This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. A friend suggests that organizational behavior courses are useful only to people who will enter management careers. Discuss the accuracy of your friend’s statement. Answer: This chapter begins by saying that this book is about people working in organizations. Undoubtedly, many individuals will specialize in a distinct field of study and enter careers other than management. However, they too will be members in work organizations. As such, the three main reasons for studying organizational behavior (understanding, predicting, influencing) will benefit them as well. You may think of this technical knowledge/ skills as providing “what” you need to know and be able to do to be successful in your chosen field. On the other hand, OB knowledge benefits everyone by addressing the people issues needed to apply technical knowledge and skills. Knowledge of OB provides valuable knowledge of “how” to address these people issues when applying accounting, marketing, engineering and other ideas in organizational settings. Ultimately, an individual’s career success is largely determined by his or her ability to understand and apply concepts in motivation, communication, team dynamics and other OB topics. 2. A young student from the United States is interested in doing international business across China, India, Brazil, and Russia. Discuss how the knowledge of OB can be useful to the student. Answer: The study of OB is for anyone who works in an organization. If a student from USA is interested in doing international business across the emerging economies, Brazil, Russia, China and India, s/he will need to work as an individual, in groups and teams or in an organization with those from the other countries. In either case, s/he needs to understand how people think, feel, and do in and around organizations. The study of OB looks at employee behavior, decisions, perceptions and emotional responses at multiple levels, individual, teams and organizations; as well as how organizations interact with the external environment. Thus, knowledge acquired by study of OB can provide the student an understanding of these aspects of organizations and behavior and thus help in getting things done while doing international business. 3. After hearing a seminar on organizational learning, a mining company executive argues that this perspective ignores the fact that mining companies could not rely on knowledge alone to stay in business. They also need physical capital (such as digging and ore processing equipment) and land (where the minerals are located). In fact, these two may be more important than what employees carry around in their heads. Evaluate the mining executive’s comments. Answer: Some executives still view land and capital as a company’s most valuable assets. They give lip service to the idea that “People are our most value assets” but still don’t understand that land and capital have little value without people. For instance, this mining company would not have found land with ore deposits unless it had the knowledge to find those minerals. It could not operate the equipment to extract and refine the ore unless it had enough knowledge. The executive’s comment that companies cannot remain in business with only knowledge is incorrect. On the contrary, some of the wealthiest organizations (including many software companies and consulting firms) have few physical assets. Many firms have sold their headquarters and other buildings because their competitive advantage -- their source of wealth -- is found in knowledge. Mining companies are also outsourcing several aspects of physical assets. Their ships and rail cars are often owned by others. The digging equipment is leased or owned by companies that specialize in drilling. The major oil companies today are mainly in the knowledge business – prospecting for minerals or marketing what others have found and extracted. This question also suggests a subtle misunderstanding by the executive about organizational learning. Although much corporate knowledge resides in the brains of its employees (called human capital), it also resides in the organization’s systems and structures (known as structural capital). 4. It is said that the CEO and other corporate leaders are keepers of the organization’s memory. Please discuss this. Answer: The organization’s so called “memory” is knowledge gleaned through the storage and preservation of intellectual capital but it also includes knowledge held by key employees. Some of that knowledge is explicit knowledge that core members can access easily, but some of that knowledge is not easily documented, and is called “tacit” knowledge. We believe that knowledge (widely known or tacit) can be transferred through systems, processes, people—which is tantamount to sharing of best practices. However, when those learnings cease to provide any value proposition to the organization, “unlearning” needs to occur. This is essentially a process whereby people, structures, systems, processes erase the knowledge that no longer is a value add to the firm. So replacing dysfunctional policies (i. e. , time clocks for knowledge workers engaged in globally distributed work; removing dress codes and other etiquette formalities are examples of erasing old processes that no longer work in our globalized world. 5. A common refrain among executives is “People are our most important asset. ” Relate this statement to any two of the four perspectives of organizational effectiveness presented ion this chapter. Does this statement apply better to some perspectives than to others? Why or why not? Answer: This is an open discussion question because the statement can relate to all four perspectives of organizational effectiveness. Open systems -- probably the least focus on employees of the four perspectives. People represent the internal subsystems of organizations, so are vital in that respect. Some employees are also “boundary spanners” in that they link the organization to the external environment. Organizational learning -- this perspective views employees as reasonably important because they hold a large portion of intellectual capital (human capital and possibly some forms of relationship capital). People bring knowledge into the organization and are largely responsible for sharing that knowledge. Knowledge use is also ultimately a human endeavor. High performance work practices -- arguably the perspective that views people (employees) as the most critical resource. HPWPs embrace the human capital model; they consider employees as competitive advantage. HPWPs are practices to leverage or unleash the competitive advantage potential of employees. Stakeholder -- Employees are one type of stakeholder, so the statement applies to this perspective. It recognizes that employees have a vested interest in the organization and its actions. The statement "People are our most important asset" can be related to two perspectives of organizational effectiveness: the Human Resources Perspective and the Internal Processes Perspective . 1. Human Resources Perspective : This perspective emphasizes the importance of people as a key determinant of organizational success. From this viewpoint, employees are seen as valuable assets whose skills, knowledge, creativity, and commitment drive organizational performance. Executives who espouse the belief that "people are our most important asset" are likely to prioritize investments in recruiting, training, developing, and retaining talented employees. They recognize that a motivated and engaged workforce is essential for achieving strategic objectives, fostering innovation, and maintaining competitive advantage. This perspective emphasizes the role of human capital in driving organizational effectiveness and underscores the need for supportive HR practices, leadership development, and employee engagement initiatives to maximize the potential of employees. 2. Internal Processes Perspective : This perspective focuses on the efficiency and effectiveness of internal operations and processes within an organization. While it acknowledges the importance of people, it also emphasizes the need for well-designed systems, procedures, and workflows to optimize organizational performance. Executives who endorse the idea that "people are our most important asset" within the context of the internal processes perspective recognize that employees play a critical role in executing and improving these processes. They prioritize initiatives that streamline workflows, enhance collaboration, and empower employees to contribute their expertise and insights to process improvement efforts. This perspective emphasizes the integration of human capital with organizational systems and structures to achieve operational excellence and deliver value to customers or stakeholders. In terms of whether the statement applies better to some perspectives than others, it can be argued that the statement resonates most strongly with the Human Resources Perspective, as it explicitly highlights the importance of people as the primary driver of organizational success. However, the statement is also relevant to the Internal Processes Perspective, as it acknowledges the crucial role of employees in executing and improving internal operations and processes. Ultimately, both perspectives recognize the centrality of people to organizational effectiveness, albeit from slightly different angles, and emphasize the need for organizations to invest in their workforce to achieve sustainable competitive advantage. 6. Corporate social responsibility is one of the hottest issues in corporate boardrooms these days, partly because it is becoming increasingly important to employees and other stakeholders. In your opinion, why have stakeholders given CSR more attention recently? Does abiding by CSR standards potentially cause companies to have conflicting objectives with some stakeholders in some situations? Answer: These questions are open to speculation and debate. Many will suggest that CSR has become more important because of global warming, loss of habitat, and other highly visible indicators of problems. In addition, a few might argue that increasing wealth allows society to raise the bar on companies by demanding that they contribute more to society. Still others might suggest that globalization has brought developed world companies closer to people in poverty and countries in need of better health standards. Students may state that corporate scandals have raised CSR as a priority. Other reasons include the preference of stakeholders wanting to be associated with organizations that are deemed socially responsible. This preference has not gone unnoticed in corporate boardrooms. A growing number of companies are equating social responsibility with increased profitability. As a result, they are changing the way they do business. They reason that CSR can be leveraged as a competitive advantage in the market. Regarding the conflicting objectives, many students would agree. After all, the textbook states that companies can’t satisfy all stakeholders because there are limited resources and stakeholders have conflicting goals. But some corporate leaders have suggested that there is less conflict then assumed. They particularly believe that satisfying communities and the environment ultimately satisfies the needs of shareholders and employees. 7. Look through the list of chapters in this textbook and discuss how globalization could influence each organizational behavior topic. Answer: This is an open-ended question which could be used as an exercise activity with subsequent class discussion. The main objective is to help students understand how globalization has profound implications for behavior in organizations. Here are some of the topics linked to globalization. Students will certainly identify others: • Teams • Employee motivation • Perception • Values • Communication • Stress • Communicating in organizational settings • Interpersonal conflict • Leadership • Organizational change 1. Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior: Globalization would emphasize the importance of understanding cultural diversity, cross-cultural communication, and the complexities of managing teams and organizations in a global context. It would highlight the need for organizations to adapt their practices to different cultural norms and values. 2. Foundations of Individual Behavior: Globalization introduces a diverse workforce with individuals from different cultural backgrounds, leading to variations in attitudes, values, and behaviors. Organizations must recognize and accommodate these differences to foster inclusivity and maximize individual performance. 3. Personality and Values: Globalization exposes individuals to a variety of cultural perspectives, shaping their personality traits and values. Organizations need to recognize and leverage this diversity to promote creativity, innovation, and adaptability within the workforce. 4. Perception and Individual Decision Making: Cultural differences influence how individuals perceive information and make decisions. Globalization requires organizations to adopt decision-making processes that consider diverse perspectives and cultural contexts to enhance effectiveness and avoid misunderstandings. 5. Motivation Concepts: Globalization creates opportunities for employees to work across borders and cultures, necessitating motivational strategies that resonate with diverse workforce needs and aspirations. Organizations must understand cultural differences in motivation to foster engagement and commitment. 