Chapter 10: Understanding Past Settlement and Subsistence True/False Questions 1) Studying cuisine is a part of the study of subsistence. Answer: True Rationale: Cuisine, which encompasses the types of foods consumed, food preparation methods, and culinary traditions, is closely linked to subsistence practices as it reflects how individuals or societies obtain, process, and consume food for sustenance. 2) The investigation of subsistence involves identifying diet, technology, and organization. Answer: True Rationale: The study of subsistence involves examining various aspects related to how individuals or societies obtain food, including their diet (types of food consumed), technology (tools and methods used for food procurement and preparation), and social organization (such as division of labor, resource distribution, and food sharing practices). 3) All people were once hunter-gatherers. Answer: True Rationale: Anthropological and archaeological evidence suggests that early human ancestors were predominantly hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for sustenance before the development of agriculture. 4) Pastoralists most often pick one species and develop it intensively. Answer: False Rationale: Pastoralists often raise multiple species of animals for various purposes, such as meat, milk, wool, and transportation. They may engage in selective breeding and management practices to optimize the productivity of their livestock, but they typically do not focus exclusively on one species. 5) Analysis of botanical remains in the midden at La Quinta and palaeofeces at Lake Cahuilla revealed that there was no seasonal variation in the diet. Answer: False Rationale: Botanical remains and palaeofeces (ancient human feces) provide valuable insights into past diets and subsistence strategies. However, studies at archaeological sites like La Quinta and Lake Cahuilla have revealed evidence of seasonal variation in diet, reflecting changes in resource availability and exploitation over time. 6) Adopting intensive agriculture as a subsistence strategy has been universally beneficial to human health. Answer: False Rationale: While intensive agriculture has led to increased food production and population growth in many societies, it has also been associated with various health challenges, such as malnutrition, dietary deficiencies, and the spread of infectious diseases. Additionally, intensive agricultural practices can contribute to environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity. 7) The urban center of Harappa shows evidence of city planning. Answer: True Rationale: Excavations at the ancient Indus Valley Civilization site of Harappa have revealed evidence of urban planning, including well-organized street grids, drainage systems, and standardized brick sizes, suggesting a high level of central authority and urban administration. 8) The first actual study of a settlement system was conducted by Gordon Willey in the 1820s in his landmark examination of the settlement system in the Viru Valley, Peru. Answer: False Rationale: Gordon Willey conducted influential archaeological research in the Americas, but he did not conduct his studies in the 1820s. His landmark examination of settlement patterns in the Viru Valley, Peru, occurred in the mid-20th century, during the 1940s and 1950s. 9) People who practice intensive agriculture also use wild resources. Answer: True Rationale: While intensive agriculture may be the primary subsistence strategy for some societies, people often supplement their diet with wild resources such as wild plants, game animals, and fish. Additionally, wild resources may be used for medicinal purposes, construction materials, or cultural practices. 10) Palaeofeces are only rarely recovered from archaeological contexts. Answer: True Rationale: Palaeofeces, also known as coprolites, are fossilized human or animal feces that provide valuable information about past diets, health, and lifestyles. However, they are relatively rare in archaeological contexts due to factors such as decomposition, preservation conditions, and the biases of excavation and recovery methods. 11) The carbon-nitrogen signature of people who consume terrestrial mammals will be very different from that of people eating marine mammals. Answer: True Rationale: The carbon-nitrogen isotopic signatures found in human tissues, such as bone collagen, can provide insights into dietary habits. Terrestrial mammals typically have different isotopic signatures compared to marine mammals due to differences in their diets and environments, so individuals consuming these different types of meats would indeed exhibit distinct carbonnitrogen signatures. 12) The number of identified specimens (NISP) is a count of how many identified individuals of a particular taxon are present. Answer: False Rationale: The Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) is not a count of individual animals but rather a count of identifiable parts or fragments of bones from a particular taxon. It provides information about the relative abundance of different taxa within an archaeological assemblage, but it does not necessarily correspond to the number of individuals represented. 13) It is more difficult to estimate dietary contributions of plant than animal resources to the diet. Answer: True Rationale: Estimating dietary contributions of plant resources can be more challenging than animal resources due to various factors such as preservation biases, taphonomic processes, and the diversity of plant species consumed. Plant remains are often less well-preserved in archaeological contexts compared to animal bones, making identification and quantification more difficult. 14) It is possible that a comet hit North America about 12,900 years ago. Answer: True Rationale: The hypothesis of a comet impact, known as the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis, suggests that a comet or asteroid impact occurred in North America around 12,900 years ago, leading to environmental disruption and climate change known as the Younger Dryas period. While this hypothesis is still debated among scientists, evidence such as a layer of impact-related materials and associated environmental changes have been found in some locations. 