CHAPTER NINE Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the life of Maslow. Review Maslow’s theory of personality development. Discuss the study of self-actualizers. Evaluate assessment in Maslow’s theory. Illustrate research in Maslow’s theory. Summarize self-determination theory. OUTLINE Abraham Maslow Life of Maslow (1908 - 1970) Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908, and was the oldest of seven children. His father was alcoholic and his mother was cruel and unaffectionate. Maslow found books were a good refuge. He desired to learn and went to study at Wisconsin under John Watson, who taught him about behaviorism and experimental psychology. After earning his Ph.D., Maslow studied with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia University and later taught at Brooklyn College. Maslow took an intelligence test by Thorndike and scored an IQ of 195. Maslow was to meet such people as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, and Alfred Adler. He met Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer and American anthropologist Ruth Benedict; these influences prompted his ideas concerning self-actualization. Maslow later taught at Brandeis University and spent time in California to work on his philosophy of politics, economics, and ethics based on a humanistic psychology. Maslow received many awards for his accomplishments. He died in 1970 of a massive heart attack. Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate needs. He called these needs instinctoid, by which he meant they have a hereditary component. These needs are ordered from lower or stronger needs to higher and weaker needs. These needs are physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow believed lower needs not being satisfied produces a crisis or deficiency needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficit in the individual. Maslow called higher needs growth or being needs. According to Maslow, physiological needs have a greater impact as motivating forces in cultures where basic survival remains an everyday concern. Safety and security needs are important drives for infants and neurotic adults. Infants get upset with a threat to their safety and adults learn ways to inhibit their reactions to dangerous situations. Children will desire a constrictive routine with some measure of freedom. Neurotic adults compulsively avoid new experiences. Belongingness and love needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a friend, a lover, mate, or through social relationships formed within a group. The need to give and receive love can be satisfied in an intimate relationship with another person. We require esteem and respect from ourselves, in the form of feelings of self-worth, and from other people, in the form of status, recognition, or social success. Self-actualization is the highest of Maslow’s needs. A person who has obtained this need has the following conditions met in their lives: a person free of constraints by society and themselves, must not be distracted by the lower-order needs, be secure in their self-image and be able to receive and give love, and finally, must have a realistic knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses, virtues and vices. Maslow proposed a second set of innate needs, the cognitive needs - to know and to understand. The need to know is stronger than the need to understand, according to Maslow. The need to know and to understand begins in late infancy and is expressed by children as a natural curiosity. Failure to satisfy the cognitive needs is harmful and hampers the full development and functioning of the personality. Maslow believed it is impossible to become self-actualizing if we fail to meet the needs to know and to understand. The Study of Self-Actualizers Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers called metamotivation (sometimes called B - motivation of Being). Metamotivation indicates that it goes beyond psychology’s traditional idea of motivation, implying a condition in which motivation as we know it plays no role. Instead, we say they are developing within. Those who are not self-actualized have a D-motivation or Deficiency. D-motivation applies not only to physiological needs, but also to the needs for safety, belongingness, love, and esteem, according to Maslow. However, a self-actualizing person’s goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension to experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events. Thus, they are in a state of “being” spontaneously, naturally, and joyfully expressing their full humanity. Maslow also proposed a list of metaneeds, which are states of being - such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection -rather than specific goal objects. Metapathology arises from not satisfying these metaneeds and prevents the self-actualizer from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential. Maslow believed that only 1% or less of the population were self-actualized and that they share certain characteristics: (a) self-actualizers have an efficient perception of reality, (b) they accept themselves and do not distort or falsify their self-image or feel guilty, (c) are spontaneous, simplistic, and natural, (d) focus on problems outside of themselves, (e) have a sense of detachment and a need for privacy, (f) have a freshness of appreciation, and (g) have mystical or peak experiences. A peak experience is an event during which the self is transcended and the person feels powerful, confident, and decisive. Self-actualizers have deep, lasting relationships and display no racial, religious, or social prejudice, according to Maslow. They are flexible, highly creative, spontaneous, and willing to make mistakes and learn from them. Self-actualizers are autonomous, independent, and self-sufficient. On occasion, they can be rude, even ruthless, and they experience doubts, conflicts, and tension. Poor economic conditions, inadequate education and children who are overprotected and not permitted to try