6. Motivation: From Concepts to Applications: In a globalized environment, organizations must tailor incentive systems and reward structures to accommodate cultural preferences and expectations. Recognizing and addressing these differences can enhance motivation and performance across diverse cultural contexts. 7. Emotions and Moods: Globalization introduces cultural nuances in expressing and managing emotions and moods within the workplace. Organizations need to promote emotional intelligence and cross-cultural sensitivity to effectively navigate diverse emotional landscapes and foster positive work environments. 8. Foundations of Group Behavior: Globalization necessitates the formation of diverse teams comprising members from different cultural backgrounds. Organizations must manage these multicultural teams effectively by promoting mutual understanding, communication, and collaboration to achieve common goals. 9. Understanding Work Teams: Globalization highlights the importance of effective teamwork across geographical and cultural boundaries. Organizations need to develop strategies for building cohesive global teams, leveraging diverse perspectives, and fostering cross-cultural communication and collaboration. 10. Communication: Globalization amplifies the significance of communication skills in navigating cultural differences and fostering effective communication across diverse stakeholders. Organizations must invest in cross-cultural communication training and tools to facilitate clear and respectful communication in a globalized world. 11. Leadership: Globalization challenges traditional leadership paradigms, requiring leaders to adapt their styles to effectively lead diverse teams and navigate complex cross-cultural dynamics. Leaders must cultivate cultural intelligence and embrace inclusive leadership practices to inspire and motivate employees from varied cultural backgrounds. 12. Power and Politics: Globalization introduces power dynamics shaped by cultural, political, and economic factors. Organizations must navigate these complexities by promoting transparency, fairness, and ethical behavior to mitigate power struggles and foster trust and cooperation across diverse stakeholders. 13. Conflict and Negotiation: Globalization brings about diverse perspectives and interests, leading to potential conflicts and negotiations across cultural boundaries. Organizations must develop conflict resolution and negotiation skills that account for cultural differences to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes and maintain positive relationships. 14. Organizational Culture: Globalization influences the development and evolution of organizational culture by integrating diverse cultural elements and values. Organizations must cultivate a culture of inclusivity, adaptability, and openness to embrace diversity and thrive in a globalized marketplace. 15. Organizational Change and Stress Management: Globalization accelerates the pace of change and introduces new stressors associated with cultural adaptation and uncertainty. Organizations must implement change management strategies that foster resilience, agility, and support mechanisms to navigate global transitions effectively and mitigate stress-related issues. In summary, globalization permeates every aspect of organizational behavior, requiring organizations and individuals to adapt to the complexities of an interconnected and culturally diverse world to thrive in today's globalized marketplace. 8. “Organizational theories should follow the contingency approach. ” Comment on the accuracy of this statement. Answer: OB theories must be simple, yet accurate. While simplicity calls for universal theories, accuracy usually requires the contingency approach because most human behavior is too complex to understand sufficiently through universal (i. e. , one best way) theories. Contingency theories are more refined because they recognize that environmental and personal characteristics moderate most cause-effect relationships. In other words, while it would be preferable to use universal theories for the sake of simplicity, we often must rely on contingency theories to sufficiently understand and predict organizational behavior. 9. What does “evidence-based management” mean? Describe situations where you have heard about companies practicing evidence-based management, as well as situations where companies have relied on fads that lacked sufficient evidence of their worth. Answer: There are two parts to this question. The first requires students to define what “evidence-based management” is. The second part asks students to provide an example of fads that lacked evidence, but which companies relied on in the past. Answers to the second part will vary based on individual student experiences. A sample answer to the first part of the question “evidence-based management” may include the following: Evidence–based management is the idea that management decisions and initiatives should be based on the systematic research anchor to ensure effective implantation. In other words, we should manage the workplace based on sound evidence gathered as a result of systematic research. This involves using knowledge flowing from the process of: forming research questions, systematically collecting data, and testing hypotheses against those data. Applying evidence-based management would prevent corporate leaders from embracing fads and relying on their pet beliefs before finding out if they actually work. Evidence-based management refers to the practice of making business decisions and implementing management strategies based on empirical evidence, data, and research rather than solely relying on intuition or popular trends. It involves systematically gathering and analyzing relevant information to inform decision-making processes and improve organizational effectiveness. In companies that practice evidence-based management, decisions are typically guided by rigorous analysis of data, research findings, and past experiences. This approach helps in mitigating risks, enhancing efficiency, and achieving better outcomes. Situations where evidence-based management is often observed include: 1. Performance Evaluation: Companies may use data-driven metrics to assess employee performance objectively, rather than relying solely on subjective evaluations or biases. 2. Strategic Planning: Evidence-based management informs the development of strategic plans by analyzing market trends, consumer behavior, and competitor data to identify opportunities and threats accurately. 3. Product Development: Companies may conduct extensive market research and testing to gather data on consumer preferences and behaviors, ensuring that new products meet customer needs effectively. 4. Process Improvement: Evidence-based management involves analyzing operational data and performance metrics to identify areas for improvement and implement evidence-based solutions to enhance efficiency and productivity. 5. Risk Management: Evidence-based approaches to risk management involve analyzing historical data and trends to anticipate potential risks and develop strategies to mitigate them effectively. Conversely, situations where companies rely on fads or trends lacking sufficient evidence of their worth can lead to poor decision-making and ineffective outcomes. Examples include: 1. Management Fads: Companies may adopt management practices or techniques that are popularized in the industry without evaluating their effectiveness or suitability for their specific context. 2. Hype-driven Decision Making: Companies may invest in new technologies or initiatives solely based on hype or market trends without conducting thorough analysis or assessing their long-term viability. 3. Follower Mentality: Some companies may blindly follow the practices of industry leaders or competitors without considering whether those practices are backed by evidence or applicable to their own organizational needs. 4. Overemphasis on Intuition: In some cases, decision-makers may rely heavily on intuition or gut feelings rather than data and evidence when making critical business decisions, leading to suboptimal outcomes. Overall, evidence-based management encourages a more systematic and data-driven approach to decision-making, helping companies achieve better results and sustain long-term success. CASE STUDY: IMPROVING HEALTH BY GETTING LEAN Case Synopsis This case study describes the application of lean management practices in hospitals. It outlines how hospitals have used this approach and why it has been introduced. Suggested Answers to Discussion Questions 1. What perspective(s) of organizational effectiveness best describe the application of lean management practices? Describe how specific elements of that perspective relate to the interventions described in this case study. Answer: Lean management is best described by the open systems perspective of organizational effectiveness. In particular, this activity relates to organizational efficiency -- reducing waste, such that there are fewer inputs relative to outputs. Organizational efficiency specifically pertains to the internal transformational process aspect of open systems thinking. 2. Does lean management ignore some perspectives of organizational effectiveness? If so, what are the unintended consequences of these practices that might undermine rather than improve the organization’s effectiveness? Answer: This is an open question for debate, but some information from the other perspectives suggest that the answer is “yes”. High performance work practices -- Lean management might conflict with HPWPs. In particular, HPWPs call for autonomous teams, whereas lean management tends to increase standardization and thereby reduce autonomy. Stakeholder perspective -- This perspective might also conflict with lean management practices, because some stakeholders might be adversely affected by lean management practices. In particular, there has been criticism that lean management undermines employee well-being. Lean management may also have adverse effects on suppliers (e. g. stress, costs of just-in-time inventory systems). Organizational learning perspective -- This perspective is fairly consistent with lean management because Kaizen Blitzes and other lean management practices acquire, share, and use knowledge to improve efficiencies. Lean management inherently calls for some experimentation to discover more efficient work practices. Yes, lean management can overlook certain aspects of organizational effectiveness, such as long-term strategic planning and innovation. Focusing solely on efficiency and cost reduction may lead to neglecting investments in research and development or employee skill development, hindering future growth. Additionally, an overemphasis on short-term goals in pursuit of lean efficiency may sacrifice quality or customer satisfaction, ultimately harming the organization's reputation and market competitiveness. 3. In what situations, if any, would it be difficult or risky to apply lean management practices? What conditions make these practices challenging in these situations? Answer: Students should be able to think of work activities where health and safety might be compromised by reducing waste. For example, handling dangerous materials (toxins, radioactive, etc.) may become risker if lean management reduces some of the “buffer” of safety in practices when using this material. Indirectly, lean management may increase risk by taxing employee concentration/mindfulness. For instance, employees might have more accidents when monitoring several machines rather than monitoring just one or two machines. It may be more difficult to identify situations where lean management would be difficult to implement. There are several cases of work activity that people claimed could not be improved, yet persistent attention to lean management philosophy actually did improve efficiency by reducing waste. One possible situation would be where the waste itself is valued. For example, reducing wasteful activity from a beachside vacation may result is less of a vacation feeling! Applying lean management practices might be challenging in highly regulated industries like healthcare or aerospace, where strict protocols and regulations can limit flexibility. Additionally, organizations with deeply ingrained hierarchical structures may struggle to implement lean principles effectively due to resistance to change. Complex supply chains or highly customized products can also pose difficulties as lean techniques may not easily accommodate such variability. Finally, cultural resistance or lack of leadership commitment can impede successful adoption of lean practices. Implementing lean management practices might face challenges in industries with unpredictable demand fluctuations, such as fashion or seasonal goods, where traditional forecasting methods struggle. Additionally, organizations undergoing rapid growth or frequent restructuring may find it difficult to establish stable processes conducive to lean principles. Cultural barriers, such as resistance to change or a lack of employee empowerment, can also hinder the successful adoption of lean practices. WEB EXERCISE: DIAGNOSING ORGANIZATIONAL STAKEHOLDERS Purpose This exercise is designed to help students understand how stakeholders influence organizations as part of the open systems anchor. Materials Students need to select a company and, prior to class, retrieve and analyze publicly available information over the past year or two about that company. This may include annual reports, which are usually found on the web sites of publicly-traded companies. Where