policymakers must carefully consider the potential impacts on educational equity, social cohesion, and the public good when formulating policies in this area. 4. What would the effect be on public education if the curriculum were not subject to political agendas that can change every few years; if, for example, it were managed by an arm’s length education council? Answer: If the curriculum were managed by an arm's length education council rather than being subject to political agendas that can change frequently, several potential effects on public education could be observed: 1. Consistency and Stability: The curriculum would likely experience greater consistency and stability over time, as it would be less susceptible to abrupt changes driven by political shifts or ideologies. 2. Focus on Educational Excellence: With less political interference, the emphasis could shift towards prioritizing educational excellence, evidence-based teaching practices, and the needs of students rather than political considerations. 3. Expertise and Professionalism: An education council comprised of experts in pedagogy, curriculum development, and education policy could bring a higher level of professionalism and expertise to curriculum design and implementation. 4. Long-Term Planning: The council could engage in long-term planning and development of the curriculum, considering research findings, educational trends, and the evolving needs of students and society. 5. Teacher Empowerment: Teachers may feel more empowered to innovate and adapt their teaching methods to meet the needs of their students, knowing that the curriculum is stable and based on educational best practices rather than political whims. 6. Equity and Inclusivity: A curriculum managed by an education council could prioritize equity and inclusivity, ensuring that all students have access to high-quality education regardless of political considerations or biases. 7. Public Trust: Greater independence from political agendas could enhance public trust in the education system, as stakeholders would have confidence that decisions regarding the curriculum are made with the best interests of students in mind rather than political gain. 8. Global Competitiveness: A stable and consistent curriculum focused on educational excellence could better prepare students to compete in the global economy, equipping them with the skills and knowledge necessary for success in the 21st century. However, it's important to note that while removing direct political influence from the curriculum can have many benefits, oversight mechanisms should still ensure accountability, transparency, and responsiveness to the diverse needs of students and communities. Balancing autonomy with accountability is essential to maintain the integrity and effectiveness of the education system. 5. Which theoretical perspective do you think is most useful for analyzing education problems in Canada and why? Answer: In analyzing education problems in Canada, the sociocultural perspective proves to be the most useful theoretical framework. This perspective, rooted in the work of scholars like Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the role of social interactions, cultural contexts, and historical factors in shaping learning and educational outcomes. In the Canadian context, where diversity is celebrated and cultural pluralism is a fundamental aspect of society, the sociocultural perspective allows for an in-depth examination of how cultural backgrounds, language differences, and socio-economic disparities impact educational experiences and achievement. It recognizes that students bring unique cultural and linguistic assets to the learning environment, which should be acknowledged and leveraged to enhance learning outcomes. Furthermore, the sociocultural perspective sheds light on the importance of equitable access to educational resources and opportunities. In Canada, where there are disparities in educational attainment among different socio-economic groups and Indigenous communities face unique challenges in accessing quality education, this perspective underscores the need for policies and practices that promote inclusivity and address systemic barriers. By adopting a sociocultural perspective, educators, policymakers, and researchers in Canada can better understand the complexities of educational inequality and work towards creating more inclusive and culturally responsive learning environments. This framework encourages collaboration between educators, students, families, and communities to co-construct knowledge and support the diverse learning needs of all students. Ultimately, the sociocultural perspective offers a comprehensive lens through which to analyze and address education problems in Canada, promoting social justice and equitable outcomes for all learners. 6. Why do conflict theorists write about credentialism and why is it important when considering the myth of meritocracy in Canada? Answer: Conflict theorists focus on credentialism because they view it as a tool of social stratification and inequality perpetuation within societies. Credentialism refers to the practice of placing excessive importance on formal credentials, such as degrees or certifications, as a means of determining an individual's worth or eligibility for certain opportunities. From the perspective of conflict theory, credentialism serves to reinforce existing power structures by privileging those who have access to educational resources and opportunities, typically individuals from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. In Canada, where there is a pervasive belief in meritocracy – the idea that success is based on individual merit and hard work – credentialism becomes particularly relevant. While meritocracy suggests that anyone can achieve success through talent and effort, conflict theorists argue that credentialism actually reinforces social inequalities by creating barriers to advancement for marginalized groups who may lack access to quality education or face systemic discrimination. Credentialism can exacerbate socioeconomic disparities by perpetuating the idea that certain credentials are essential for success, thereby limiting opportunities for those who cannot afford or access higher education. This creates a cycle where individuals from privileged backgrounds are more likely to obtain prestigious credentials, further consolidating their social advantages. Moreover, the emphasis on credentials can overshadow other forms of knowledge and skills, undervaluing the contributions of individuals who may have gained expertise through alternative paths such as vocational training or practical experience. This narrow focus on formal qualifications can undermine the diversity of talents and perspectives within society. By critically examining credentialism, conflict theorists highlight how seemingly meritocratic systems can mask underlying inequalities and reinforce social hierarchies. Recognizing the role of credentialism is crucial for challenging the myth of meritocracy and advocating for policies that promote equal access to education and opportunities, ultimately striving for a more equitable and inclusive society. 