new behaviors may not reach self-actualization. Maslow referred to another reason for the failure to self-actualize as the Jonah complex, according to Maslow. The Jonah complex refers to our doubts about our own abilities. Observations Maslow observed people whom he thought had the characteristics of self-actualization. Maslow’s research with college students led him to believe that young people did not have these qualities developed. When Maslow studied people who were older, he felt less than one percent of the population was capable of meeting his criteria for self-actualization. Maslow identified some of his contemporaries as well as some historical figures, such as Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, and Eleanor Roosevelt, with the use of biographical information. For the living research participants, Maslow relied on interviews, free association, and projective tests. The Personal Orientation Inventory was developed by Everett Shostrum to measure Maslow’s theory of self-actualization. Assessment and Research in Maslow's Theory Maslow’s investigations into self-actualization failed to meet the requirements for scientific research. Maslow was convinced that his results were valid, and believed other researchers would eventually confirm his theory. The POI, (Personal Orientation Inventory); has found positive correlations between Maslow’s properties for high self-actualization with emotional health, creativity, well being following therapy, academic achievement, autonomy, and racial tolerance. In the study of needs and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the belongingness need and self-esteem were found to be positively correlated. A study using the Need Satisfaction Inventory was designed to measure Maslow's needs hierarchy with scores from the Eysenck Personality Inventory. The results showed that those who were higher in need satisfaction were lower in neuroticism. Some psychologists consider the need to belong to be as powerful a drive as the physiological needs for food and water. Research also supports Maslow's position that people in self-esteem have greater self-worth and self-confidence. Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory, an outgrowth of Maslow’s self-actualization theory, suggests that people have an innate tendency to express their interests, exercise and develop their capabilities and potentials, and overcome challenges. This theory has three basic needs in order for a person to experience well-being: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Studies have shown that the satisfaction of the needs, and the corresponding focus on intrinsic motivation, is positively associated with high-esteem and self-actualization. G. Reflections on Maslow's Theory 1. Criticism of Maslow's theory centers on his research methods and lack of experimentally generated supporting data. For his subjects, Maslow selected people he admired, according to his criteria of self-actualization. These descriptions may actually reflect Maslow's own ideal of the worthy and emotionally healthy individual. Because of his optimism and compassion, his theory (and the humanistic approach to psychology in general) became popular in the 1960s and the 1970s. Teachers, counselors, business and government leaders, health care professionals, and many people trying to cope with everyday hassles have found Maslow's views compatible with their needs and useful in solving problems. LECTURE TOPICS Lecture Topic 9.1 Maslow’s study of people who are self-actualized can be a topic for this lecture. The instructor can lecture about Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, then assign historical figures to groups of students. The students must determine if this person meets the criteria outlined by Maslow for a fully self-actualized person. The students can be given biographical information, or the students can research this historical figure and then propose and present to the rest of the class their findings on the person they have studied. STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 9.1 Students in groups (or as individuals) could assemble a series of questions that correspond with Maslow’s list of needs. The students could use these questions to survey a random group of students and determine how many subjects perceive themselves to be self-actualized (the results of which can be compared to Maslow’s statistic of 1%). The surveys could be done off-campus or with other cooperative universities. These surveys could also be used with the general population on a random basis to understand the qualities and perceived prevalence of self-actualization. Internet Sites for Student Project 9.1: http://classic.marshall.usc.edu/assets/078/16174.pdf http://www.bized.co.uk/educators/level2/people/activity/people24.htm Student Project 9.2 Students may want to apply the principles of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs with several articles on the advantages and disadvantages of Maslow's Theory. This could be the start of research for a paper, an online discussion board, or classroom discussion. Internet Site for Student Project 9.2: http://toolboxes.flexiblelearning.net.au/demosites/series3/319/reslib/09/09_maslows_hierarchy_of_needs_theory.html http://www.ask.com/questions-about/Maslow%27s-Hierarchy-Advantages-Disadvantages More contemporary treatments of Maslow’s theories are seen in advertisements and nursing. Students who have an interest in the application of Maslow’s humanistic principles may want to further research his theories through these articles: ADWEEK, Dec 8, 2003 v44 i48 p17 (1) After the fall: starting over at the bottom of Maslow's pyramid. (Art & Commerce) Jeff DeJoseph. Record number A111203155 Nursing Forum, April-June 2003 v38 i2 p3 (2) Maslow's hierarchy of needs--revisited. (Editorial) Lynda Juall Carpenito-Moyet. Record number A106027482 Student Project 9.3 The following resources will be useful for students who would like further understanding concerning the life and influence of Maslow as