possible, students should also scan full-text newspaper and magazine databases for articles published over the previous year about the company. Instructions The instructor may have students work alone or in groups for this activity. Students will select a company and will investigate the relevance and influence of various stakeholder groups on the organization. Stakeholders will be identified from annual reports, newspaper articles, web site statements, and other available sources. Stakeholders should be ranked ordered in terms of their perceived importance to the organization. Students should be prepared to present or discuss their organization’s rank ordering of stakeholders, including evidence for this rank ordering. Discussion Questions 1. What are the main reasons certain stakeholders are more important than others for this organization? Answer: In any organization, certain stakeholders hold more significance due to their direct impact on the organization's objectives, operations, and success. The main reasons why certain stakeholders are prioritized over others can vary depending on the organization's goals, industry, and specific circumstances. Here are some potential reasons: Financial Contribution: Stakeholders who provide substantial financial resources, such as investors, shareholders, or major creditors, are often considered crucial because their investments directly influence the organization's financial health and sustainability. Key Customers or Clients: Stakeholders who represent significant customer segments or clients that drive revenue and profitability are prioritized due to their role in shaping product/service demand and ensuring ongoing business growth. Strategic Partnerships: Stakeholders involved in strategic partnerships, alliances, or joint ventures bring unique expertise, resources, or market access that are critical for achieving the organization's strategic objectives and competitive advantage. Regulatory Authorities: Regulatory agencies or government bodies can significantly impact the organization's operations through legislation, compliance requirements, permits, or approvals, making them important stakeholders whose interests must be carefully managed. Employees and Workforce: The workforce is a vital stakeholder group whose skills, productivity, and engagement directly affect the organization's performance and ability to innovate, adapt, and achieve its objectives. Community and Society: Organizations often prioritize stakeholders from the communities where they operate due to social responsibility, public relations, or ethical considerations. Maintaining positive relationships with the community can enhance reputation and long-term viability. Suppliers and Business Partners: Suppliers and business partners play a critical role in the organization's supply chain and value network. Dependable and collaborative relationships with these stakeholders are essential for ensuring operational efficiency, quality, and continuity. Media and Public Opinion: Stakeholders in the media and public domain can influence the organization's reputation, brand perception, and public trust. Managing relationships with media outlets and addressing public concerns effectively is crucial for safeguarding the organization's image and credibility. Industry Influencers and Thought Leaders: Individuals or organizations with significant influence within the industry, such as industry associations, experts, or thought leaders, can shape market trends, industry standards, and competitive dynamics. Engaging with these stakeholders can provide valuable insights and opportunities for collaboration or advocacy. Government and Political Entities: Government officials, policymakers, and political entities may impact the organization through legislation, taxation, trade policies, or economic initiatives. Maintaining constructive relationships with government stakeholders is essential for navigating regulatory environments and advocating for the organization's interests. Overall, the prioritization of stakeholders depends on their respective roles, influence, and impact on the organization's strategic objectives, operations, and long-term sustainability. Organizations must identify, engage with, and manage stakeholders proactively to build mutually beneficial relationships and achieve stakeholder alignment. 2. On the basis of your knowledge of the organization’s environmental situation, is this rank order of stake- holders in the organization’s best interest, or should other specific stakeholders be given higher priority? Answer: Determining the optimal rank order of stakeholders for an organization requires a comprehensive analysis of its environmental situation, including the industry landscape, competitive dynamics, regulatory environment, societal trends, and internal capabilities. While the prioritization of stakeholders outlined in the discussion question may align with traditional business priorities, it's essential to evaluate whether other specific stakeholders should be given higher priority based on the organization's unique context and strategic objectives. Here are some considerations to determine if adjustments to the stakeholder rank order are warranted: Alignment with Strategic Goals: Evaluate whether the current rank order of stakeholders aligns with the organization's strategic goals and priorities. Certain stakeholders, such as strategic partners or key customers, may have a more significant impact on achieving strategic objectives than others and therefore deserve higher priority. Risk Management: Assess the potential risks and vulnerabilities associated with each stakeholder group. Certain stakeholders, such as regulatory authorities or community groups, may pose significant risks to the organization if their needs or concerns are not adequately addressed. Prioritizing these stakeholders can mitigate risks and safeguard the organization's reputation and operations. Opportunities for Collaboration and Innovation: Consider the potential for collaboration and innovation that different stakeholder groups offer. Stakeholders with unique expertise, resources, or market insights may present opportunities for co-creation, value co-production, or strategic alliances that can drive competitive advantage and long-term growth. Ethical and Social Responsibility: Reflect on the organization's commitment to ethical conduct and social responsibility. Prioritizing stakeholders based on ethical considerations, such as environmental sustainability, social equity, or employee welfare, can enhance the organization's reputation, brand integrity, and stakeholder trust. Long-Term Sustainability: Assess the implications of stakeholder prioritization on the organization's long-term sustainability and resilience. Prioritizing stakeholders with a vested interest in the organization's long-term success, such as employees, customers, and communities, can contribute to sustained value creation and organizational resilience amid changing market conditions. Adaptability and Flexibility: Recognize the dynamic nature of stakeholder relationships and the need for adaptability and flexibility in stakeholder prioritization. Regularly reassessing stakeholder priorities based on evolving environmental factors, stakeholder expectations, and strategic imperatives can ensure alignment with the organization's evolving needs and priorities. In conclusion, while the rank order of stakeholders provided may serve as a starting point for stakeholder analysis, it's essential to critically evaluate whether adjustments are necessary to better align with the organization's strategic goals, risk profile, ethical standards, and long-term sustainability objectives. By taking a holistic and context-specific approach to stakeholder prioritization, organizations can enhance stakeholder engagement, mitigate risks, and drive sustainable value creation in an increasingly complex and dynamic business environment. 3. What societal groups, if any, are not mentioned as stakeholders by the organization? Does this lack of reference to these unmentioned groups make sense? Answer: In evaluating the stakeholders mentioned by an organization, it's essential to consider societal groups that may not have been explicitly identified. While every organization's stakeholder landscape may vary, there are several societal groups commonly overlooked in stakeholder analyses. Assessing whether the lack of reference to these unmentioned groups makes sense requires a nuanced understanding of the organization's operations, impact, and ethical responsibilities. Here are some societal groups that may not be mentioned as stakeholders and considerations for their inclusion: Local Communities: Often overlooked, local communities surrounding the organization's operations can be significantly impacted by its activities, such as environmental pollution, traffic congestion, or changes in property values. Including local communities as stakeholders acknowledges their interests in the organization's operations and fosters community engagement and support. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs play a vital role in advocating for social and environmental causes and may hold the organization accountable for its impact on issues such as human rights, environmental sustainability, or corporate governance. Engaging with NGOs as stakeholders can promote transparency, dialogue, and collaboration on shared social and environmental goals. Future Generations: Organizations have a responsibility to consider the long-term impact of their decisions and actions on future generations, including environmental sustainability, resource depletion, and climate change. While future generations may not have a direct voice in present-day stakeholder discussions, their interests should be represented to ensure intergenerational equity and sustainability. Marginalized or Vulnerable Groups: Socioeconomically disadvantaged or marginalized groups, such as low-income communities, minorities, or persons with disabilities, may be disproportionately affected by the organization's practices or policies. Including these groups as stakeholders acknowledges their unique needs, challenges, and rights, and ensures that their voices are heard in decision-making processes. Global Society: In an increasingly interconnected world, organizations have a global footprint and impact that extends beyond national borders. Considering the interests of global society, including issues such as human rights, fair labor practices, and global economic inequality, reflects the organization's commitment to responsible global citizenship and corporate social responsibility. The lack of reference to these unmentioned societal groups may or may not make sense depending on various factors such as the organization's industry, geographic scope, business model, and cultural context. Organizations should critically evaluate the relevance and significance of these societal groups as stakeholders based on their potential impact, legitimacy, urgency, and proximity to the organization's operations. In conclusion, while organizations may not explicitly mention all societal groups as stakeholders, it's essential to recognize the broader societal context in which they operate and consider the interests and concerns of diverse stakeholders beyond those directly engaged with the organization. By adopting a more inclusive and holistic approach to stakeholder identification and engagement, organizations can enhance their social license to operate, mitigate risks, and contribute to sustainable development and societal well-being. Comments for Instructors In this era of web savvy students, this activity fits nicely into student preferences. It allows students to collect information in ways that they have become familiar, yet requires them to engage in active learning by searching for information and critical thinking by evaluating the information they find. Most instructors will use this activity as a take-home exercise or assignment. However, for those with in-class computer labs (or wireless internet and student laptops), this can be a fun challenge in a one-hour exercise. As long as students understand the concept of stakeholders and perhaps the instructor has confirmed the availability of annual reports and other valuable information for several companies, the in-class version of this activity can prove to be an exciting challenge for students. There are several places and ways for students to collect stakeholder information for a specific company. Most of the information can be found on the company’s web site, but Google and other search engines might assist by identifying relevant articles in newspapers and magazines. In schools where students have access to several full-text databases, the instructor may need to specify whether students should use these sources. Along with searching and identifying relevant information about stakeholders, this assignment requires students to rank order the importance of these stakeholders. Instructors should expect students to justify their rank ordering, thereby providing a higher-order level of learning in the process. SELF-ASSESSMENT: IT ALL MAKES SENSE? Purpose This exercise is designed to help students comprehend how organizational behavior knowledge can help them understand life in organizations. Instructions (Note: This activity may be done as a self-assessment or as a team activity.) Students are asked to read each of the statements and circle whether the statement is true or false, in their opinion. The class will consider the answers to each question and discuss the implications for studying organizational behavior. After reviewing these statements, the instructor will provide information about the most appropriate answer. Comments for Instructors This exercise addresses the point that common sense isn’t always correct. Of course, some students will be counterintuitive in anticipation that these are “trick” questions. We have included some true statements to complicate the exercise. By reviewing each statement, you can help students to see that organizational behavior systematically studies these issues and helps us to correct or clarify popular misperceptions. Here are the eleven statements with their correct answers and references to their discussion in the textbook. 