7. How do government-sponsored websites (as found in Ontario) dedicated to presenting data about schools (such as students’ academic performance, family income, parents’ education status and immigration status) further the social polarization of students in Canada? Would you support the use of one of these websites in your province? Answer: Government-sponsored websites in Ontario or any province in Canada that provide detailed data on students' academic performance, family income, parents' education status, and immigration status can potentially exacerbate social polarization among students. While the intention behind such websites may be to promote transparency and accountability in education, the public availability of this data can lead to stigmatization, discrimination, and the reinforcement of existing inequalities. By publicly disclosing information about students' socioeconomic backgrounds and academic performance, these websites can inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes and biases, contributing to the marginalization of students from lower-income families or immigrant backgrounds. Moreover, the availability of such data may influence parental decisions about school choice, leading to increased segregation along socio-economic lines as families with higher socio-economic status may opt for schools with students from similar backgrounds, perpetuating social polarization. Furthermore, the emphasis on standardized test scores and academic performance as indicators of school quality may overlook other important factors that contribute to student success, such as access to resources, supportive learning environments, and equitable educational opportunities. This narrow focus can disadvantage schools serving marginalized communities and undermine efforts to address systemic barriers to educational achievement. In terms of supporting the use of these websites in my province, I would approach the issue with caution. While transparency and accountability in education are important, it's essential to consider the potential negative impacts of publicly disclosing sensitive student data. Instead of focusing solely on outcomes-based metrics, efforts should be made to address the underlying factors contributing to educational disparities, such as poverty, inequitable resource allocation, and systemic barriers to access and opportunity. Rather than furthering social polarization, government-sponsored websites should prioritize equity, inclusion, and support for all students, regardless of their background or circumstances. This could involve providing resources and support to schools serving marginalized communities, implementing policies to reduce socio-economic segregation in schools, and promoting holistic approaches to assessing school quality that recognize the diverse needs and strengths of students. Ultimately, any initiatives aimed at promoting transparency and accountability in education should be guided by principles of equity, social justice, and the well-being of all students. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION Alex Taylor Community School—Learning with Love—Using a creative educational approach, this school addresses the needs of not only its students but also the social, cultural and spiritual needs of all its community residents. 1992. 56 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Being Human— This film sweeps away preconceptions about the quality of teaching in disadvantaged neighbourhoods and the alleged delinquency of the kids who live there. 2005. 107 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Beyond the Shadows—This film focuses on the devastating effects of residential/boarding schools on the Indigenous people of Canada.1993. 28 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Bully Dance—A film without words, this tale provokes all to take stock of their actions and to find ways to end peer abuse. 2000. 10 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Captive Audience: Advertising Invades the Classroom—This film explores how education is short-changed and democracy is at risk when schools become marketplaces and commercialism goes to the head of the class. 2003. 45 mins Media Education Foundation, www.mediaed.org. Ellen’s Story—This video tells the story of a woman whose childhood education never uncovered the fact that she had a learning disability and grew up without ever learning to read, write or calculate beyond the most basic level. 1992. 47 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca. Growing Up Online—This film explores what it means to be part of the first generation coming of age in the internet era. 56 minutes. 2008. PBS Frontline, http://video.pbs.org/#. Inside Dyslexia— This program illustrates the challenges faced by Amanda, Carmen, and Gio— three young people living with dyslexia—through personal interviews with them and those close to them. 2007. 58 mins. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, http://ffh.films.com Tomorrow's Children—This film, based on Riane Esler’s groundbreaking book of the same name, offers a practical blueprint for transforming how we educate our children -- and ourselves. 2001. 35 mins. Media Education Foundation, www.mediaed.org. Trouble With Reading—This film looks into the lives of four schoolchildren who struggle to read while their classmates progress to higher levels of achievement. 2003. 23 mins. Filmakers Library, www.filmakers.com. CRITICAL READINGS Egbo, Benedicta. 2009. Teaching for Diversity in Canada. Toronto, ON: Pearson, Prentice Hall. Gabor, Thomas. 1995. Responding to School Violence: An Assessment of Zero Tolerance and Related Policies. Ottawa, ON: Solicitor General. Henry, Frances. 2009. Racism in the Canadian University: Demanding Social Justice, Inclusion, and Equity. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Junor, Sean and Alex Usher. 2004. The Price of Knowledge 2004:Access and Student Finance in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. McMullen, Julie. 2004. Understanding Social Inequality: Intersections of Class, Age, Gender, Ethnicity and Race in Canada. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press Peplar, Debra, Wendy Craig, and J. Connolly. 1997. Bullying and Victimization: The Problems and Solutions for School Aged Children. Ottawa, ON: National Crime Prevention Council of Canada. Pocklington, Tom and Allan Tupper. 2002. No Place to Learn Why Universities Aren’t Working. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Woodhouse, Howard R. 2009. Selling Out: Academic Freedom and the Corporate Market. Montreal, QU: McGill-Queens University Press. Wotherspoon, Terry. 2004. The Sociology of Education in Canada: Critical Perspectives (2nd edition). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Younging, Gregory, Jonathon Dewar, and Mike DeGagné (Ed.). 2009. Response, Responsibility, and Renewal: Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Journey. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Healing Foundation. Instructor Manual for Social Problems in a Diverse Society Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, Edward G. Thompson 9780205663903, 9780205718566, 9780205885756