well as his theories. Students can use these sites to research for a paper or design their own hierarchy of needs for their family members and friends: Internet Sites for Student Project 9.3: http://psikoloji.fisek.com.tr/maslow/self.htm http://www.terrapsych.com/maslow.html http://www.naho.ca/jah/english/jah03_01/editorial.pdf Student Project 9.4 Students may develop an in-class project with outside surveys to test Maslow’s theory. Students could develop a profile delineating what a person would need to be self-actualized. The students would then create a survey to test for these needs. This survey could be given and used in the classroom to validate or invalidated his theory. Internet Site for Student Project 9.4: http://www.positivedisintegration.com/Hall1997.pdf ONLINE DISCUSSION BOARD ABRAHAM MASLOW REVIEW: At what level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs do you think you are currently operating? Explain and justify your answer. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is typically represented as a pyramid, with basic physiological needs at the base and higher-level needs such as self-actualization at the top. The levels include physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization. To determine where you might be operating within Maslow's hierarchy, consider which needs are currently the most pressing or dominant in your life. Are you primarily focused on meeting basic physiological needs such as food, water, and shelter? Or are you more concerned with safety and security, seeking stability and protection from harm? Perhaps you're prioritizing social connections and relationships, striving for a sense of belonging and acceptance. Alternatively, you may be focused on achieving recognition, respect, and accomplishment in your endeavors, reflecting esteem needs. Finally, if you're primarily focused on personal growth, fulfillment, and realizing your potential, you may be operating at the level of self-actualization. Reflect on your current circumstances, goals, and priorities to determine which level of Maslow's hierarchy resonates most with your current experiences and aspirations. Keep in mind that needs can fluctuate over time, and it's possible to simultaneously pursue multiple needs across different levels of the hierarchy. 2. (A) Evaluate your personality in terms of the 15 characteristics of the self-actualized person. Indicate which of the 15 characteristics you possess to some degree and which you do not. (B) What conclusions do you draw from your observations? The general overview of the 15 characteristics identified by Maslow and offer some insights on what conclusions might be drawn from observing these characteristics in oneself or others. Here are the 15 characteristics of self-actualized individuals according to Maslow: 1. Realism and acceptance of self, others, and nature. 2. Spontaneity and naturalness. 3. Problem-solving and creativity. 4. Autonomy and independence. 5. Continued freshness of appreciation. 6. Peak experiences and feelings of transcendence. 7. Interpersonal relationships characterized by deep connections. 8. Democratic character structure and social interest. 9. Discrimination between means and ends, focusing on the journey rather than the destination. 10. Philosophical, unhostile sense of humor. 11. Creativeness. 12. Resistance to enculturation, openness to experience, and a sense of being rooted in the cosmos. 13. Imperfections and weaknesses accepted. 14. Values privacy and solitude. 15. Unconventional, innovative, or even eccentric qualities. When evaluating oneself in terms of these characteristics, it's essential to recognize that self-actualization is a dynamic and ongoing process rather than a fixed state. Individuals may exhibit varying degrees of these characteristics at different times and in different contexts. Some of these traits may come more naturally to some people than others, and personal growth often involves developing and refining these characteristics over time. Conclusions drawn from observing these characteristics in oneself could include: • Recognizing areas of strength: Identifying which characteristics align with one's natural tendencies and strengths can provide insights into personal preferences, talents, and values. • Identifying areas for growth: Recognizing which characteristics may be less developed or less pronounced can highlight opportunities for personal development and self-improvement. • Embracing the journey: Understanding that self-actualization is a lifelong process involving continual growth and learning can foster a sense of acceptance, patience, and resilience. • Cultivating balance: Striving for a balance among different characteristics can lead to a more holistic and fulfilling life, where one's unique strengths and qualities are integrated harmoniously. Overall, reflecting on these characteristics can provide valuable insights into one's personal growth journey and serve as a guide for pursuing greater self-awareness, fulfillment, and authenticity. CHAPTER TEN Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the life of Carl Rogers. Review the self and the tendency toward actualization. Outline the experiential world. Analyze the development of the self in childhood. Review the characteristics of fully functioning persons. Examine assessment in Roger’s theory. Evaluate research in Roger’s theory. OUTLINE Carl Rogers The Life of Rogers (1902 - 1987) Carl Rogers was born in 1902 in Illinois. The family had six children and the parents were very strict and religious. Carl escaped into books from a rigid family life and to not feel so lonely. Rogers later broke from his parents’ religious beliefs and went to several colleges were he eventually trained in clinical and educational psychology. Roger’s taught at a number of universities and was an academic clinician. Rogers was also a resident fellow at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in California where he applied his client-centered therapy to world wide peace problems through