1. A happy worker is a productive worker. Answer: True. To be more accurate, the answer is “true, to some extent”. This is one of those “truths” that students will probably answer correctly and many OB instructors will answer incorrectly because they rely on old organizational behavior research. The latest research indicates that job satisfaction has a moderately strong association with job performance (a correlation of around . 30). For details, see Chapter 4 on workplace emotions and attitudes. 2. A decision maker’s effectiveness increases with the number of choices or alternatives available to him or her. Answer: False. At some point when the number of alternatives increases, the decision maker becomes less efficient and effective in choosing among those alternatives (see Chapter 7). When the number of alternatives is very large, decision makers reduce their motivation to decide such that they avoid thinking about the decision at all! The main reason is that decision makers are able and motivated to process a finite amount of information. As the number of alternatives increases, decision makers are faced with dramatically more information to consider, because each choice has several bits of information about factors to consider. One could argue that having very few choices is also less effective, but this would be true only if the environment offers many choices and the alternatives available to the decision maker are not among the best ones. 3. Organizations are more effective when they minimize conflict among employees. Answer: False. Actually, the correct answer is in a state of flux. The dominant OB research indicates that constructive (task-oriented) conflict is often beneficial (such as in decision making) whereas relationship conflict has negative consequences. But research now concludes that even constructive conflict can be a problem because it generates relationship conflict (i. e. difficult to separate them). We discuss this topic in Chapter 11. 4. Employees have more power with many close friends than with many acquaintances. Answer: False. Social network research reports that people with many “weak ties” (many acquaintances) tend to have more career success and related outcomes in their lives than those with mainly strong ties (close friends). The main reason is that weak ties provide less redundant social capital. Acquaintances gives us unique information (expert power), unique connections and opportunities (referent power), wider visibility, and so forth. Close friends tend to give us information faster and give us more opportunities, but these resources tend to be similar across our close friends. See Chapter 10 for details. 5. Companies are most successful when they have strong corporate cultures. Answer: False. As with so many organizational behavior concepts, the more precise answer is “it depends. ” Chapter 14 explains that there is a weak relationship between corporate culture strength and organizational performance. Three reasons are offered. First, a strong culture can be a problem when the values are inconsistent with the organization’s environment. Second, a very strong culture can blind employees from seeing other perspectives. Third, a very strong culture suppresses dissenting values that may be important in the future as the environment changes. 6. Employees perform better without stress. Answer: False. As we learn in Chapter 4, some level of stress is essential for life. We need a certain level of stress to energize us. The problem is that we sometimes (or often) experience stress beyond this beneficial level. 7. The best way to change people and organizations is by pinpointing the source of their current problems. Answer: False. This statement refers to the dominant model of problem solving and organizational change, namely, to identify the problem before looking for solutions. In contrast, emerging knowledge suggests that a positive rather than problem-focused approach may be more effective in many or most circumstances. We discuss this first in Chapter 5 under the topic of strengths-based coaching and feedback. Research indicates that focussing on an employee’s weaknesses (problems) creates defensiveness to such an extend that its undermines any potential benefits of such a Discussion. In Chapter 15, we introduce the approach to organizational change called appreciative inquiry. According to this model, dwelling on problems can bog down the change process and degenerate into political quagmires. Instead, change agents need to focus the group on its potential and positive elements. 8. Female leaders involve employees in decisions to a greater degree than do male leaders. Answer: True. There is lot of debate about whether men and women lead differently. As we learn at the end of Chapter 12, men and women are mostly similar in their leadership styles. But there is one exception: female leaders involve employees in decisions to a greater degree than do male leaders. Of course, some female leaders are not participative, and some male leaders are very participative. But generally, female leaders are more participative. 9. The best decisions are made without emotion. Answer: False. The truth is, all decisions involve emotion and require emotion. Without emotion, people are unable to recognize problems and opportunities, and are unable to make choices. As explained in Chapter 7 (and noted in Chapters 3, 4, and 5), people form emotionally anchored preferences before they consciously think about the issue. Indeed, our “awareness” of a problem or opportunity is an emotional reaction to sensory information. Although our rational thought process can evaluate information, those conclusions must be processed by our emotional center(s) in order to make a choice. An important point here is that emotions are an inherent and essential part of human behavior. This is different from “getting emotional”, which occurs when emotions are so strong that they influence our actions without conscious control. 10. If employees feel they are paid unfairly, then nothing other than changing their pay will reduce their feelings of injustice. Answer: False. When it comes to money, people tend to play interesting mind games to avoid feeling over reward inequity. Students will read in Chapter 5 that underpaid (under rewarded) employees might reduce the injustice by working less, taking non-monetary resources, changing the comparison other, or leaving the field (such as quitting). This question also needs to consider that “injustice” is affected just as much by procedures as by distribution. Thus, injustice might be reduced by allowing appeals, ensuring the decision maker considers all information, ensuring that the under rewarded employees is treated with respect, and ensuring that he/she is given an opportunity to stated his/her views (voice). Chapter 2 Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. A federal government department has high levels of absenteeism among the office staff. The head of office administration argues that employees are misusing the company’s sick leave benefits. However, some of the mostly female staff members have explained that family responsibilities interfere with work. Using the MARS model, as well as your knowledge of absenteeism behavior, discuss some of the possible reasons for absenteeism here and how it might be reduced. Answer: The MARS model of individual behavior states that behavior is a function of motivation, ability, role perceptions, and situational factors. With respect to absenteeism, employees may be away from assigned work because they don’t want to attend work that day (motivation), they don’t realize that this is their work day (role perceptions), and/or environmental conditions prevent them from attending work (situational factors). In this incident, situational factors may explain mostly why female employees are absent. Specifically, family responsibilities interfere with their work attendance. However, some absenteeism among men and women may be due to sick leave policies. It is known that generous sick leave benefits reduce attendance motivation. 2. It has been said that all employees are motivated. Do you agree with this statement? Answer: All elements of the MARS model help us understand the critical influences on individual’s voluntary behavior and performance. If any of those components is missing, then their subsequently behavior and performance would likely not be high. But let’s take the case of motivation for example. Motivation can take many forms (direction), intensity and varying levels of persistence. The employee who comes in late, spends half his day gossiping at the coffee machine, and goes home with some property of the organization –is that person motivated? Yes, of course s/ he is! It is just not motivation congruent with the organizations goals. So goal congruence is also important when we discuss motivation. Sometimes some of our most motivated employees do nothing! The organization’s goal is to ensure that the direction that motivation takes is congruent with the direction in which the organization is going! 3. Studies report that heredity has a strong influence on an individual’s personality. What are the implications of this influence in organizational settings? Answer: There are a number of issues that student might -- and should -- raise in response to this question. First, the strong effect of heredity suggests that applicant selection is an important way to improve job performance and employee well-being (by ensuring their work matches their personality). Although we might try to change an employees style of behavior, their inherent style is strongly determined already. This is why many companies refer to “hire for attitude, train for skill” A second implication is that training for some types of behavior (fun-oriented, detailed, talkative, etc.) might be less successful than employer assume. It would be better to transfer people into jobs that more closely match their personality. 4. All candidates applying for a management trainee position are given a personality test that measures the five dimensions in the five-factor model. Which personality traits would you consider most important for this type of job? Explain your answer. Answer: The textbook provides some information to help students answer this question. First, conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism) are important because they best predict individual performance in almost every job group. Both are motivational components of personality because they energize a willingness to fulfill work obligations within established rules (conscientiousness) and to allocate resources to accomplish those tasks (emotional stability). Various studies have reported that conscientious employees set higher personal goals for themselves, are more motivated, and have higher performance expectations than do employees with low levels of conscientiousness. They also tend to have higher levels of organizational citizenship and work better in organizations that give employees more freedom than in traditional “command and control” workplaces. The other important personality dimension is extroversion, because it is associated with performance in sales and management jobs, where employees must interact with and influence people. One or more other personality dimensions might also be relevant to management trainees, but these three stand out. For a management trainee position, several personality traits are crucial for success in the role. However, certain traits within the five-factor model (also known as the Big Five personality traits) are particularly important due to their relevance to managerial responsibilities and effectiveness in leadership roles. Here are the key traits and explanations for their importance: 1. Conscientiousness: This trait is perhaps the most critical for management trainees. Conscientious individuals are organized, detail-oriented, responsible, and reliable. In a managerial role, they are more likely to plan, set goals, follow through on tasks, and ensure that projects are completed on time and with high quality. Conscientiousness is essential for managing workflows, coordinating teams, and meeting deadlines effectively. 2. Openness to Experience: Management trainees who are open to experience tend to be curious, creative, adaptable, and willing to explore new ideas and approaches. This trait is valuable for fostering innovation, problem-solving, and adapting to changes in the business environment. It enables individuals to embrace new challenges, learn from diverse perspectives, and drive continuous improvement within the organization. 3. Extraversion: While not essential for all management roles, extraversion can be beneficial, especially in positions that involve networking, team collaboration, and leading group discussions. Extraverted individuals are typically sociable, assertive, energetic, and outgoing, making them effective communicators and relationship builders. They excel in roles that require interaction with clients, stakeholders, and team members, facilitating teamwork and driving engagement. 