15) Foragers can never have a substantial impact on the environment. Answer: False Rationale: While foraging societies generally have lower environmental impacts compared to agricultural or industrial societies, they can still have substantial impacts on local ecosystems over time. Foragers may engage in activities such as hunting, gathering, fire management, and landscape modification, which can influence vegetation patterns, wildlife populations, and ecosystem dynamics. 16) The presence of hookworms and pinworms in palaeofeces indicates unhygienic and unhealthful conditions. Answer: True Rationale: The presence of parasites like hookworms and pinworms in ancient human feces (palaeofeces) can indicate unsanitary living conditions and poor health practices in past populations. These parasites are often associated with fecal contamination of food and water sources, inadequate sanitation, and close proximity to human waste. 17) Hunter-gatherers sometimes practice horticulture on a part-time basis. Answer: True Rationale: Some hunter-gatherer societies engage in horticultural activities, such as cultivating small garden plots or managing wild plant resources, alongside their primary foraging activities. This part-time horticulture can supplement their diet and provide additional food security, especially in environments where reliable food sources may be limited. 18) All hunter-gatherer populations lived in small groups of a few hundred members in order to survive. Answer: False Rationale: Hunter-gatherer populations varied in size and social organization depending on factors such as resource availability, environmental conditions, and cultural practices. While some hunter- gatherer groups lived in small bands of a few dozen individuals, others formed larger and more complex societies with hundreds or even thousands of members. 19) A latrine is an example of an activity area. Answer: True Rationale: An activity area is a specific location within an archaeological site where certain activities were regularly conducted by past inhabitants. A latrine, which is an area designated for human waste disposal, would be considered an activity area as it represents a designated space for a specific activity within the site. 20) Pastoralists are never sedentary. Answer: False Rationale: While pastoralists are often associated with mobile lifestyles due to their dependence on herding animals, some pastoralist societies may also practice sedentism, particularly in areas with suitable grazing lands and stable water sources. Sedentary pastoralists may establish permanent settlements or seasonal camps where they engage in animal husbandry and other activities. 21) Pastoralists sometimes practice horticulture on a part-time basis. Answer: True Rationale: Some pastoralist societies engage in horticultural activities, such as cultivating small garden plots or managing wild plant resources, alongside their primary pastoralist activities. This part-time horticulture can supplement their diet and provide additional food security, especially in environments where reliable food sources may be limited. 22) Wilson bands are evidence of nutritional stress that show up most frequently in leg and arm bones. Answer: False Rationale: Wilson bands, also known as Harris lines, are horizontal lines of increased bone density that form in long bones during periods of growth disruption, such as illness, injury, or malnutrition. They are most commonly observed in the bones of children and adolescents and appear as transverse lines visible on X-rays or skeletal remains. While they can occur in various long bones, including the legs and arms, they are not specific to any particular bone or skeletal element. 23) All hunter-gatherers were nomadic. Answer: False Rationale: Hunter-gatherer societies varied in their mobility patterns, and not all of them were nomadic. While some hunter-gatherers practiced a nomadic lifestyle, moving frequently in search of food resources, others were semi-sedentary or even sedentary, establishing more permanent or seasonal settlements and exploiting local resources. The mobility patterns of huntergatherers were influenced by factors such as resource availability, environmental conditions, social organization, and technological adaptations. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) The change in Tasmanian subsistence from a dependence on fish was most likely a result of __________. A) climate change B) population explosion C) overfishing D) adaptation E) depopulation Answer: D Rationale: Adaptation refers to the process by which organisms or societies adjust their behaviors, practices, or strategies in response to changes in their environment or circumstances. In the case of Tasmanian subsistence, a shift away from dependence on fish could have been driven by various factors, such as changes in resource availability, environmental conditions, technological innovations, or cultural preferences. This change reflects the Tasmanian society's adaptation to new challenges or opportunities, rather than being solely attributed to factors like climate change, population dynamics, overfishing, or depopulation. 2) All of the following are examples of palaeofeces except __________. A) chitin B) coprolites C) cess D) gut contents Answer: A Rationale: Palaeofeces, also known as coprolites, are fossilized human or animal feces that provide valuable insights into past diets, health, and lifestyles. Chitin, on the other hand, is a structural component found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and fungi, and it is not related to fecal matter. 