tension reduction. The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization Rogers’ early research reinforced the importance of the self in the formation of the personality. Rogers suggested that the factors of family environment and social interactions would correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior; however, the factor that most accurately predicted later behavior was self-insight. Rogers believed the focus of counselors should be trying to modify children’s self-insight. He believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. This drive toward self-actualization is part of a larger actualization tendency, which encompasses all physiological and psychological needs. This tendency begins in the womb and is responsible for maturation. This process takes determination and may include struggle and pain. The governing process throughout the life span, as Rogers envisioned it, is the organismic valuing process. We evaluate all life experiences through this process. The Experiential World Rogers wanted to know how we perceive and react to our multifaceted world of experience, by saying that the reality of our environment depends on our perception of it, which may not always coincide with reality. The Development of the Self in Childhood Ideally, according to Rogers, the self is a consistent pattern, an organized whole. All aspects of the self strive for consistency. As the self emerges, infants develop a need for what Rogers called positive regard. This need includes acceptance, love, and approval from other people, most notably from the mother during infancy. However, if positive regard for the infant persists when an infant has undesirable behaviors, the condition is called unconditional positive regard. Since the mother’s love for the child is granted freely and fully, it is not conditional or dependent on the child’s behavior. In time, positive regard will come more from other people, a condition Rogers called positive self-regard. Conditions of worth evolve from this developmental sequence of positive regard leading to positive self-regard. Positive self-regard is Roger’s version of the Freudian superego, and it derives from conditional positive regard. Children may feel they are worthy only under certain conditions. They internalize their parents’ norms and standards, and view themselves as worthy or unworthy, good or bad, according to the terms the parents have defined. Sometimes children will have a distorted concept of their experiential world and may come to evaluate experiences or accept or reject them, by what others think of them. This tendency can lead to incongruence between the self-concept and the experiential world, the environment as we perceive it.
Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons According to Roger’s, the fully functioning (self-actualizing) person has the following characteristics: this person is aware of all their experiences; they live fully and richly each moment; they trust in themselves, where no information is threatening, all information can be perceived, evaluated, and weighed accurately; a fully functioning person feels a sense of freedom to make choices without constraints or inhibitions; they are creative and live constructively and adaptively as environmental conditions change; and the fully functioning person may face difficulties as they are actualizing. Actualizing refers that the self is always in progress, striving, growing, spontaneous, and challenged and stimulated instead of settling for the familiar. F. Questions about Human Nature 1. On the issue of free will versus determinism, Roger's position was clear. Fully-functioning persons have free choice in creating their selves. Rogers also gave prominence to the role of the environment. Rogers believed we have a basically healthy nature and an innate tendency to grow and fulfill our potential. Assessment in Roger’s Theory In the technique of person-centered therapy, Rogers explored the client’s feelings and attitudes toward the self and toward other people. He focused on subjective experiences, rather than unconscious experiences. The therapist learns about the client through what the person communicates about their experiences. Clients are accepted as they are and the therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave. Roger’s used his person-centered therapy in groups, where he believed a greater number of people could learn about themselves and how they relate to or encounter others. His approach to encounter groups was very popular during the 1960s and 1970s. A typical group ranged from 8 to 15 people, and the group facilitator was to establish an atmosphere where the group members could express themselves and focus on how others perceive them. Through these group encounters, Roger’s believed most of the participants would become more fully functioning. Rogers did not use psychological tests to assess personality, nor did he develop any tests. Research and Reflections on Roger’s Theory Rogers believed that person-centered interviews, which rely on clients’ self-reports, were of greater value than experimental methods. Rogers did not use laboratory methods to collect data about personality, although he did use data to attempt to verify and confirm his clinical observations. Rogers used the tape recorder to film therapy, which could be played back to examine what he described as “the molecules of personality change.” Rogers used the Q-sort technique to study how the self-concept changes during a course of therapy. Clients would sort through a large number of statements on cards that were about the self-concept. The client would ask themselves. “What is my perceived self concerning who I am now,” and, “what is my perceived self in terms of an ideal self, that is, the person I would most like to be?” Additional studies include work with college students and Roger’s proposition that fully functioning persons are open to all experiences, whereas psychologically unhealthy persons erect defenses to protect themselves against experiences that threaten their self-image. Another study of 56 mothers explored the relationship between self-acceptance and the extent to which they accepted their children as they were, rather than as they desired them to be. Other studies also supported Roger’s belief that parental behavior affects a child’s self-image. Studies were also conducted on Roger’s suggestion that incongruence between the perceived self and the ideal self indicates poor emotional adjustment. Rogers found broad application for his therapy as a treatment for emotional disturbances and also as a means of enhancing the self-image. 