4. Agreeableness: Agreeableness reflects traits such as empathy, cooperation, trustworthiness, and compassion. While not as critical as conscientiousness or openness to experience for management roles, agreeableness contributes to effective interpersonal relationships, conflict resolution, and team cohesion. Managers who score high in agreeableness are more likely to foster a positive work culture, build rapport with team members, and resolve conflicts constructively. 5. Emotional Stability (or Neuroticism): Emotional stability is characterized by resilience, calmness, and emotional balance. Managers with high emotional stability are less prone to stress, anxiety, and mood swings, enabling them to handle pressure, make rational decisions, and maintain composure in challenging situations. This trait is crucial for maintaining morale, managing crises, and providing steady leadership during times of uncertainty. In summary, while all five personality traits in the five-factor model contribute to managerial effectiveness to some extent, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability are particularly important for management trainee positions due to their relevance to leadership, organizational skills, adaptability, and resilience. However, the ideal combination of personality traits may vary depending on the specific requirements and culture of the organization. 5. Compare and contrast personality with personal values, and identify values categories in Schwartz’s values circumplex that likely relate to one or more personality dimensions in the five-factor personality model. Answer: This question has two parts. The first part (compare/contrast) involves defining both concepts and then pointing out similarities and differences. Personality is the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics. Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of situations. Both concepts are characteristics of individuals, are relatively abstract, and have many dimensions (specific personality traits and specific individual values). The main difference between these two concepts is that personality is descriptive whereas values are evaluative. Personality refers (descriptively) to behavioral tendencies. Values refer to what people “ought” to do; they indicate that some things have more valence (good/bad) than other things. A second distinction is that specific values conflict with other specific values, whereas personality traits have much less conflict with each other. A third distinction is that personality is more strongly influenced by heredity than are personal values. Heredity has some influence on our values, but socialization and life experience play a stronger role compared to the effect on personality. The second part of this question asks student to identify specific Schwartz’s values categories with personality dimensions. This is possible because personality and values are associated with each other. Several studies have reported correlations between Schwartz’s list of values and the Big Five personality dimensions. None of this detail is provided in the textbook, but students can try to associate personality traits with personal values through their definitions. The table below summarizes a meta-analysis of studies relating the Big Five personality dimensions with personal values: Exhibit: Meta-Analytic Results for Big Five Personality Dimensions and Personal Values (Schwartz Model) Conscientiousness Emotional Stability Extraversion Agreeableness Openness to Experience Power 0. 19 –. 34 Achievement 0. 26 0. 23 Hedonism Stimulation 0. 11 0. 26 0. 29 Self-direction 0. 49 Universalism 0. 23 0. 46 Benevolence 0. 48 Conformity 0. 29 0. 05 –. 35 Tradition 0. 35 –. 27 Security 0. 22 –. 02 0. 07 Source: Parks, L. , & Guay, R. P. (2009). Personality, values, and motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(7), 675-684. For earlier writing on the relationships among personality traits and personal values, see: Olver, J. M. , & Mooradian, T. A. (2003). Personality traits and personal values: a conceptual and empirical integration. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(1), 109-125; Aluja, A. , & García, L. F. (2004). Relationships between Big Five personality factors and values. Social Behavior & Personality, 32(7), 619-626. This table indicates the following: Openness to experience -- generally the strongest association with specific values, particularly higher self direction, universalism, and stimulation, and lower conformity and tradition. Agreeableness -- seems to have the 2nd highest link to specific values. these values include higher benevolence, tradition, and universalism, as well as lower power and security. Conscientiousness -- This personality dimension has some connection to personal values, notably conformity, achievement, and security. Extraversion -- This Big Five personality dimension is correlated significantly (all positively) with stimulation, achievement, and power. Emotional Stability (low neuroticism) -- This personality dimension is reported to have the weakest association with any of Schwartz’s values. The three values that minimally relate are stimulation, conformity, and (barely) security. 6. This chapter discussed values congruence mostly in the context of an employee’s personal values versus the organization’s values. But values congruence also relates to the juxtaposition of other pairs of value systems. Explain how values congruence is relevant with respect to organizational versus professional values (i. e. , values of a professional occupation, such as physician, accountant, pharmacist). Answer: The textbook explains that values congruence comes in different forms, such as individual with organization and organization with society. This question asks about values congruence between the organization and a professional group (accountants, lawyers, engineers, teachers etc.). For example, an engineer working for an auto manufacturer may be asked to design a gas tank that minimizes cost beyond established minimum engineering standards. In this case values incongruence may occur because the engineer’s profession dictates that public safety be paramount in all design considerations. Values congruence is relevant not only in the context of aligning an employee's personal values with those of the organization but also in juxtaposing organizational values with professional values inherent in specific occupations. When considering organizational versus professional values, such as those in professions like medicine, accounting, or pharmacy, it's essential to ensure harmony between the values upheld by the organization and the values intrinsic to the profession itself. Here's how values congruence is relevant in this context: 1. Ethical Standards: Many professional occupations have established codes of ethics or professional standards that outline expected behaviors and ethical principles. Organizations must align their values with these standards to ensure ethical conduct and uphold the integrity of the profession. Values congruence between organizational values and professional ethics helps prevent conflicts of interest, ethical dilemmas, and misconduct. 2. Quality of Service: Professional occupations often prioritize delivering high-quality services or products to clients, patients, or stakeholders. Organizations must share this commitment to excellence to maintain trust and credibility within the profession. Values congruence in this regard ensures that organizational goals and practices support the professional standards of delivering exceptional service or products. 3. Autonomy and Independence: Some professions, such as medicine or law, emphasize the importance of professional autonomy and independence in decision-making. Organizations should respect and uphold these values to empower professionals to make informed judgments and act in the best interests of their clients or patients. Values congruence in this aspect fosters a supportive organizational culture that respects professional expertise and judgment. 4. Continuous Learning and Development: Many professional occupations require ongoing education, training, and professional development to stay abreast of advancements in the field. Organizations that value learning and growth support professionals in acquiring new skills, knowledge, and competencies relevant to their profession. Values congruence between organizational values that promote learning and the professional value of continuous improvement fosters a culture of innovation and expertise. 5. Social Responsibility: Professions such as healthcare, accounting, and law often have a strong emphasis on social responsibility and serving the community's welfare. Organizations should align their values with these professional values by promoting initiatives that contribute to social good, ethical practice, and sustainable development. Values congruence in this aspect reinforces the organization's commitment to corporate social responsibility and ethical stewardship. In summary, values congruence between organizational values and professional values is essential for maintaining ethical standards, ensuring quality service delivery, respecting professional autonomy, fostering continuous learning, and upholding social responsibility within professional occupations. Organizations that recognize and align with the values inherent in specific professions are better positioned to attract, retain, and empower professionals while contributing to the overall advancement and integrity of the profession. 7. “All decisions are ethical decisions. ” Comment on this statement, particularly by referring to the concepts of moral intensity and moral sensitivity. Answer: This sweeping statement is false. For a decision to have an ethical dimension it has to have some moral intensity associated with it. Moral intensity is a characteristic of the situation. It refers to the degree to which an issue demands the application of ethical principles. “Who should be laid off?” would have high moral intensity. On the other hand, a decision to take an umbrella to work because it might rain has no moral intensity. This is because morally intense issues involve others in the society who may think the decision is good or evil, or the issue quickly affects people. Moral sensitivity refers to a characteristic of the decision maker, not the situation. Faced with the same issue, two decision makers may be more or less moral sensitive. This means that people differ in their ability to recognize the presence and determine the relative importance of an ethical issue. Moral intensity and moral sensitivity are different, but they go hand-in-hand. An issue with high moral intensity might be decided without the required ethical consideration because the decision maker doesn’t recognize its ethical importance (i. e. , the person has low moral sensitivity). Thus, both concepts are important factors in the extent to which we apply ethical principles to issues. 8. The organization for which you have been working for five years is suffering from a global recession. In response, it changes your compensation structure. Discuss the role of moral intensity, moral sensitivity, and situational influences in this context. Answer: Moral intensity is the degree to which an issue demands application of ethical principles. In this situation, the organization is facing financial instability and needs your support, nevertheless, this is just one of the factors which contributes to the moral intensity of the issue. Moral sensitivity is a personal characteristic that enables people to recognize the presence of an ethical issue and determine its relative importance. Even after having worked for five years in the organization, it depends on you as a person, and also on the information that you have about the situation, higher moral sensitivity leads to higher empathy. Situational factors could be a pressure from top management, peer pressure, social pressure and family responsibilities, and your comfort zone within the organization. Based on these situational factors, you may choose to stay with the organization, accept the new compensation or look for work elsewhere. 9. People in a particular South American country have high power distance and high collectivism. What does this mean, and what are the implications of this information when you (a senior executive) visit employees working for your company in that country? Answer: In high power distance cultures, people tend to accept the power differential which exists in their society. This extends to the workplace as well. I would expect the employees to address me by my surname. I would not interpret this as being aloof or unfriendly. The social interchange between the employees and I would be formal. High collectivism would encourage me to celebrate the achievements of everyone as a group. Any discussion would emphasize and focus on improving or maintaining group harmony and teamwork. CASE STUDY: PUSHING PAPERS CAN BE FUN Case Synopsis The chief of police in a large city government describes the problem of getting his officers to do paperwork. The officers enjoy working with the public and apprehending criminals, not sitting at a desk. The paperwork is boring, but can make the difference in convictions. The Chief has no financial rewards (budget crunch) and promotions are determined by seniority, not the quality of paperwork. Officers were trained to perform street work, not fill out forms. Arrests, not paperwork, get noticed. Conviction success is due to too many factors to be a performance criterion. Suggested Answers to Case Questions 1. What performance problems is the captain trying to correct? Answer: The main problem in this case is poor police reporting of incidents, as well as the resulting lost cases in court. The chief of police is trying to address several performance problems within the police department: 1. Low Compliance with Paperwork: Officers are reluctant to complete paperwork, preferring to focus on their primary duties of interacting with the public and apprehending criminals. This reluctance results in incomplete or inaccurate documentation of arrests and incidents, which can hinder the legal process and affect the department's overall efficiency and effectiveness. 