3) Palaeofeces can be used to investigate which of the following? A) general health and nutrition B) food processing C) food preparation D) the sex of individuals E) all of the above Answer: E Rationale: Palaeofeces provide a wealth of information about past human or animal diets, health, and behaviors. They can reveal details about general health and nutrition, including dietary preferences, food processing methods, and food preparation techniques. Additionally, palaeofeces can sometimes contain identifiable remains of consumed foods or pathogens, shedding light on past subsistence practices and disease transmission. However, they cannot provide information about the sex of individuals, as this typically requires analysis of skeletal remains. 4) All of the following are examples of botanical remains except __________. A) wood B) chitin C) charcoal D) pollen E) seeds Answer: B Rationale: Botanical remains refer to preserved plant materials found in archaeological contexts. Wood, charcoal, pollen, and seeds are all examples of botanical remains. Chitin, however, is a structural component found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and fungi, and it is not a botanical material. 5) The presence of articulated fish skeletons in the midden at La Quinta indicated that __________. A) they were likely filleted before eaten B) they were being used seasonally C) they were a highly prized food source D) they were very small E) they were not local Answer: A Rationale: Articulated fish skeletons suggest that the fish were likely filleted before being eaten. Articulated skeletons are those where the bones are still connected, indicating that the fish were not consumed whole but rather processed before consumption. 6) A deposit formed by the mixture of numerous feces is called __________. A) cess B) coprolites C) gut contents D) phytoliths E) ecowaste Answer: A Rationale: A deposit formed by the mixture of numerous feces is called cess. Cess is a term used to describe accumulated human or animal waste, typically found in archaeological contexts. 7) Specialists who study faunal remains are called __________. A) osteoarchaeologists B) palynologists C) palaeobotanists D) zooarchaeologists E) none of the above Answer: D Rationale: Zooarchaeologists are specialists who study faunal remains, which include animal bones and other animal-related materials found in archaeological sites. 8) All of the following are examples of faunal remains except __________. A) chitin B) phytoliths C) hair D) bone E) antler Answer: B Rationale: Faunal remains refer to animal-related materials found in archaeological contexts, including bone, hair, teeth, antler, and other skeletal elements. Phytoliths, however, are microscopic silica structures found in plants, not animals. 9) Which of the following is not an example of indirect evidence for subsistence? A) corn cobs B) faunal remains C) palaeofeces D) grinding stones for maize E) charred seeds Answer: C Rationale: Palaeofeces, also known as coprolites, are direct evidence for subsistence as they provide direct insights into past human or animal diets and behaviors. Indirect evidence for subsistence includes items like faunal remains, grinding stones for maize, charred seeds, and other artifacts or materials associated with food procurement, processing, or consumption. 10) The inhabitants of urban centers are most likely to depend upon which of the following subsistence systems? A) intensive agriculture B) horticulture C) pastoralism D) foraging E) none of the above Answer: A Rationale: Urban centers are typically characterized by high population densities and limited access to natural resources for food production. As a result, inhabitants of urban centers are more likely to depend on intensive agriculture, which allows for the production of large quantities of food within limited urban spaces through techniques such as irrigation, crop rotation, and mechanization. Horticulture, pastoralism, and foraging are less common in urban settings due to space constraints and the need for higher food production yields to sustain urban populations. 11) Which of the following subsistence systems will most likely leave the most extensive __________? A) archaeological evidence? B) intensive agriculture C) pastoralism D) foraging E) horticulture Answer: A Rationale: Intensive agriculture is a subsistence system that typically involves extensive land modification, construction of irrigation systems, and the use of permanent settlements. These activities can result in the creation of durable archaeological features such as terraces, field boundaries, storage facilities, and architectural remains. As a result, intensive agriculture is more likely to leave behind abundant and visible archaeological evidence compared to other subsistence systems like pastoralism, foraging, or horticulture. 12) Investigating subsistence involves identifying __________. A) diet B) technology C) organization D) all of the above E) none of the above Answer: D Rationale: Investigating subsistence practices involves identifying various aspects related to how individuals or societies obtain food for sustenance. This includes identifying their diet (types of food consumed), technology (tools and methods used for food procurement and preparation), and social organization (such as division of labor, resource distribution, and food-sharing practices). Therefore, investigating subsistence encompasses all the options provided. 13) Foragers are also known as __________. A) horticulturalists B) pastoralists C) hunters and gatherers D) primitive E) indigenous people Answer: C Rationale: Foragers, or hunter-gatherers, are societies that rely primarily on hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants for food. They are often referred to as hunters and gatherers because these activities form the basis of their subsistence strategy. 