4. Critics charge that Rogers ignored those factors of which a client was not consciously aware but which influence behavior. Roger's therapy found broad application not only as a treatment for emotional disturbances but also as a means of enhancing the self-image. His personality theory, although less influential than his psychotherapy, has also received wide recognition, particularly for emphasis on the self-concept. LECTURE TOPICS Lecture Topic 10.1 This lecture could focus on the conditions that a person would need in childhood to become fully-functioning and self-actualizing as an adult. The instructor and students could brainstorm ideas concerning the ideal parental skills needed to produce these kinds of adults. What is the ideal environment in which a child is able to challenge their environment and make the choices in their lives which would lead them to become self-actualized as an adult? Rogers has been criticized by some to be so open to the “goodness” and the “common sense” of a person to make good choices. For children who are struggling with maturity, this may not be the best model to take full advantage of Carl Rogers’ theories. Children, when faced with choices beyond their maturity level, may very well make acrimonious choices which may negatively affect their lives and the lives of others. This is in direct conflict with Roger’s theory of a person who, when left alone with their own choices, will make the best possible decision for their lives. The instructor can contrast Rogers with how other theories of personality regard a child’s ability to make good choices in their lives. Internet Site for Lecture Topic 10.1: http://www.scribd.com/doc/26828184/Carl-Rogers-Empathic-an-Unappreciated-Way-of-Being Lecture Topic 10.2 Rogers’ theories were very popular during the 1960s and 1970s. The instructor may wish to address the social issues of the day, which may have increased the popularity of humanistic psychology as theorized by Maslow and Rogers. Some possibilities include: a film documentary about the so-called perfect community of Woodstock (where no one was arrested for a violent crime), and communes that used Rogers’ techniques and Maslow’s theories of self-actualization; the drug culture of the times; the racial riots attempting equality for those who felt their voices were not being heard; and the protest of the Vietnam War and the expression of free choices to do what you want, do nothing, or express yourself through music, free love, or radical political movements. Questions that could be asked include: Did the popularity of Rogers’ and Maslow’s theories of ‘human potential” and “self-actualization” instigate these various social movements? Or conversely, were these theories just popularized by the movements of the 1960s and the 1970s? Is the humanistic movement of psychology as active today as in those time periods? Why or why not? Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 10.2: http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html http://www.ryerson.ca/~glassman/humanist.html Lecture Topic 10.3 The instructor may want to further the students’ understanding of Roger’s principles of self-concept and the awareness of one’s ideal self. The students review case studies in small groups and make several Q-sort cards to explain where the person is in terms of their “self-actualizing” process. These case studies could also be used as a quiz or part of an exam to understand the application of Roger’s client-centered therapy. STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 10.1 Carl Rogers was known for his work as a therapist. The following articles will help the student understand Carl Rogers and how others perceive his work. Students may want to use these two articles to write their own version or critique of what they believe concerning client-centered therapy. Journal of Counseling and Development, Winter 2004 v82 i1 p116 (9) Carl Rogers' life and work: an assessment on the 100th anniversary of his birth. (Profile) Howard Kirschenbaum. Record number A113856980 Journal of Counseling and Development, Spring 2003 v81 i2 p178 (7) An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client-centered conversation with Gloria. (Research). (counseling research) Scott A. Wickman; Cynthia Campbell. Record number A102341131 Internet Sites for Student Project 10.1: http://www.scribd.com/doc/36562575/Humanistic-Approaches-to-Therapy-Person-Centred-Theory-and-Practice http://personcentered.com/dialogue.htm Student Project 10.2 The following web resource may encourage students to formulate ideas and opinions on the theories of Carl Rogers, self-actualizing, and client-centered therapy. It contains assorted articles explaining and defending Client-Centered Therapy. Internet Site for Student Project 10.2 http://world.std.com/~mbr2/cct.papers.html Student Project 10.3 With the following websites, students can outline their own review and/or commentary on the concepts of Roger’s personality theory. Internet Sites for Student Project 10.3: This web site contains a critical review of Roger’s theories: http://www.wynja.com/personality/rogersff.html The following is the official web site for the Association for the Development of the Person Centered Approach (ADPCA): http://www.adpca.org/ Instructor Manual for Theories of Personality Duane P. Schultz , Sydney Ellen Schultz 9781111834531
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