2. Quality of Paperwork: Even when officers do complete paperwork, the quality may be subpar due to the perception that it is boring and tedious. Incomplete or poorly filled-out forms may lead to errors, inconsistencies, and difficulties in prosecuting cases, ultimately impacting the department's ability to achieve successful convictions. 3. Lack of Incentives: The absence of financial rewards and promotions based on the quality of paperwork contributes to officers' disinterest in performing administrative tasks. The current promotion system based solely on seniority fails to motivate officers to excel in paperwork-related duties, as they perceive little or no benefit from doing so. 4. Training Gap: Officers may lack adequate training or guidance on how to effectively complete paperwork. Their training primarily focuses on street work and law enforcement activities rather than administrative tasks, leading to a disparity in skill level and confidence when it comes to paperwork. 5. Recognition Disparity: The department's emphasis on arrests rather than paperwork results in a lack of recognition for officers who diligently complete administrative tasks. This imbalance in acknowledgment reinforces the perception that paperwork is not valued or essential, further undermining officers' motivation to prioritize these responsibilities. Overall, the performance problems identified by the chief of police revolve around officers' reluctance to engage with paperwork, which impacts the department's operational efficiency, legal compliance, and overall effectiveness in fulfilling its mandate of maintaining public safety and administering justice. 2. Use the MARS model of individual behavior and performance to diagnose the possible causes of the unacceptable behavior. Answer: Motivation. There are several facts that suggest that the poor paperwork is due to lack of motivation. First, officers come into this profession because they want to work with the public and catch criminals, not sit in an office filling out reports. Thus, the paperwork task does not full-fill their needs for personal growth. Second, social rewards (praise, recognition) result from the outside activities, not paperwork. Third, financial rewards do not encourage people to do paperwork. Promotions are based on seniority, so they motivate officers to stay with the force, not to complete paperwork. Competitions did not work, either. Ability. It isn’t certain that officers are able to complete the paperwork task well enough. They don’t seem to receive any training in this area. However, the captain’s discussion of the report competition suggests that at least some officers are able to perform this task well enough. Role Perceptions. The captain seems to have emphasized the importance of paperwork to the officers, and they probably have learned that some cases have been lost due to poor reports. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that many officers know that the quality of reports is an important of their job. At the same time, it may be possible that the captain has not emphasized the importance of report writing to the officers. Moreover, there is no evidence that rookies have clear role perceptions about this task when they first enter the department. Situational Factors. There is no information about factors beyond the officers’ control that might hinder or facilitate their job performance in report writing. It may be possible that more time and other resources are needed to complete the reports better, but this information is not given in the case. 3. Has the captain considered all possible solutions to the problems? If not, what else might he do? Answer: The captain has looked a variety of incentives to motivate officers to complete the paperwork, but other strategies might be considered. For example, the Crown counsel might meet occasionally with officers to describe examples where good or bad paperwork influenced the success of their cases. The captain might try to publicly recognize officers who have contributed to a successful case mainly due to their thorough reports. The police chief might also consider the possibility that some officers lack the competencies to perform the report writing task. A needs assessment might determine who should receive formal training in report writing. A “train the trainer” approach might be considered where officers who are most effective at report writing receive special training to teach other officers. This might add further social esteem to performance in report writing. CLASS EXERCISE: TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF PERSONALITY Purpose This exercise is designed to help students think about and understand the effects of the Big Five personality dimensions on individual preferences and outcomes. Instructions (Large Class) Below are several questions relating to the Big Five personality dimensions and various preferences or outcomes. Answer each of these questions relying on your personal experience or best guess. Later, the instructor will show you the answers based on scholarly results. You will not be graded on this exercise, but it may help you to better understand the effect of personality on human behavior and preferences. Instructions (Small Class) 1. The instructor will organize students into teams. Members of each team work together to answer each of the questions below relating to the Big Five personality dimensions and various preferences or outcomes. 2. The instructor will reveal the answers based on scholarly results. (Note: The instructor might create a competition to see which team has the most answers correct.) Exercise Answers 1. You have been asked to select job applicants for a nine-month over-winter assignment working in an Antarctic research station with a dozen other people. Assuming that all candidates have equal skills, experience, and health, identify the level of each personality dimension that would be best for people working in these remote, confined, and isolated conditions. Answer: Conscientiousness -- average (but possibly below average relating to : high tolerance to lack of achievement and low need for order) Agreeableness -- above average Neuroticism -- Low (relatively high emotional stability) (this seems to be the most significant factor) Openness to experience -- above average, but ambiguous findings because also high tolerance of lack of stimulation and does not become bored easily Extroversion -- below average (i. e. , moderately introverted and low need for social interaction, “but socially adept”) Sources: Musson, D. M. , Sandal, G. M. , Harper, M. , & Helmreich, R. L. (2002). Personality testing in antarctic expeditioners; cross cultural comparisons and evidence for generalizability, 53rd International Astronautical Congress. The World Space Congress. Houston: International Astronautical Federation; Sarris, A. (2006). Personality, Culture Fit, and Job Outcomes on Australian Antarctic Stations. Environment and Behavior, 38(3), 356-372; Palinkas, L. A. , & Suedfeld, P. (2008). Psychological effects of polar expeditions. The Lancet, 371(9607), 153-163. 2. Listed below are several jobs. Please check no more than two personality dimensions that you believe are positively associated with preferences for each occupation. Answer: Budget analyst: Conscientiousness Corporate executive: Extroversion Engineer: Openness to experience Journalist: Openness to experience Life insurance agent: Extroversion Nurse: Extroversion and agreeableness Physician: Extroversion and agreeableness Production supervisor: Conscientiousness Public relations director: Openness to experience Research analyst: openness to experience School teacher: extroversion and agreeableness Sculptor: openness to experience Sources: Furnham, A. , (2001) “Vocational preference and P-O fit: Reflections on Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice,” Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50 (1), pp. 5-29; Tett, Robert P. , and Dawn D. Burnett. "A personality trait-based interactionist model of job performance. " Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 3 (2003): 500-517; Barrick, M. R. Murray R. , M. K. Michael K. Mount, and R. Rashmi Gupta. "Meta-analysis of the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and Holland's occupational types. " Personnel psychology 56, no. 1 (2003): 45. NOTE: There is ongoing debate regarding the association between vocational preference and personality. Sullivan & Hanson (2004) report that subdimensions of the Big 5 are better predictors of vocational interest than are the overall dimensions (e. g. subdimensions of extroversion -- such as enthusiasm and sociability). Assignment of some of these personality dimensions to specific occupations may be based on limited data. Also, although these are identified as the most significant personality predictors, other five-factor dimensions also likely have a significant influence on occupational preferences. 3. On which two personality dimensions should team members have the highest scores, on average, to produce the best team performance? Answer: Agreeableness and conscientiousness To achieve the best team performance, team members should ideally have high scores on the dimensions of Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience. Here's why: 1. Conscientiousness: This personality trait encompasses qualities such as organization, responsibility, dependability, and goal orientation. Team members who score high in conscientiousness are diligent, detail-oriented, and committed to achieving high-quality outcomes. They tend to be reliable in meeting deadlines, following through on tasks, and adhering to established procedures and standards. In a team setting, conscientious individuals contribute to task completion, coordination, and accountability, enhancing overall team effectiveness and productivity. 2. Openness to Experience: Openness to experience reflects traits such as creativity, curiosity, flexibility, and willingness to explore new ideas and approaches. Team members with high scores in openness are innovative, adaptable, and receptive to diverse perspectives and novel solutions. They thrive in environments that encourage experimentation, learning, and intellectual stimulation. In a team context, individuals high in openness contribute fresh insights, creative problem-solving, and adaptability to changing circumstances, promoting innovation and resilience within the team. By having team members with high scores on conscientiousness and openness to experience, teams are more likely to benefit from a combination of reliability, diligence, creativity, and adaptability, leading to improved performance, collaboration, and success in achieving team goals. Source: Peeters, Miranda A. G. , Harrie F. J. M. van Tuijl, Christel G. Rutte, and Isabelle M. M. J. Reymen. "Personality and team performance: a meta-analysis. " European Journal of Personality 20, no. 5 (2006): 377-396 4. Rank-order (1=highest, 5 =lowest) the Big Five personality dimensions in terms of how much you think they predict a person’s degree of life satisfaction. (Note: Personality dimensions are ranked by their absolute effect, so ignore the negative or positive direction of association.) Answer: Source: DeNeve, K. M. , and H. Cooper. "The Happy Personality: A Meta-Analysis of 137 Personality Traits and Subjective Well-Being. " Psychological Bulletin 124 (1998): 197-229. 5. Which two Big Five personality dimensions are positively associated with enjoyment of workplace humor? Answer: Extroversion and agreeableness have the highest correlation with attitudes toward having fun at work. The two Big Five personality dimensions that are positively associated with the enjoyment of workplace humor are Extraversion and Agreeableness. 1. Extraversion: Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. They tend to seek social interactions and enjoy being the center of attention. Extraverts often exhibit a lively and enthusiastic demeanor, making them more likely to appreciate and engage in workplace humor. They enjoy entertaining others and are comfortable with playful banter, making them receptive to humor in various forms, such as jokes, storytelling, and spontaneous laughter. 