14) The subsistence system that has historically supported the largest sedentary populations is __________. A) intensive agriculture B) horticulture C) pastoralism D) foraging Answer: A Rationale: Intensive agriculture, with its ability to produce large quantities of food surpluses, has historically supported the development of large and sedentary populations. The establishment of permanent settlements, the domestication of plants and animals, and the intensification of agricultural practices have allowed for the concentration of people in urban centers and the rise of complex societies. 15) The large-scale production of domesticated plants, often using animal labor or equipment such as plows is called __________. A) intensive agriculture B) pastoralism C) horticulture D) foraging E) industrialism Answer: A Rationale: Intensive agriculture involves the large-scale cultivation of domesticated plants using techniques such as irrigation, fertilization, and mechanization. Animal labor or equipment such as plows may be used to till the soil and manage crops. This form of agriculture aims to maximize yields and productivity from limited land areas. 16) The Maya subsistence strategy consisted of __________. A) horticulture B) foraging C) intensive agriculture D) all of the above Answer: D Rationale: The Maya subsistence strategy was multifaceted and included elements of horticulture, such as the cultivation of maize, beans, and squash in gardens, as well as intensive agriculture in the form of terraced farming. Additionally, the Maya also engaged in foraging activities, hunting wild game and gathering wild plants for food. 17) A subsistence system based on the total exploitation of domestic animals in captivity is __________. A) foraging B) horticulture C) pastoralism D) intensive agriculture E) hunting and gathering Answer: C Rationale: Pastoralism is a subsistence system based on the domestication and herding of animals for food, milk, wool, and other products. It involves the total exploitation of domestic animals kept in captivity, such as cattle, sheep, goats, or camels, for the sustenance of human populations. 18) Subsistence includes __________. A) building shelters B) storing food C) eating D) food preparation E) all of the above Answer: E Rationale: Subsistence encompasses various activities related to obtaining and processing food for sustenance. This includes building shelters for protection, storing food for future use, eating for nourishment, and preparing food for consumption. Therefore, all the options provided are included in the concept of subsistence. 19) A low-intensity system of food production, using domesticated plants grown in small fields or gardens is called __________. A) horticulture B) pastoralism C) foraging D) hunting and gathering E) agriculture Answer: A Rationale: Horticulture is a form of low-intensity agriculture that involves the cultivation of domesticated plants in small fields or gardens using simple tools and techniques. It typically does not involve the extensive land modification or large-scale labor inputs associated with intensive agriculture. Short Answer Questions 1) What are the three basic elements of subsistence? Answer: The three basic elements of subsistence are food procurement, food processing, and food consumption. 2) What are the four basic subsistence systems? Answer: The four basic subsistence systems are foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, and intensive agriculture. 3) What is the difference between direct and indirect evidence for subsistence? Answer: Direct evidence for subsistence refers to physical remains or traces of actual food items, food processing tools, or food-related activities, such as bones, seeds, tools, or hearths. Indirect evidence, on the other hand, includes features or artifacts associated with subsistence activities, such as storage facilities, cooking structures, or agricultural terraces, which provide clues about past subsistence strategies but do not directly represent consumed food items. 4) What are Harris lines? What do they indicate? Answer: Harris lines, also known as growth arrest lines, are horizontal lines of increased bone density that form in long bones during periods of growth disruption, such as illness, injury, or malnutrition. They are visible on X-rays or skeletal remains and indicate episodes of physiological stress or nutritional deficiencies experienced by individuals during childhood or adolescence. 5) What kinds of questions can archaeologists approach through faunal analysis? Answer: Through faunal analysis, archaeologists can address questions related to past subsistence practices, such as the types of animals hunted or domesticated, hunting strategies, seasonal variations in diet, animal domestication processes, the impact of human activities on local ecosystems, and the social and economic significance of certain animal species within past societies. 6) What are the goals of botanical analysis? Answer: The goals of botanical analysis include identifying plant remains recovered from archaeological contexts, determining the species of plants present, understanding past plant utilization by humans, reconstructing past environments based on plant assemblages, and exploring the role of plants in subsistence strategies and cultural practices. 7) What is the difference between coprolites, gut contents, and cess? Answer: Coprolites are fossilized human or animal feces, which provide direct evidence of past diets and food consumption. Gut contents refer to the contents found within the digestive tract of preserved organisms, providing insights into the last meals consumed before death. Cess, on the other hand, is a deposit formed by the accumulation of numerous feces, typically found in archaeological contexts, and can indicate areas of human or animal habitation. 8) What is the fission-fusion pattern, and how can it be related to a seasonal round? Answer: The fission-fusion pattern is a social structure observed in some hunter-gatherer societies, where individuals form smaller groups (fissions) for various activities such as foraging or hunting and then come together (fusion) periodically for social interactions, resource sharing, or other communal activities. This pattern can be related to a seasonal round as different activities may be undertaken in response to seasonal changes in resource availability. For example, during periods of abundant food resources, larger groups may come together for communal activities or celebrations, while smaller groups may disperse for specialized tasks during times of scarcity. 