2. Agreeableness: Agreeable individuals are warm, empathetic, and cooperative. They value harmonious relationships and strive to maintain a positive social atmosphere. Agreeable people are typically considerate of others' feelings and enjoy activities that promote camaraderie and mutual enjoyment. In the workplace, agreeable individuals are more inclined to appreciate humor that fosters connection, relieves tension, and promotes bonding among team members. They are receptive to humor that is inclusive, non-offensive, and supportive of a collaborative environment. Overall, individuals high in extraversion and agreeableness are more likely to enjoy workplace humor as it aligns with their sociable and cooperative nature, enhances interpersonal relationships, and contributes to a positive and enjoyable work environment. Source: Karl et al, “Is fun for everyone? Personality differences in healthcare providers’ attitudes toward fun,” Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, Spring 2007, pp. 409-447 CLASS EXERCISE: PERSONAL VALUES EXERCISE Purpose This exercise is designed to help students understand Schwartz’s values model and relate its elements to their personal values and the values held by others in the class. Materials The instructor needs to prepare the following items prepared before class: (a) One student handout (see next page) for each student. This handout is the list of 44 personal values. (See Comments for Instructors below for explanation of the 44 rather than 57 values.) (b) Three (3) yellow sticky (Post-It) notes for each student (c) Three (3) sticky notes in a different (preferably contrasting) color for each student. (d) One copy (per class, NOT per student) of each of the ten (10) values categories signs. A miniature version of the 10 values categories signs is shown below. A ready-to-print PDF is available on the instructors’ resource website. Print each sign in landscape (horizontal) format on 11 by 17 inches (A3) or larger paper for easier readability. Preparing the Ten Values Category Signs As indicated in the materials section above, the instructor needs to print one copy (per class, NOT per student) of each of the ten (10) values categories signs. Print each values category sign in landscape (horizontal) format on at least 11 inch by 17 inch (A3) paper for easy readability. These ten pages are posters or signs that students will see on the classroom walls. Before class, the instructor places the ten large values category signs around the room. These signs must: (a) be posted around the class room in the same order as Schwartz’s values circumplex, (b) be placed high on the wall so there is plenty of space for posting sticky notes below, and (c) have solid wall space below each sign so sticky notes will adhere. If possible, cover the values category signs with blank paper that can be easily removed when students have finished writing on their six sticky notes. Place the ten signs around the room in the same order as Schwartz’s values circumplex. For example, you might place security, power, and achievement (in that order clockwise) across the front of the class; hedonism and stimulation (in that order clockwise) along the left side wall; self-direction, universalism, and benevolence (in that order clockwise) across the back wall; and conformity and tradition along the right side wall. Of course, the number of values category signs posted on each wall depends on available wall space and student access to that space. Ideally, place signs on all walls and balance the number of signs around the room so students feel they are in the center of a classroom-sized values circumplex. Place each sign high on the wall. This is so students can see them easily and there is enough space under the sign for students to place their sticky notes (see instructions below). Also, the wall space needs to be solid enough so the sticky notes adhere. If some walls are not suitable (e. g. walls have fabric), white boards or flip chart stands might be used. If possible, cover each values category sign with blank paper so students can’t see the text on each sign. These blank pages are removed quickly after students have written on their six sticky notes (Step #2). Instructions Distribute the first three materials (student handout page, three yellow sticky notes, and three sticky notes in the second color) to each student at the beginning of the exercise. Step 1: Students are asked to pick three (3) of the 44 words/phrases on the student handout page that represent the MOST important values to them personally. Students print each of the three values on the three yellow-colored sticky notes provided. IMPORTANT: Remind students that they print only one value on each sticky note. Also, students do NOT put their name on these sticky notes (i. e. they remain anonymous). Step 2: From the remaining 41 values statements on the student handout, students pick three (3) that represent the LEAST important values to them personally. Students print each of these three values on three sticky notes of the second color provided. Again, students print only one value on each note, and they do NOT put their name anywhere on the sticky note. Step 3: When students have completed (or nearly completed) Step #2, the instructor removes the blank pages covering the 10 values category signs (if the signs were covered). Then, the instructor announces the following: Around the room are ten signs representing the values categories in Schwartz’s values circumplex. Each sign names the specific values in your handout associated with that values category. Find the values category signs that list the specific values you printed on each of your six sticky notes. Post your yellow notes (the three most important values) IMMEDIATELY under the signs listing those specific values. Place your sticky notes in the second color (the three least important values) FAR below the corresponding values category signs. The second color sticky notes should be placed far enough below that all of the yellow sticky notes associated with that sign can be placed above the second color notes. Step 4: Debrief the exercise with discussion about the resulting distribution of sticky notes and the issues students considered when choosing their most and least important values. Consider the following questions: 1. To what extent are the yellow and second color sticky notes clustered around the room? What values categories are they clustered around? What does this clustering mean for the values of people in this room? Do you think this clustering of values represents the values of most people in this department/faculty/program? Why or why not? 2. What do you notice about how you personally or how the class generally placed yellow compared to the second color notes? Are they located near each other or more at opposite sides of the circumplex? Why? 3. What were you thinking about to help you identify the most and least important values from the list? Did you reflect on your emotional feeling about each of them? Did you logically think about how often you use each of these values? 4. Consider the dominant values of the place where you work or do your education. Are the company’s/school’s values similar to the three most important values you identified here, or are they more in the opposing categories of the circumplex? Have you experienced values incongruence because of these differing values priorities? Comments for Instructors This recently-developed activity (no one I’ve met is aware of its existence elsewhere in this form) has quickly become one of the most popular and engaging classroom events for students. Schwartz’s values circumplex comes alive as students move around the room to post their sticky notes, and the debriefing occurs literally “within” the collective reality of that circumplex. Students are fascinated (and sometimes surprised) by the clustering of sticky notes. They think more actively about personal values and the ten categories in the circumplex model. I have conducted this exercise on three continents (North America, Asia, Australia) and with a wide range of participants (undergraduate students, graduate students, college faculty, executive program participants). All seem to enjoy the experience. Many participants photograph the class results for future reference. This activity is easiest in classes with less than 40 participants and in rooms with plenty of space near the walls. However, I have conducted it in a large lecture theatre with more than 100 participants. I have also conducted it where only some walls were useable (due to fabric on walls, lack of space between the wall and seating, or obstructing pillars). The setup isn’t as complex or difficult as it may seem. Just be sure to arrive well before class to tape the ten values categories signs around the room in the right order (have a copy of Schwartz’s model handy so you get them in the right order!). I tape a blank page (Letter/A4 size is enough) over the text of each large sign because students might be influenced if they see the information on the signs. In Step #3, as I verbally give students the instructions to post their notes, I pull the blank pages off to reveal the text on the ten signs. I also provide a small demonstration -- I put a yellow sticky note immediately under one of the signs and put a 2nd color note further below that sign. This shows that the 2nd color notes need to leave space above for any yellow sticky notes that others will post there. However, you might need to move some sticky notes around during the activity where students didn’t leave space or misunderstood this instruction. The class debriefing is almost always a delight. (At worst, students need debriefing questions to help them see the information and issues.) The yellow and 2nd color sticky notes always cluster in some meaningful way. Achievement, self-direction, and benevolence tend to receive the most yellow sticky notes among business students and faculty (across all countries). Conformity, tradition, and hedonism seem to attract the most 2nd color (least important values) sticky notes. I have not tried this activity with a non-business audience (e. g. engineering, fine arts), but I suspect the clusters would be noticeably different. One of the most interesting surprises is that “tradition” is consistently identified (in almost a dozen events) as one of the LEAST important values among business students and faculty in mainland China. Participants explain that (a) business students and faculty aren’t representative of the population in China and/ or (b) what people believe in and value (e. g. , self-direction) can differ from what society expects of them (e. g. tradition). An important observation during the debriefing is how sticky notes differ in the opposing categories. For example, “self-direction” tends to receive a large number of “most important (yellow) sticky notes whereas the opposing categories of security, conformity, and tradition either receive few yellow notes or have several notes of the other color (least important values). Similarly, “benevolence” receives many yellow sticky notes, whereas the opposing categories of stimulation and hedonism tend to attract more notes of the opposite color. While observing results, it can help to notice if the same specific values are listed in a cluster. For instance, most yellow notes under “Achievement” might state “capable” whereas few state “influential” or “ambitious”. The debriefing should also remind students that the 2nd color sticky notes merely indicate the least important values to participants. They may still consider their three least important values as important. Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that a values category with mostly 2nd color (least important values) sticky notes are disliked or rejected by participants. Rather, they are weighted much less than the other values categories when making decisions about right/ wrong and good/bad. Finally, students might wisely ask: why does the handout list 44 values when Schwartz’s model is based on 57 values? The answer is that Schwartz identified 44 values that fit squarely in each category. The other 13 values are also mostly associated with one category, but not as clearly as these 44 values. Therefore, we offer only the 44 values with the clearest fit into the ten values categories. STUDENT HANDOUT: PERSONAL VALUES ACTIVITY Instructions This page has 44 words or phrases representing different personal values. Pick THREE (3) of these that represent the MOST important values to you personally. Print each of the three values on three YELLOW colored sticky/post-it notes (i. e. one value on each note). From the remaining values on this page, pick THREE (3) of these that represent the LEAST important values to you personally. Print each of the three values on three sticky/post-it notes provided in the SECOND COLOR (i. e. one value on each note). The instructor will next advise you what to do with the six sticky notes on which you wrote your most and least important values. FOR INSTRUCTORS ONLY: This page shows miniature versions of the ten values categories signs that you will place around the classroom. Each category should be on a large page (at least 11 by 17 inch or A3). The instructors’ web site for this book includes a PDF with these ten signs ready to print. If the PDF is unavailable, copy each cell below to a separate landscape (horizontal) oriented page in your preferred word processing software, clean up formatting, and set the print function output to 11 inch by 17 inch (A3) size. The values category label should be in large bold text and the specific values should be listed below the label in somewhat smaller text (as shown below). TEAM EXERCISE: ETHICS DILEMMA VIGNETTES Purpose This exercise is designed to make students aware of the ethical dilemmas people face in various business situations, as well as the competing principles and values that operate in these situations. Instructions (Small Class) The instructor will form teams of 4 or 5 students. Team members will read each case below and discuss the extent to which the company’s action in each case was ethical. Teams should be prepared to justify their evaluation using ethics principles and perceived moral intensity of each incident. Instructions (Large Class) Working alone, students read each case below and determine the extent to which the company’s action in each case was ethical. The instructor will use a show of hands to determine the extent to which students believe case represents an ethical dilemma (high or low moral intensity), and the extent to which the main people or company in each incident acted ethically. Comments for Instructors There is, of course, no right answer to this exercise, but the process and application of ethics principles is important in the discussion. Students tend to get into debates about the merits and problems with each activity, but they also should dig deeper into the three ethics principles, and the moral intensity of each issue. Here are each of the vignettes along with background and comments: Case One A large European bank requires all employees to open a bank account with that bank. The bank deposits employee pay checks to those accounts. The bank explains that this is a formal policy which all employees agree to at the time of hire. Furthermore, failure to have an account with the bank shows disloyalty, which could limit the employee’s career advancement opportunities with the bank. Until recently, the bank has reluctantly agreed to deposit pay checks to accounts at other banks for a small percentage of employees. Now, bank executives want to reinforce the policy. They announced that employees have three months to open an account with the bank or face disciplinary action. Comments to instructors: This case occurred at Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS). (See “Royal Bank of Scotland Threatens Staff with Disciplinary Action,” Personnel Today, 23 March 2007.) This incident is fairly well-balanced with two sides to the story, and students should figure out the conflicting moral principles involved. On the one side, employees should have the freedom to make personal decisions outside work without being influenced unduly by the employer. As union officials mentioned in response to this incident, grocery store employees are free to buy groceries at competitor stores, so why should RBS employees be required to bank with their own bank. Furthermore, there may be a legal issue of whether the bank can refuse to pay employees where they have a standard bank account (even if at another bank). On the other hand, failure to use your own employer’s services is a sign of disrespect and disloyalty where those services are aimed at people similar to the employees. One might argue that failure to open an account at RBS should limit career opportunities because one would expect managers to demonstrate even more loyalty to the company. Perhaps most students would argue against disciplinary action, but a few might notice that employees agreed to this practice when they joined the organization. As such, failure to open a bank account may be a breach of the employment relationship Case Two A 16-year-old hired as an office administrator at a small import services company started posting her thoughts about the job on her Facebook site. After her first day, she wrote: “first day at work. omg!! So dull!!” Two days later, she complained “all i do is shred holepunch n scan paper!!! omg!” Two weeks later she added “im so totally bord!!!” These comments were intermixed with the other usual banter about her life. Her Facebook site did not mention the name of the company where she worked. Three weeks after being hired, the employee was called into the owner’s office, where he fired her for the comments on Facebook and then had her escorted from the building. The owner argues that these comments put the company in a bad light, and her “display of disrespect and dissatisfaction undermined the relationship and made it untenable. ” Comments to instructors: This case occurred at a small industrial services business in the United Kingdom (see: A. Levy, “Teenage office worker sacked for moaning on Facebook about her 'totally boring' job,” Daily Mail, 26 February 2009). However, there are several similar cases involving Facebook, blogs, and other social media, where employees write negative comments about their employer. For example, this incident parallels two earlier cases in which (a) a Starbucks employee was fired for complaining about his boss’s decision on a work issue and (b) an employee who worked in marketing for government in northern Canada was fired for posting artistic photos of garbage in the snow. To some people, the case of the teenage Facebook complainer is a clear case of an employee who should be dismissed because she lacks sufficient commitment to and appreciation of the job. The company owner later explained to media: “We were looking for a long-term relationship with Miss Swann as we do with all our staff. Her display of disrespect and dissatisfaction undermined the relationship and made it untenable. ” But others would say that the owner’s activities were unethical because (a) the owner was snooping on the employee’s private communication (although obviously open for others to read), (b) her statements may have been an accurate reflection of the work, (c) there is no evidence that her work performance was undermined by her statements or attitude, and (d) she did not name the company when writing these negative comments. To add interest to this class activity, look for the YouTube video in which the fired employee is interviewed. (Note: A news segment on this incident might still be available on YouTube.) Case Three Computer printer manufacturers usually sell printers at a low margin over cost and generate much more income from subsequent sales of the high-margin ink cartridges required for each printer. One global printer manufacturer now designs its printers so that they work only with ink cartridges sold in the same region. Ink cartridges purchased in the United States will not work with the same printer model sold in Europe, for example. This “region coding” of ink cartridges does not improve performance. Rather, it prevents consumers and grey marketers from buying the product at a lower price in another region. The company says this policy allows it to maintain stable prices within a region rather than continually changing prices due to currency fluctuations. Comments to instructors: This case refers to actions by Hewlett Packard (HP). (See David Pringle and Steve Steck low, “Electronics with borders,” Wall Street Journal, 17 January 2005, B1.) Students might see both sides of the issue here. Although the sense of freedom to purchase globally may dominate the discussion, some students might agree with the concern that companies are buffeted by currency fluctuations to such an extent that they cannot adapt quickly enough to price changes and shifting supplies with those currency fluctuations. For instance, a large buyer of HP printer ink in Europe might ship much of that ink to the United States if the Euro rises appreciatively against the U. S. dollar, thereby causing a shortage of printer ink in Europe. Others may argue that this supply shift is a small portion of the supply of ink cartridges in most regions, so HP’s actions are unfair. In terms of moral intensity, students may realize that few people are affected by HP’s restrictions and that it has low proximity (not nearby), so moral intensity is low. In classes where most students believe there is no (or minimal) moral dilemma with HP’s actions, I show the newspaper article and ask why the story was on the front business page of a leading newspaper! Case Four Judy Price is a popular talk show radio personality and opinionated commentator on the morning phone-in show of a popular radio station in a large U. S. city. Price is married to John Tremble, an attorney who was recently elected mayor of the city even though he had no previous experience in public office. The radio station’s board of directors is very concerned that the station’s perceived objectivity will be compromised if Price remains on air as a commentator and talk show host while her husband holds such a public position. For example, the radio station manager believes that Price gave minimal attention to an incident in which environmental groups criticized the city for its slow progress on recycling. Price denied that her views are biased and that the incident didn’t merit as much attention as other issues that particular week. To ease the board’s concerns, the station manager has transferred Price from a talk show host and commentator to the hourly news reporting position, where most of the script is written by others. Although technically a lower position, Price’s total salary package remains the same. Price is now seeking professional advice to determine whether the radio station’s action represents a form of discrimination on the basis of marital status. Comments to instructors: This case is based on a discrimination case in Canada. At issue is the station’s right to operate a business that maintains its integrity to the listeners, and the individual’s right to perform her job without consideration of marital status. The law in this case tends to side with the employee: employers cannot use broad categorizations (such as marital status) to make decisions about individual employees. Rather, they must rely on information specific to that person. At the same time, the other point of view is that the station did rely on information specific to this person; marital status was simply one piece of information in their determination of risk. At some point, the individual’s right must be limited by the employer’s right to minimize potential damage to the goodwill of its business. Case Five For the past few years, the design department of a small (40-employee) company has been using a particular software program, but the three employees who use the software have been complaining for more than a year that the software is out of date and is slowing down their performance. The department agreed to switch to a competing software program, costing several thousand dollars. However, the next version won’t be released for six months and buying the current version will not allow much discount on the next version. The company has put in advance orders for the next version. Meanwhile, one employee was able to get a copy of the current version of the software from a friend in the industry. The company has allowed the three employees to use this current version of the software even though they did not pay for it. Comments to instructors: This case is adapted from a real situation in another industry. It is undoubtedly common enough, and there are several variations of software piracy. The case refers to a practice that software companies would easily conclude is software piracy and therefore obviously unethical. Perhaps most students would concur, although many would support the company’s action on the grounds that the software firm would receive an unfair windfall (having one purchase just before the new version is released). Moral intensity figures strongly here. The company is small and only intends to purchase a few copies. The period of illegal use is also only six months. SELF-ASSESSMENT: ARE YOU INTROVERTED OR EXTROVERTED? Purpose This self-assessment is designed to help students to estimate the extent to which you are introverted or extroverted. Overview and Instructions The statements in this scale represent the 10-item introversion-extroversion scale in the International Personality Item Pool. This is the short version, so it estimates overall introversion-extroversion but not specific facets within the personality dimension. Students can use the scoring key in Appendix B to calculate their results, or complete the scale on the student CD for self-scoring. This exercise is completed alone so students assess themselves honestly without concerns of social comparison. Class discussion will focus on the meaning and implications of extroversion and introversion in organizations. Feedback for the IPIP Introversion-Extroversion Scale Extroversion characterizes people who are outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive. It includes several facets, such as friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, excitement-seeking, and cheerfulness. The opposite of extroversion is introversion, which refers to the personality characteristics of being quiet, shy, and cautious. Extroverts get their energy from the outer world (people and things around them), whereas introverts get their energy from the internal world, such as personal reflection on concepts and ideas. Introverts are more inclined to direct their interests to ideas rather than to social events. This is the short version of the IPIP Introversion-Extroversion Scale, so it estimates overall introversion-extroversion but not specific facets within the personality dimension. Scores range from 0 to 40. Low scores indicate introversion; high scores indicate extroversion. The norms in the following table are estimated from results of early adults (under 30 years old) in Scotland and undergraduate psychology students in the United States. However, introversion extroversion norms vary from one group to the next; the best norms are likely based on the entire class you are attending or with past students in this course. Score Interpretation 35-40 28-34 21-27 7-20 0-6 High extroversion Moderate extroversion In-between extroversion and introversion Moderate introversion High introversion Instructor Manual for Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality Steven McShane, Mary Von Glinow 9780077862589, 9781259280634, 9781259562792, 9780071077989
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