9) What are the primary issues that must be considered in the recovery and identification of ecofactual evidence? Answer: The primary issues in the recovery and identification of ecofactual evidence include ensuring proper sampling techniques to collect representative samples, preventing contamination of samples during excavation and handling, using appropriate preservation methods to prevent degradation of organic materials, employing suitable analytical methods for identification and analysis of ecofacts, and considering potential biases in recovery and interpretation, such as differential preservation rates or selective recovery of certain ecofactual remains. 10) How is social organization related to subsistence? Answer: Social organization and subsistence strategies are closely intertwined, as they both reflect the ways in which human societies adapt to their environments to meet their basic needs. Social organization influences how labor is organized for food procurement, processing, and distribution, as well as access to resources and decision-making processes related to subsistence activities. In turn, subsistence strategies can shape social structures, including the division of labor, distribution of resources, and forms of social organization such as kinship systems or community structures. Essay Questions 1) What is the difference between NISP and MNI? How does each contribute to determinations of seasonality and dietary contribution? Answer: NISP stands for Number of Identified Specimens, which counts the total number of identified specimens of a particular taxon (e.g., animal species) present in an archaeological assemblage. MNI stands for Minimum Number of Individuals, which estimates the minimum number of individuals represented by the identified skeletal elements within each taxon. NISP provides information about the overall abundance of taxa in an assemblage, while MNI helps estimate the minimum number of individuals exploited. Seasonality can be inferred by analyzing the age and sex distribution of taxa represented by MNI. Dietary contribution can be determined by assessing the relative abundance of different taxa identified through NISP and MNI analysis. 2) What are the many types of questions about subsistence that can be answered through the analysis of human remains? What kinds of evidence can be left on the human skeleton? Answer: Through the analysis of human remains, archaeologists can address various questions about subsistence, including dietary preferences, hunting strategies, food processing techniques, seasonal variations in diet, cultural taboos or food prohibitions, and the impact of subsistence practices on health and nutrition. Evidence left on the human skeleton may include dental wear patterns indicating diet, bone isotopic signatures reflecting dietary composition, pathologies related to nutritional deficiencies or foodborne diseases, fractures or trauma indicative of hunting or food procurement activities, and cultural modifications such as cranial shaping or dental modifications associated with cultural practices related to food consumption. 3) What is cachment analysis, and how is it related to studies of subsistence and settlement patterns? Answer: Cachment analysis is a method used in archaeology to study the spatial relationship between settlements and their surrounding natural resources. It involves mapping the areas from which resources, such as water, food, or raw materials, were obtained by ancient societies. Cachment analysis helps researchers understand how past populations exploited their environments for subsistence and economic activities, as well as how settlement patterns were influenced by resource availability and accessibility. By examining the distribution of archaeological sites in relation to resource-rich areas, researchers can infer patterns of land use, mobility, and settlement organization. 4) What are the four important analytical elements of settlement components? Answer: The four important analytical elements of settlement components include spatial distribution, architectural features, artifact assemblages, and ecofactual remains. Spatial distribution involves the arrangement and organization of structures within a settlement site. Architectural features refer to the built environment, including the layout, construction materials, and functional purposes of buildings or structures. Artifact assemblages consist of material culture remains, such as pottery, tools, and ornaments, which provide insights into the activities and lifestyles of past inhabitants. Ecofactual remains encompass organic materials, such as plant remains, animal bones, and botanical remains, which offer information about subsistence strategies, environmental resources, and land use practices. 5) What are settlement patterns? How can they be investigated archaeologically? Answer: Settlement patterns refer to the spatial distribution and organization of human settlements within a region or landscape. They reflect the ways in which ancient societies inhabited and utilized their environments over time. Settlement patterns can be investigated archaeologically through various methods, including site surveys, excavation of settlement sites, mapping of site locations and features, analysis of artifact distributions, and examination of landscape features such as natural resources, topography, and transportation routes. By studying settlement patterns, archaeologists can gain insights into social organization, economic activities, land use strategies, and cultural interactions within past societies. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311
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